THE MEDIUM ACCESS

SUBLAYER (MAC)
By Jignesh Patel
 Multiple access problem
2

Human communication protocols:

 Give everyone a chance to speak

 Raise your hand if you have a question

 Don’t speak until you are spoken to

 Don’t interrupt when someone is speaking

 Don’t monopolize the conversation

 Don’t fall asleep when someone else is talking

By Jignesh Patel
 Conti…
3

 In LANs, Wi-Fi, satellite networks the access to the

shared media should be controlled.
 If more than 2 nodes send at the same time →
collision
 All collided packets are lost → waste of bandwidth

By Jignesh Patel
 Data link layer divided into two functionality-oriented sub layers

4 By Jignesh Patel
 The Channel Allocation Problem
5

 How to allocate a single broadcast channel among

competing users?
 Static
 FDM /TDM (Frequency/Time Division Multiplexing)
 FDM : Radio/TV broadcasts
 TDM : POTS (Plain Old Telephone System)
 GSM uses both (Global System for Mobile Communications)
 Wasteful of bandwidth
 Dynamic
 Pure/ Slotted ALOHA
 Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA) Protocols
 Collision free protocols
By Jignesh Patel
 Taxonomy of multiple-access protocols discussed in this chapter

6 By Jignesh Patel
 RANDOM ACCESS
7

 In random access (No schedule for sender to transmit)

or contention (Stations compete with one another to
access the medium) methods, no station is superior to
another station and none is assigned the control over
another.
 No station permits, or does not permit, another station
to send.
 At each instance, a station that has data to send uses
a procedure defined by the protocol to make a
decision on whether or not to send.

By Jignesh Patel
 Conti…
8

 Topics to be discussed
 ALOHA

 Carrier Sense Multiple Access

 Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision

Detection
 Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision
Avoidance

By Jignesh Patel
 ALOHA
9

 ALOHA, the earliest random access method.

 It was developed at the Univ. of HAWAII in 1970.
 It was designed for a radio LAN, but it can be used
on any shared medium.
 It is obvious that there are potential collisions in this
arrangement. So data becomes garbled and collide.
 PURE ALOHA
 SLOTTED ALOHA

By Jignesh Patel
10 By Jignesh Patel
 Pure ALOHA Principal Rule
11

 The idea is that each station sends a frame whenever

it has a frame to send.
 However, since there is only one channel to share,
there is the possibility of collisions between frames
from different stations.

By Jignesh Patel
 Pure ALOHA
12

 Pure ALOHA expects ACK from receiver. If ACK

does not arrives after a time-out period, the
station assumes that frame has been destroyed
and resend it.
 after time-out station resented frame collide
again then pure ALOHA dictates that, after time-
out each station waits a random amount of time
before resending its frame.
 Randomness helps avoiding collision. We call this
time the Back-off time TB .
By Jignesh Patel
 Procedure for pure ALOHA protocol

Round Trip delay

(sending time +
ACK back time)

After MAX
no. of
retransmissi
on attempts
station must
give up &
13try later By Jignesh Patel
 Pure ALOHA
14

 The common formula for TB is using binary

exponential back-off.
 For each transmission, a multiplier in the range 0 to
2K-1 is randomly chosen & multiplied by TP to find
TB
 The range of random numbers increases after each
collision.
 The value of KMAX is usually chosen as 15.

By Jignesh Patel
 Example
The stations on a wireless ALOHA network are a maximum of 600 km apart.
If we assume that signals propagate at 3 × 108 milise, we find
Tp = (600 × 103 × 103 ) / (3 × 108 ) = 2 ms.
Now we can find the value of TB for different values of K .

a. For K = 1, the range is {0, 1}. The station needs to generate a random
number with a value of 0 or 1. This means that TB is either 0 ms (0 × 2)
or 2 ms (1 × 2), based on the outcome of the random variable.

b. For K = 2, the range is {0, 1, 2, 3}. This means that TB can be 0, 2, 4, or

6 ms, based on the outcome of the random variable.

c. For K = 3, the range is {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}. This means that TB can be

0, 2, 4, . . . , 14 ms, based on the outcome of the random variable.

d. We need to mention that if K > 10, it is normally set to 10.

15 By Jignesh Patel
  Vulnerable time :- it is a time, in which there is a
chance of collision.
 Pure ALOHA vulnerable time = 2 x Tfr

16 By Jignesh Patel
 Example
A pure ALOHA network transmits 200-bit frames on a
shared channel of 200 kbps. What is the requirement to
make this frame collision-free?

