Palaeogeography around the Harappan

port of Lothal, Gujarat, western India

A.S. Khadkikar, C. Rajshekhar & K.P.N. Kumaran1

The authors report a reconstruction of the palaeogeography around the Harappan town of Lothal,
major port of the Indus civilisation, using multispectral satellite imagery and environmental analysis.
Key results include the identification of a broad tidally influenced palaeochannel adjoining the
western part of Lothal and a former estuary towards the east. Micropalaeontological analyses show
that Lothal developed over a tidal salt marsh and was subsequently left high and dry as the sea
level dropped.
Keywords: India, Gujarat, Lothal, Harappa, Holocene, sea-level, estuary, remote sensing

Introduction
Lothal, one of the most fascinating remnants of the ancient Harappan civilisation, covers an
area of 64752m2 (Rao 1985). The essential components of the town are a dockyard 37m in
length and 21.8m wide to the west of which are located an ‘acropolis’, ‘lower town’ and a
cemetery (Rao 1985) (Figure 1). Harappan Lothal has been interpreted to be primarily a
port. Rao (1985) suggested that the modern silted creek extending up to Lothal represented
the ancient river that was used by the Harappan people. This creek joins the river Bhogavo
towards the south but can be seen today only as far as the town of Saragwala, south of Lothal.
Satellite multispectral data can help in mapping ancient palaeochannels and understanding
past geography (Jensen 2000). Here, we use Indian Remote Sensing LISS-3 multispectral
data to argue for the former presence of a wide, tidally-influenced river channel adjacent to
Lothal and we cite environmental evidence to relate it to the Harappan period.

Methods
Field surveys show that in the entire region the upper 20cm of the land surface is represented
by dark brown to blackish coloured clays. This uniformity in sediment composition coupled
with absence of topographic variation makes the task of identifying palaeochannels from the
surface extremely difficult. Sediments were sampled and analysed palaeontologically from a
trench north of Lothal in order to substantiate the depositional environment of the surface
sediments.
To search for the palaeo river channels, geocoded IRS 1D LISS-3 (Linear imaging self
scanning) images were used derived from satellite remote sensing data. The multispectral

1 Geology and Palaeontology Group, Agharkar Research Institute, G.G. Agarkar Road, Pune 411 004, India
(Email: askhadkikar@yahoo.com)

Received: 19 May 2003; Accepted: 29 September 2003; Revised: 13 December 2003

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A.S. Khadkikar, C. Rajshekhar & K.P.N. Kumaran

Figure 1 Plan of the site of Lothal and its ‘dock’, and the location of the site near the estuary of the Sabarmati River, and the location of the estuary in Gujarat, India

Method
 Palaeogeography around the Harappan port of Lothal, Gujarat, western India

data is in four spectral bands: Green, Red, Near Infra Red (NIR), and Short wave Infra Red
(SWIR) (Jensen 2000). Peak summer images were used, since visibility in other months of
the year is obstructed by heavy cloud cover and vegetation. The satellite imagery was analysed
using ERDAS ImagineTM image processing software. Various image-processing and
enhancement techniques such as principal component analysis, de-correlation stretch and
band ratios were used to obtain maximum contrast. Of these, de-correlation stretch was
found to provide maximal tonal contrast and was used for palaeochannel mapping (Figure
2). Field checks were made during summer and the spectral signatures verified (by ground
truthing).

Results
The enhanced images revealed a number of palaeochannel features as subtle tonal variations.
The key features which were deduced include a sinuous channel adjoining Lothal to the
north (Figure 2a), several single-thread palaeo-tributaries south-east of Lothal (Figure 2b)
and a palaeoestuary east of Lothal and adjacent to its shoreline (Figure 2c).

