Intelligence Testing 2

Intelligence Testing
Daniela Crişan
02 October 2018
Intelligence Testing 1/63

Overview
1 Definition(s) of Intelligence
2 Theories of Intelligence
3 Group Differences
4 Nature & Nurture
5 Individual Intelligence Tests
6 Intellectual Disability
7 Current Trends in Individually Administered Tests

Definition(s) of Intelligence

• No universal agreement for the meaning/definition of intelligence

• Most definitions take the following form:
Definition
Intelligence is a very general mental capacity that involves:
• abstract thinking
• solving problems
• identifying relationships
• quick learning
• memory functions
• speed of mental processing
• learning from experience
• planning effectively
• deal with symbols and complex ideas.

How does intelligence play a role in real life? Strong correlations with:
• Academic achievement
• Job performance
• SES (income as prestige)
• Overall quality of life (e.g., health)

Study of intelligence falls into 4 areas of study:

• Theories about the nature of intelligence
• Methodologies for the measurement of intelligence
• Group differences in intelligence
• The influences of hereditary and environmental factors on the
development of intelligence
Interplay between theories of intelligence and the measurement of
intelligence
Theory ←→ Measurement


Theories of Intelligence

Classical theories: Spearman’s ”g” (early 1900’s)

Classical theories: Spearman’s ”g” (early 1900’s)
Charles Spearman
• developed first data-based theory about intelligence
• examined correlations between many tests of simple sensory functions
• concluded that there must be one general ability determining
performance to these tests −→ ”g”
Correlations between tests were not perfect −→ ”s” factor (specific ability
+ measurement error)
The two-factor theory

Classical theories: Thurstone’s Primary Mental Abilities

(1935)


(1935)
L. L. Thurstone
• also analyzed correlations between tests using factor analysis
• biggest competition to Spearman’s ”g”
• concluded that tests must measure several factors −→ primary mental
abilities (PMA)


(1935)
Original PMA (9)

• Spatial
• Perceptual
• Numerical
• Verbal
• Memory
• Words
• Induction
• Reasoning
• Deduction


(1935)
Others proposed multifactor theories of intelligence:

• e.g., J. P. Guilford −→ 180 facets of intelligence!
- distinction between convergent and divergent thinking =⇒ creative
thinking

Hierarchical theories
• Compromise between ”one” (Spearman) and ”many” (Thurstone)

• MANY specific abilities, but arranged in a hierarchy with only ONE
(or a few) factor(s) at the top
• Also based on factor analysis, but with oblique rotation
• Other techniques & concepts developed: higher-order factors, CFA,
SEM

Hierarchical theories

Hierarchical theories: Cattell’s fluid and crystallized

intelligence (1963)


intelligence (1963)
In 1940’s, Cattell proposed a perceptual intelligence test

- free of cultural influences
- based on figural intem (matrices, mazes, etc.)
In 1963 −→ fluid and crystallized intelligence theory


intelligence (1963)
Definition
Fluid intelligence: raw mental capacity with which one is born, and
which has to do with some neurological processes. Unaffected by culture,
education, background.
Crystallized intelligence: is composed of everything one has learned

during his/her life.


intelligence (1963)
Both Gf and Gc have several components / specific factors −→

hierarchical model
Questions:
• Do Gf and Gc converge into ”g”?
• How can we measure Gf?

Hierarchical theories: Vernon’s & Carroll’s summaries

(1960’s & 1990’s)

Hierarchical theories: Vernon’s & Carroll’s summaries

(1960’s & 1990’s)
Both tried to summarize the existing hierarchical models by analyzing

hundreds of factor analyses on human abilities and integrating them.
Carroll −→ the three-stratum theory


Developmental theories
• Previous categories of theories - based on analyzing relationship

between tests
• Developmental theories - focus on cognitive development from birth
until adulthood
• Cognitive development with age and experience

Developmental theories
Key features:
• Development is stage-based. Each stage is qualitatively different from
other stages
• The order of stages is fixed for everyone; stages cannot be skipped
• Stages are irreversible
• There is a relationship between stages and age.

Developmental theories: Jean Piaget’s theory of cognitive

development (1970’s-1980’s)
Very influential in developmental psychology and early childhood education
4 main stages:
• Sensoriomotor (0-2 yrs)
• Preoperational (2-6 yrs)
• Concrete operational (7-12 yrs)
• Formal operational (12+ yrs)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TRF27F2bn-A

Information processing and biological theories
Information processing theories:

• focus on the mental steps or processes that take place when people
solve several tasks
• fast execution ←→ high intelligence
• efficiency of mental processing
• intelligence is measured with elementary cognitive tasks (ECT)

Definition
Elementary cognitive tasks = relatively simple tasks that invoke some type
of mental processing.
Most of the time, examinee’s reaction time is measured

Biological models:
• focus on brain functioning as the basis for intelligence

Information processing and biological theories: Arthur

Jensen (1998)
Jensen:
• One of the advocates of the information processing theory
• focused on the fluid intelligence, which determines performance on
tasks.