Solution
Average frame transmission time Tfr is 200 bits/200 kbps
or 1 ms. The vulnerable time is 2 × 1 ms = 2 ms. This
means no station should send later than 1 ms before this
station starts transmission and no station should start
sending during the one 1-ms period that this station is
sending.

17 By Jignesh Patel
 Pure ALOHA
18

 Throughput :- let us call G the average number of

frames generated by the system during one frame
transmission time. Then it can be proved that the
average number of successful transmission for pure
ALOHA is S = G × e −2G
 The maximum throughput Smax = 0.184 when
G= (1/2).

By Jignesh Patel
Example
A pure ALOHA network transmits 200-bit frames on a shared channel of 200 kbps.
What is the throughput if the system (all stations together) produces
a. 1000 frames per second b. 500 frames per second c. 250 frames per second.
Solution
The frame transmission time is 200/200 kbps or 1 ms.

a. If the system creates 1000 frames per second, this is 1 frame per millisecond.
The load is 1. In this case S = G× e−2 G or S = 0.135 (13.5 percent). This means
that the throughput is 1000 × 0.135 = 135 frames. Only 135 frames out of
1000 will probably survive.

b. If the system creates 500 frames per second, this is (1/2) frame per millisecond.
The load is (1/2). In this case S = G × e −2G or S = 0.184 (18.4 percent). This
means that the throughput is 500 × 0.184 = 92 and that only 92 frames out of
500 will probably survive.

c. If the system creates 250 frames per second, this is (1/4) frame per millisecond.
The load is (1/4). In this case S = G × e −2G or S = 0.152 (15.2 percent). This
means that the throughput is 250 × 0.152 = 38. Only 38 frames out of 250 will
probably survive.
 Slotted ALOHA
20

 Improve the pure aloha method.

 Because in pure aloha there is no rule that defines
when the station can send.
 Slotted aloha divide the time into Tfr slots (average
transmission time for a frame travel) and force the
station to send only at the beginning of the time
slot. (reduce collision in this case)

By Jignesh Patel
 Frames in a slotted ALOHA network

21 By Jignesh Patel
 Slotted ALOHA
22

 Because stations are allowed to send only at the

beginning of the time slot, if a station misses this
moments, it must wait until the beginning of next time
slot.
 Still there is a possibility of collision if two station
starting try to send at the beginning of the same time
slot as showing in figure.
 So from figure we can say that slotted ALOHA
vulnerable time = Tr
 The throughput for slotted ALOHA is S = G × e−G .
 The maximum throughput Smax = 0.368 when G = 1.
By Jignesh Patel
 Vulnerable time for slotted ALOHA protocol

23 By Jignesh Patel
Example
A slotted ALOHA network transmits 200-bit frames on a shared channel of 200
kbps. What is the throughput if the system (all stations together) produces
a. 1000 frames per second b. 500 frames per second c. 250 frames per second.
Solution
The frame transmission time is 200/200 kbps or 1 ms.

a. If the system creates 1000 frames per second, this is 1frame per millisecond. The
load is 1. In this case S = G× e−G or S = 0.368 (36.8 percent). This means that
the throughput is 1000 × 0.0368 = 368 frames. Only 386 frames out of 1000
will probably survive.

b. If the system creates 500 frames per second, this is (1/2) frame per millisecond.
The load is (1/2). In this case S = G × e−G or S = 0.303 (30.3 percent). This
means that the throughput is 500 × 0.0303 = 151. Only 151 frames out of 500
will probably survive.

c. If the system creates 250 frames per second, this is (1/4) frame per millisecond.
The load is (1/4). In this case S = G × e −G or S = 0.195 (19.5 percent). This
means that the throughput is 250 × 0.195 = 49. Only 49 frames out of 250 will
24 probably survive. By Jignesh Patel
 Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA)
25

 Invented to minimize collisions and increase the

Performance.
 A station now “follows” the activity of other stations,
i.e. station senses the medium before trying to use it.
 CSMA is based upon “sense before transmit ”.
 Still possibility of collision because of propagation
delay.

By Jignesh Patel
 Space/time model of the collision in CSMA
(every station is sensing the channel for transmission)

26 By Jignesh Patel
 Conti….
27

 Vulnerable time :- The vulnerable time for CSMA is

the propagation time Tp. This is the time needed for
a signal to propagate from one end of the medium
to the other.