The North palaeochannel

This palaeochannel was tracked in the satellite imagery for a stretch of 30km. It is a northern
extension of the broad bed of a tributary to the Bhogavo River. The Bhogavo River tributary
has a large width as compared to its depth, typical for tidal channels. It abruptly dies out west
of the village of Saragwala. North of Lothal the sediments are brown to brownish black. The
geomorphology of this region is featureless and devoid of topography, save for the mound of
Lothal. In the satellite imagery, the palaeochannels are clearly identified by darker tones
(Figure 2a). After extending the form of the modern Bhogavo River tributary for another 8
km, this palaeochannel reduces in width. Nine km north of Lothal the river becomes
increasingly sinuous and shows scroll-bar complexes. The channel sinuosity for the upper
segment is 2.5 as compared to 1.1 for the lower reaches (Figure 3), and the channel widths
are small (10-300m), compared with the lower reaches which have widths of 1.2 –1.6km.
This suggests the presence of a strong tidal influence up to Lothal and 6km north of it. The
scroll bar complexes have 4-5 ridge-swale structures, which is differentiated, based again on
tonal variations. One phase of channel cut off and abandonment is clearly observed.
A trench dug about 100m north of the mound of Lothal in an open field showed that the
upper 40cm of the stratigraphy was represented by dark coloured clays and underlain by
increasingly coarser sediment, which was lighter in tone. This sediment was processed for
micropalaeontological analyses, and marine microfossils shown to be present (Figure 4). The
palynodebris recovered is relatively scarce with minor contribution from terrestrial sources.
However, cuticles of C4 plants (grasses and sedges) and pollen having affinity with aquatic
nymphaeaceae (Figure 4j) have been observed. Planktons are represented by marine calcareous
nannofossils (Discoaster spp) (Figure 4a-c), dinoflagellate cysts (Schizosporis and
Protoperidinium) (Figure 4i), and scolecodonts (polychaete mouth parts) (Figure 4k). These
indicate a marine source (Bolli et al. 1985). Other supporting evidence for a marine source
includes silicified foraminiferal tests (Figure 4g,h), diatoms (Figure 4d-f ) and holothuroid
spines, the latter dominating the assemblage. Bacteriastrum and Suriella (Figure 4d-f ) and

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 A.S. Khadkikar, C. Rajshekhar & K.P.N. Kumaran

Method

Figure 2 Decorrelation stretch imageries showing a) a sinuous channel west of Lothal that has scroll bar complexes in its upper
reaches and wide channel widths in the lower reaches. The highly meandering nature implies sea level transgression in the
region while the large widths in the lower reaches indicate that tidal water ingressed till north of Lothal. Note the continuity
of modern irrigation field boundaries across the tonal variations that define the palaeochannels. b) Palaeo-tributaries south-
east of Lothal that are single thread and narrow. c) Palaeoestuary funnel defined by lighter tones, east of Lothal. The wide
mouth of the palaeoestuary is at the same latitude as the junction of the Bhogavo River and its tributary. These features indicate
the position of the sea during late Harappan times. Tidal terraces south of this region also attest the presence of higher sea levels.
These terraces are easily defined based on spectral contrasts and the abutment of creeks at a north-south oriented bluff.

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 Palaeogeography around the Harappan port of Lothal, Gujarat, western India

Figure 3 (a) Channel sinuosity changes from the confluence of the tributary with the modern Bhogavo River to upstream
reaches. Channel sinuosity increases upstream where the channel shows the presence of several scroll-bar complexes. (b) Variation
in channel width as a function of distance from the mouth of the river. The variation in the palaeoestuary funnel (filled circles)
is similar to that of the modern Sabarmati estuary (open squares).

colonies of few pennate types of diatoms are seen. Apart from these, fish scales were also
represented. Most of the foraminiferal tests are abraded and are recovered from the fine size
fraction. The frequency of the foraminifera is low and the foraminifera are not well preserved.
The foraminiferal tests are abraded suggesting transportation and are primarily represented
by the families Rotaliidae (Ammonia) and Miliolidae (Quinqueloculina). Bolivina (Figure 4g)
was observed in the acid resistant debris during palynological analysis. These forms are typical
to modern inter-tidal and supra-tidal deposits (Boltovsky et al. 1991).

The south-east Palaeochannel tributaries

East to south-east of Lothal several palaeo-tributaries were observed (Figure 2b). These
tributaries are single thread and are very straight. The tributaries are very narrow (7 – 8m) in
planform and of second/third order with first order tributaries at their head. The tributaries
are oriented NE-SW and NW-SE respectively. Channel lengths for these tributaries are 9
and 4.5km respectively.