Information processing and biological theories: Arthur

Jensen (1998)

Information processing and biological theories: Gardner’s

MI theory (1983∼)
In his theory, Gardner refers to brain functioning and evolutionary concepts

(hence, his theory is placed in the biological theories)


Group Differences
Group Differences

Group Differences
Important principles to keep in mind:

• Overlapping distributions
• Correlation does not imply causation
• Differences may change in time

Group Differences
Group differences by:

• Gender
• Age
• Socioeconomic level (SES)
• Race/Ethnicity

Group Differences
Differences by gender
• Very small differences in terms of general intellectual functioning

• Some differences in terms of more specific abilities (e.g., spatial
ability, verbal skills)
• Math skills: girls better at computations, boys better at problem
solving
• Males show greater variability in intelligence than females.

Group Differences
Differences by age
Methodology: plot average intelligence scores for successive age groups
Trends:
• Steep curve for general intelligence in the first 12 yrs
• Continues to increase, but slower, until 20 yrs
• Flattens up to 60 yrs
• After 60 yrs decline becomes noticeable
!!! Cross-sectional studies

Group Differences
Differences by SES
Methodology:
• Define SES: income, education level, occupation, . . .
• Create groups: usually 5 groups
Trends:
• Difference of 5-10 IQ points between successive SES levels
• Correlation between SES and IQ of about .30
Controversies regarding the causes of these differences

Group Differences
Differences by Race/Ethnic group
Usually white Americans and West European Caucasians are used as

reference groups for comparisons.
The other comparison groups are Asians, Hispanics, blacks.
Trends:
• Blacks tend to score, on average, 1 SD below whites
• Hispanics are close to the mean for whites on performance and
nonverbal tests, but below them on verbal tests (most tests are in
English!)
• On figural and spatial abilities, Asians tend to be above the mean of
the whites.

Nature & Nurture
Nature & Nurture

Nature & Nurture
Well-established perspectives and simple facts:

• Interaction between hereditary and environmental factors; combines
effects are multiplicative;
• Hereditary influences can manifest long after birth, environmental
influences can appear before/at birth;
• Hereditary influences are not necessarily permanent and
unchangeable; environmental influences are not necessarily temporary
and changeable.

Nature & Nurture
Methodology:
• Study monozygotic twins raised either in the same family or in
different families (What about variations within family?);
• Compute proportion of variance in intelligence that is attributable to
genetic factors (heritability index h2 );
• 1 − h2 includes environmental factors and measurement error
Very hard to get high-quality and representative samples with this

methodology.
Also possible to study dizygotic twins - they share half of their genes.

Nature & Nurture
Findings:
• h2 estimate for intelligence is around .60 (general intellectual
functioning);
• heritability increases with age (counterintuitive);
• more specific abilities have somewhat lower h2 index;
• Within-family variance is more important than between-family
variance, but the influence of the former also decreases with age.

Individual Intelligence Tests

Characteristics of individually administered tests
1 Individual administration
2 Requires advanced training to administer
3 Cover a wide range of ages and abilities, with start- and stop-rules
4 Require establishing rapport
5 Usually have a free-format response
6 Immediate scoring of items
7 Take about 1 hour to administer
8 Provide opportunity for observation

The Wechsler Scales

The Wechsler Scales
Wechsler
• was unhappy with the Stanford-Binet test
• wanted a test for adults which would yield also separate scores for
factors, not only 1 general score
• he created the Wechsler-Bellevue Intelligence Scale, first published in
1939; it later became the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale
(WAIS)
• also created a version for children −→ the Wechsler Intelligence
Scale for Children (WISC) for ages 6-16, fisrt published in 1949
• later he created the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of
Intelligence (WPPSI) for ages 2-7 yrs, first published in 1967.

WAIS, 4th edition

Structure:
Subtests =⇒ intermediate scores =⇒ total score

WAIS, 4th edition
Index Scores:
• Verbal Comprehension
• Perceptual Reasoning
• Working Memory
• Processing Speed
In addition to subtest scores, index scores, and FSIQ, the scale also
provides process scores (obtained from special scoring of certain
subtests/parts of subtests) and an General Ability Index (GAI = VC +
PR).

WAIS, 4th edition
Scoring & norming

WAIS, 4th edition
Psychometric properties:
• WAIS was standardized on a stratified sample of 2450 adults,
representative of the U.S. population aged 16-89
• stratification variables: age, sex, race/ethnicity, education level,
geographic region
• 12 age groups =⇒ aprox. 200 cases per group
• internal consistency & test-retest reliability > .90
• standard error of measurement: 3-5 scaled score points for the Index
Scores (on average) and 2 points for the FSIQ
• reliabilities also acceptable for all subtests (average .88).

WISC, 4th edition
• The test aims to assess the intellectual ability of children between the
ages of 6 and 16 yrs (including)
• It is the most widely used individual intelligence test for children
• It is very similar to WAIS IV in structure
• Differences with WAIS IV: difficulty of items and a few other minor
aspects
• standardization program also very similar to WAIS
• also shows good psychometric properties.