By Jignesh Patel
 Conti…
28

 There are several types of CSMA protocols:

 1-Persistent CSMA
 Non-Persistent CSMA

 P-Persistent CSMA

By Jignesh Patel
 1-Persistent CSMA
29

 Sense the channel.

 If busy, keep listening to the channel and transmit
immediately when the channel becomes idle.
 If collision occurs, ( more chances of collision )
 Wait a random amount of time and start over again.
 The protocol is called 1-persistent because the host
transmits with a probability of 1 whenever it finds the
channel idle.

By Jignesh Patel
 Non-Persistent CSMA
30

 Sense the channel.

 If busy, wait a random amount of time and sense the
channel again.
 If idle, transmit a packet immediately.

 If collision occurs.
 wait a random amount of time and start all over again.
 Reduce chances of collision.

By Jignesh Patel
 P-persistent
31

 Optimal strategy: combine adv of both strategies.

 Assume channels are slotted.
 One slot = contention period. (i.e. one round trip
propagation delay)
 If station finds line idle it follows these steps:
1. With probability p, station sends its frame.
2. With probability q=1-p, the station waits for the
beginning of the next time slot and checks the line again.
a. If the line is idle, it goes to step 1.
b. If the line is busy, it acts as though a collision has occurred and uses
the back off procedure.
By Jignesh Patel
 Flow diagram for three persistence methods

32 By Jignesh Patel
 CSMA/CD (Collision Detection)
33

 In the CSMA/CD method, a station monitors the

medium after it sends a frame to see of the
transmission was a successful.
 If so, the station is finished.
 If, however, there is a collision, the station sends
jamming signal to other station, then stations waits
random amount of time (using binary exponential
back off time) and after time out frame is sent
again.

By Jignesh Patel
 Collision of the first bit in CSMA/CD

Collision and abortion in CSMA/CD

34 By Jignesh Patel
 Conti…(Ethernet MAC Algorithm)
35

Node A Node B

At time almost T, node A’s

message has almost arrived


Node A starts Node B starts transmission at
transmission at time 0 time T
How can we ensure that A knows about the collision?

By Jignesh Patel
 Ethernet MAC Algorithm
36

Node A Node B

At time almost T, node A’s

message has almost arrived


Node A starts Node B starts transmission at
transmission at time 0 time T
At time 2T, A is still transmitting and notices a collision (jam signal)

By Jignesh Patel
 Conti…
37

 Longest time between starting to transmit a frame

and receiving the 1st bit of a jam sequence is twice
the propagation delay from one end of cable to the
other. (roundtrip time)
 So to detect collision station must transmit because
that is the only time when station can detect collision.
 What should be minimum frame size ? so before
sending last bit of frame, the sender station must
detect a collision, if any and abort the transmission.
 This is so because, once entire frame is sent, station
does not keep copy and monitor line for collision.
By Jignesh Patel
Example 1
A network using CSMA/CD has a bandwidth of 10 Mbit/s.
If the maximum propagation time (including the delays in
the devices and ignoring the time needed to send a
jamming signal, as we see later) is 25.6 μs, what is the
minimum size of the frame?

Solution
The frame transmission time is Tfr = 2 × Tp = 51.2 μs. This
means, in the worst case, a station needs to transmit for a
period of 51.2 μs to detect the collision. The minimum size
of the frame is 10 Mbps × 51.2 μs = 512 bits or 64 bytes.
This is actually the minimum size of the frame for Standard
Ethernet.
38 By Jignesh Patel
Example 2
A network using CSMA/CD has a bandwidth of 10 Mbit/se.
If the signal propagation time is 2x108 metr/s, cable length
is 400 meter. what is the minimum size of the frame?

Solution
Time to transmit 1 bit is, Tb = 1/R =1/107 =0.1 μs
Propagation delay Tprop=d/v = 400/2x108 = 2x10-6 (2μs)
So, number of bits (frame size) we require to transmit are,
Nb= 2 x propagation delay x bandwidth
= 2 x 2 x10 = 40 bits
OR
Nb=( 2 x propagation delay )/ Tb = 40 bits

39 By Jignesh Patel
 Flow diagram for the CSMA/CD

40 By Jignesh Patel
 Energy level during transmission, idleness, or collision

At collision energy level is double

A station that has a frame to send or is sending a frame needs to monitor the energy
Level to determine mode of channel.