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Method
Figure 4 (a-c) Calcareous marine nanofossil Discoaster spp. (d-e) Bacteriastrum spp. (f ) Marine diatom Suriella, (g-h) acid
resistant foraminiferal tests of Bolivina and a rotaliid (i) dinoflagellate smooth walled cyst (j) probable Nymphaeaceae pollen
(k) polychaete worm mouth part typical to tidal regions (l) fish scale (otolith).

The eastern Palaeoestuary and shorelines

East of Lothal, the spectral signatures change dramatically to give lighter tones (Figure 2c).
These tonal variations are brought about by an increase in the quartz content and drop in
clay in the sediment. The lighter tones define a very broad channel belt beginning at the
same latitude as the mouth of the Bhogavo, and showing a characteristic change in channel
width from south to north. If these widths are compared with those of the modern Sabarmati
river, the profile is similar (Figure 5). This suggests that in the past the palaeoestuarine funnel
was well north of the modern river mouth. South of the palaeoestuarine funnel, two successive
tidal terraces are observed, which define successive positions of the shoreline. These terraces
are delineated based on abutment of salt marsh creeks along a well-defined margin and
significant tonal changes (Figure 2c).

Discussion
The sinuosity of the channel along with the presence of scroll bar complexes clearly
demonstrates that a meandering, tidally-influenced river flowed from the north past Lothal.
Tidal waters could thus have been used to approach up to and slightly beyond the town of
Lothal. The substrate on which the town of Lothal was established appears to be an ancient
salt marsh inundated by tides. This is supported by the presence of marine diatoms,
foraminifera and salt marsh vegetation. It is well known that base level (i.e. sea level in the
present case) changes affect the sinuosity of a channel. Meandering river planforms are usually

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 Palaeogeography around the Harappan port of Lothal, Gujarat, western India

seen in coastal
regions as a response
to sea level
transgressions, which
in other words is an
increase in base level
(Schumm 1993;
Koss et al. 1994).
Hence the channel
planform also
supports the
conclusion that sea
levels were much
higher during the late
Harappan.
No topographic
discontinuity is
observed between
channel and
overbank regions for
the northern Lothal
palaeochannel. This
is implicit as modern
irrigation field
boundaries cut across
the tonal differences
between channel and
e x t r a - c h a n n e l Figure 5 Reconstructed palaeochannel and palaeoestuarine waterways during late Harappan
period based on multispectral satellite imagery.
regions. This suggests
infilling of the channel and formation of an extensive coastal plain through a regional
transgression. This also implies that the palaeochannel was contemporary with the Lothal
settlement. Moreover, upstream reaches of this palaeochannel might have provided a suitable
supply of freshwater to the Lothal inhabitants.
The presence of a palaeoestuarine funnel east of Lothal also lends credence to the higher
sea level hypothesis. The maximum width of the funnel is at the same latitude as the southern
reach of the Bhogavo River tributary. This helps in demarcating the position of the
palaeoshoreline. This palaeoestuary was not confined and may have experienced large scale
overflooding during the monsoon seasons. This may perhaps be one reason that the Harappans
preferred a smaller channel for the construction of the port town rather than the banks of the
palaeoestuary itself. The sequence of terraces south of the palaeoestuarine funnel suggests
that one of the terraces formed during late Harappan while the younger terrace postdates
this period. The successively southward position of marine terracing indicates a post-Harappan
regressive phase, which might partly have been responsible for the abandonment of the port
town. It has been suggested that river floods may have been responsible for the devastation of

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 A.S. Khadkikar, C. Rajshekhar & K.P.N. Kumaran

Lothal. In light of the channel planform dimensions this appears to be rather unlikely. On
the other hand, it could be possible that cyclones may have been the root cause of flooding
owing to the proximity of the coast during late Harappan.
Little work has been carried out on the geomorphological context of Harappan sites in
India. As can be gleaned from the present study, multispectral satellite imageries are an
invaluable aid in discriminating between various geomorphic units, in tracing palaeochannels
and resurrecting the palaeogeography of the region. It may also be feasible to explore further
upstream along and within the palaeochannel to gain insights into the nature and distribution
of Harappan settlement in this region.

Acknowledgements
ASK would like to thank DST for financial assistance and Dr K. Krishnan for discussions. The authors would
like to thank the Dr V.S. Rao (Director, ARI) for providing necessary facilities and support.

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