The Stanford-Binet
• For many years, it was the most commonly used test of human
intelligence
• Nowadays it is overshadowed by the Wechsler scales
• Nowadays is still used in clinical practice
• The original scale appeared in 1905 (Binet-Simon); revisions in 1908
& 1911
• In 1916, Lewis Terman (Stanford University) translated the
Binet-Simon into English (after substantial revisions of Binet’s work),
provided national norms
• Since then, substantial (even radical) revisions =⇒ SB5.

The Stanford-Binet (SB5)
• Adopts Carroll’s three-stratum model (doesn’t cover all facets though)

• Has a very broad target age range: 2 - 85+ yrs
• Scoring similar to the WAIS/WISC:
- FSIQ
- Composite Scores:
- Verbal & Nonverbal IQ
- Index Scores:
- Fluid Reasoning
- Knowledge
- Quantitative Reasoning
- Visual-Spatial Processing
- Working Memory
- Subtest scores

The Stanford-Binet (SB5)
Psychometric properties - comparable to the Wechsler scales.

Other individually-administered tests
• Brief tests: the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test

• Tests of specific mental abilities: the Wechsler Memory Scale

Intellectual Disability

Definition
Definition
Intellectual disability is characterized by significant limitations both in
intellectual funtioning and in adaptive behavior as expressed in conceptual,
social, and practical adaptive skills. The disability originates before age 18.
Definition given by the American Association on Intellectual Disability (AAIDD)
in the book Intellectual Disability: Definition, Classification, and Systems of
Support (2010, p.1)

Criteria for intellectual disability
• Significantly subaverage intellectual functioning (e.g., IQ ≤ 70)

• Limitations in adaptive behaviors (communication, self-care, home
living, social/interpersonal skills„ functional academic skills, etc.)
• The onset is before 18 years old.

Current Trends in Individually Administered Tests
Current Trends in Individually

Administered Tests

1 Use of hierarchical models to determine the test’s structure;

2 Increases in the complexity of test structure, number of reported
scores, and methods of reporting;
3 provision of remedial material to follow up on low scores;
4 Growing use of brief tests;
5 Great sophistication in norming the tests;
6 Increased attention to test bias;
7 Increased frequency of revision if bias is detected.

Questions?
Thank you for your attention!

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Intelligence Testing

Intelligence Testing 1/63

4 Nature & Nurture

5 Individual Intelligence Tests

7 Current Trends in Individually Administered Tests

Intelligence Testing 2/63

Intelligence Testing 3/63

• No universal agreement for the meaning/definition of intelligence

Intelligence Testing 4/63

Intelligence Testing 5/63

Study of intelligence falls into 4 areas of study:

Intelligence Testing 6/63

Intelligence Testing 7/63

Intelligence Testing 8/63

Classical theories: Spearman’s ”g” (early 1900’s)

Intelligence Testing 9/63

Classical theories: Spearman’s ”g” (early 1900’s)

The two-factor theory

Intelligence Testing 10/63

Classical theories: Thurstone’s Primary Mental Abilities

Intelligence Testing 11/63

Classical theories: Thurstone’s Primary Mental Abilities

Intelligence Testing 12/63

Classical theories: Thurstone’s Primary Mental Abilities

Original PMA (9)

Intelligence Testing 13/63

Classical theories: Thurstone’s Primary Mental Abilities

Others proposed multifactor theories of intelligence:

Intelligence Testing 14/63

• Compromise between ”one” (Spearman) and ”many” (Thurstone)

Intelligence Testing 15/63

Intelligence Testing 16/63

Hierarchical theories: Cattell’s fluid and crystallized

Intelligence Testing 17/63

Hierarchical theories: Cattell’s fluid and crystallized

In 1940’s, Cattell proposed a perceptual intelligence test

In 1963 −→ fluid and crystallized intelligence theory

Intelligence Testing 18/63

Hierarchical theories: Cattell’s fluid and crystallized

Crystallized intelligence: is composed of everything one has learned

Intelligence Testing 19/63

Hierarchical theories: Cattell’s fluid and crystallized

Both Gf and Gc have several components / specific factors −→

Intelligence Testing 20/63

Hierarchical theories: Vernon’s & Carroll’s summaries

Intelligence Testing 21/63

Hierarchical theories: Vernon’s & Carroll’s summaries

Both tried to summarize the existing hierarchical models by analyzing

Carroll −→ the three-stratum theory

Intelligence Testing 22/63

Intelligence Testing 23/63

• Previous categories of theories - based on analyzing relationship

Intelligence Testing 24/63

Intelligence Testing 25/63

Developmental theories: Jean Piaget’s theory of cognitive

Very influential in developmental psychology and early childhood education

Intelligence Testing 26/63

Information processing and biological theories

Information processing theories:

Intelligence Testing 27/63

Information processing and biological theories

Most of the time, examinee’s reaction time is measured

Intelligence Testing 28/63