41 By Jignesh Patel
 CSMA/CA (Collision Avoidance)
42

 CSMA/CA mostly intended for use in wireless

networks to avoid collision because they cannot be
detected.
 A node wishing to transmit data has to first listen to
the channel for a predetermined amount of time to
determine whether or not another node is transmitting
on the channel within the wireless range.
 If the channel is sensed "idle," then the node is
permitted to begin the transmission process.
 If the channel is sensed as "busy," the node defers its
transmission for a random period of time.

By Jignesh Patel
 Why is it difficult to detect collisions in
43
a radio environment?
 CSMA/CA is used in 802.11 based wireless
LANs and other wired and wireless communication
systems.
 One of the problems of wireless data
communications is that it is not possible to listen
while sending, therefore collision detection is not
possible.
 Another reason is the hidden terminal problem. (Hidden
nodes in a wireless network refer to nodes that are out of range of other nodes.
Take a physical star topology with an access point with many nodes surrounding it in
a circular fashion: Each node is within communication range of the AP, but the nodes
cannot communicate with each other, as they do not have a physical connection to
each other)

By Jignesh Patel
Hidden Terminal Problem
 Node B can communicate with A and C both
 A and C cannot hear each other
 When A transmits to B, C cannot detect the
transmission using the carrier sense mechanism
 If C transmits to D, collision will occur at B

A B C D

By Jignesh Patel
44
 MACA solution for Hidden Node
45

 IEEE 802.11 RTS/CTS Exchange.

 CSMA/CA can optionally be supplemented by the
exchange of a Request to Send (RTS) packet sent
by the sender S, and a Clear to Send (CTS) packet
sent by the intended receiver R. Thus alerting all
nodes within range of the sender, receiver or both,
to not transmit for the duration of the main
transmission.
 This is known as the IEEE 802.11 RTS/CTS
exchange.
By Jignesh Patel
46 By Jignesh Patel
 Three-Way Handshake
 A sends Ready-to-Send (RTS)
 B responds with Clear-to-Send (CTS)
 A sends DATA PACKET
 RTS and CTS announce the duration of the data transfer
 Nodes overhearing RTS keep quiet for some time to allow A to receive CTS
 Nodes overhearing CTS keep quiet for some time to allow B to receive data packet

CTS (10)

CTS: Request
RTS: Clear ToTo
Send
Send DATA
RTS (10)

A
C
E
By Jignesh Patel 47
 MACAW (MACA for Wireless)
48

 MACA did not provide specifications about

parameters
 What are RTS, CTS packet sizes ?
 How to decide timers?

 What is initial back off window size?

By Jignesh Patel
 Four-Way Handshake
 Sender sends Ready-to-Send (RTS)
 Receiver responds with Clear-to-Send (CTS)
 Sender sends DATA PACKET
 Receiver acknowledge with ACK
 RTS and CTS announce the duration of the transfer
 Nodes overhearing RTS/CTS keep quiet for that duration
 Sender will retransmit RTS if no ACK is received
If ACK is sent out, but not received by sender, after receiving new RTS, receiver returns ACK
instead of CTS for new RTS
ACK
CTS(T)
CTS:Request
RTS: Clear ToTo
Send
Send DATA
RTS(T)

MACA ,MACAW did not solve

exposed terminal problems

destination

source

49 By Jignesh Patel
Exposed Terminal Problem
 Node C can communicate with B and D both
 Node B can communicate with A and C
 Node A cannot hear C
 Node D can not hear B
 When C transmits to D, B detect the transmission
using the carrier sense mechanism and postpone to
transmit to A, even though such transmission will not
cause collision
A X B C D

By Jignesh Patel
50
 Exposed station still unsolved

The CTS frame in CSMA/CA handshake can prevent collision from a hidden station. But here C
can head RTS from A but could not hear CTS from B, so after hearing RTS from A it will wait
but after sometime it might start communicating to D. in this case RTS/CTS is not solving
problem
 IEEE Standard 802 for LAN & MAN
52

 IEEE 802 refers to a family of IEEE standards

dealing with local area networks and metropolitan
area networks.
 In fact, IEEE 802 splits the OSI Data Link Layer into
two sub-layers.
 Data link layer
 LLC
Sub layer
 MAC Sub layer

By Jignesh Patel
 Name Description Note
IEEE 802.1 Bridging (networking) and Network Management
IEEE 802.2 LLC inactive
IEEE 802.3 Ethernet
IEEE 802.4 Token bus disbanded
IEEE 802.5 Defines the MAC layer for a Token Ring inactive
IEEE 802.6 MANs disbanded
IEEE 802.7 Broadband LAN using Coaxial Cable disbanded
IEEE 802.8 Fiber Optic TAG disbanded
IEEE 802.9 Integrated Services LAN disbanded
IEEE 802.10 Interoperable LAN Security disbanded
IEEE 802.11 a/b/g/n Wireless LAN (WLAN) & Mesh (Wi-Fi certification)
IEEE 802.12 100BaseVG disbanded
IEEE 802.13 unused
IEEE 802.14 Cable modems disbanded
IEEE 802.15 Wireless PAN
IEEE 802.15.1 Bluetooth certification
IEEE 802.15.2 IEEE 802.15 and IEEE 802.11 coexistence
IEEE 802.15.3 High-Rate wireless PAN
IEEE 802.15.4 Low-Rate wireless PAN (e.g., ZigBee, WirelessHART, MiWi, etc.)
IEEE 802.15.5 Mesh networking for WPAN
IEEE 802.16 Broadband Wireless Access (WiMAX certification)
IEEE 802.16.1 Local Multipoint Distribution Service
IEEE 802.17 Resilient packet ring
IEEE 802.18 Radio Regulatory TAG
IEEE 802.19 Coexistence TAG
IEEE 802.20 Mobile Broadband Wireless Access
IEEE 802.21 Media Independent Handoff
IEEE 802.22 Wireless Regional Area Network
New (March,
IEEE 802.23 Emergency Services Working Group
2010)
53 By Jignesh Patel
 IEEE 802.2: Logical Link Control
54

LLC sub layer adds

An LLC header, containing sequence & ACK no

(a) Position of LLC. (b) Protocol formats.

By Jignesh Patel
 Conti…
55

 Provides error and flow control.

 LLC provides 3 services options :
 Unreliable datagram service
 ACK datagram service

 Reliable datagram service

 LLC header contains 3 fields

 Destination access point
 Source access point

 Control field

By Jignesh Patel
 IEEE 802.3 ETHERNET
56

 Ethernet protocols refer to the family of local-area

network (LAN) covered by the IEEE 802.3
 It’s a broadcast network.
 Based on CSMA/CD (old Ethernet)

By Jignesh Patel
 Conti…
57

 Notation is decided as per speed, signaling and

supported segments.
 E.g. 10Base5 means, it operates at 10 Mbps, uses
baseband signaling ( A type of data transmission in which digital
data is sent over a single unmultiplexed channel) and can support
up to 500 meters segments (length).

By Jignesh Patel
 Ethernet implementation

58 By Jignesh Patel
59 By Jignesh Patel
 802.3 MAC frame (10/100-[fast Ethernet] mbps Ethernet )

Last 2 bits are SFD

Preamble :- The purpose of the preamble is to allow small time interval for the receiver
electronics in each of the nodes to settle after completion of the previous frame.
SFD :- is to notify the receiving station that the frame bits are going to come in next.
Length or type :- IEEE uses this field as a length of data field and Original Ethernet uses as
a type field to define upper-layer protocol.
Data :- this field contains maximum 1500 bytes. minimum 46 bytes length require for
correct operation of CSMA/CD.

60 By Jignesh Patel
 IEEE 802.6 DQDB (MAN)
61

 DQDB is designed to be used in MANs, it uses DUAL

bus.

 Directional Traffic - data flow in one direction

 Upstream & Downstream stations – for bus A stations
1,2 are upstream and 3,4 are downstream vice versa
for bus B
By Jignesh Patel
 Conti…
62

 Transmission slot :-
 Data travel on each bus as a stream of 53 byte slots
(not packets).
 The head of buses generates empty slot for use on bus.

 An empty slot travels down its bus until a transmitting

station drops data into it and destination station reads
the data.
 The data rate depends upon no of slots generated.

By Jignesh Patel
 DQDB Data Transmission

63 By Jignesh Patel
64 Bridges
Transparent Bridges
Source routing Bridge
Remote Bridges

By Jignesh Patel
 BRIDGES
65

 Bridges operates in both the Layer 1 & 2 of the OSI .

 Bridges serve a similar function as switches, that also
operate at data link layer .
 As physical layer device, it regenerates the signal it
receive.
 The difference with repeater (or Hub use to join to
LAN segments) is, it has filtering capability.
 Bridge has a table used in filtering decisions.

By Jignesh Patel
 Conti…
66

 Thus , A bridge device filters data traffic at a network boundary. Bridges

reduce the amount of traffic on a LAN by dividing it into two segments.

A bridge does not change the physical (MAC) addresses in a frame.

By Jignesh Patel
 Transparent Bridges
67

 It’s a bridge in which the stations are completely

unaware of the bridge’s existence.
 If bridge is added or deleted from the system,
reconfiguration of the stations is unnecessary.
 IEEE 802.1d specification criteria for bridge,
 Frame must be forwarded from one station to another.
 Forwarding table is automatically made by learning
frame movements in network.
 Loops in the system must be prevented.

By Jignesh Patel
 Learning bridge….
68

 Instead of static table, now we have dynamic table

that maps addresses to ports automatically.
 Destination address is used for forwarding.
 Source address is used for adding entries in table.
 If when bridge does not have any entry in table for
destination, the frame goes out from all ports and
floods the network.

By Jignesh Patel
69 By Jignesh Patel
 Looping in Transparent bridge
70

 Transparent bridges work fine as long as there are

no redundant bridges in the system. Systems
administrators, however, like to have redundant
bridges (more than one bridge between a pair of
LANs) to make the system more reliable
 If a bridge fails, another bridge takes over until the
failed one is repaired or replaced. Redundancy can
create loops in the system.

By Jignesh Patel
71 By Jignesh Patel
 Source routing Bridge
72

 Another way to prevent loops in a system with

redundant bridges is to use source routing bridges.
 Source route bridging is used on token ring networks.
 Token passing - uses a token, or series of bits, to grant
a device permission to transmit over the network.
Whichever device has the token can put data into the
network. When its transmission is complete, the device
passes the token along to the next device in
the topology. System rules in the protocol
specifications mandate how long a device may keep
the token, how long it can transmit for and how to
generate a new token if there isn't one circulating.
By Jignesh Patel
 Conti…
73

 Source routing is a way of moving a packet through

a network in which the path is predetermined by the
source or some device that tells the source about the
path.
 The path information is placed in the packet.
 No forwarding decision is necessary.
 In source routing, a sending station defines the
bridges that the frame must visit.
 The addresses of these bridges are included in the
frame.
By Jignesh Patel
 Conti…
74

 This is the opposite of hop-by-hop IP routing,

where packets contain only the destination address
and routers at each junction in the network
determine how best to forward the packet.
 Source routing assumes that the source knows about
the topology of the network, and can therefore
specify a path. However, it is not always possible to
expect end-user's systems to learn a network's
topology.

By Jignesh Patel
 Remote Bridge
75

 It can connect 2 LAN segments together that are in

geographically isolated locations.
 It connects LANs via WAN.
 Challenge-Speed of LAN is often faster than WAN.
 Compensation for speed difference could be
resolve by sufficient buffering capability.
 Buffering can be achieved only for short bursts of
data that do not overwhelm the bridge’s buffering
capability.

By Jignesh Patel
76 High Speed LANs
FDDI
Fast Ethernet
HIPPI
Fibre channel

By Jignesh Patel
 FDDI (Fiber Distributed Data Interface)
77

 100-Mbps token-passing, dual-ring LAN using fiber-

optic cable could cover 200 km.
 FDDI is frequently used as high-speed backbone
technology because of its support for high bandwidth
and greater distances than copper.
 An FDDI network contains two token rings, one for
possible backup in case the primary ring fails. The
primary ring offers up to 100 Mbps capacity. If the
secondary ring is not needed for backup, it can also
carry data, extending capacity to 200 Mbps.

By Jignesh Patel
 Conti…
78

 FDDI uses dual-ring architecture with traffic on

each ring flowing in opposite directions (called
counter-rotating).
 The primary purpose of the dual rings is to

provide superior reliability and robustness.

By Jignesh Patel
 Nodes could be configured as Single Attached
Stations (SAS) connected to concentrators or as
Dual Attached Stations (DAS) connected to both
rings.

79 By Jignesh Patel
 Preamble - Gives a unique sequence that prepares each station for an upcoming
frame.
Start delimiter - Indicates the beginning of a frame.
Frame control - Indicates the size of the address.
Destination address - Origin and destination address
Source address - Identifies the single station that sent the frame.
Frame check sequence (FCS) - CRC error - checking
End delimiter - End of the frame.
Frame status - Identifies whether the frame was recognized and copied by a
80
receiving station.
By Jignesh Patel
 Fast Ethernet -100Mbps Ethernet (IEEE
802.3u)
81

 Fast Ethernet is an extension of the existing Ethernet

standard. It runs on UTP data or optical fiber cable
and uses CSMA/CD in a star wired bus topology,
similar to 10BASE-T.
 Frame structure is similar to Ethernet - Slide 59
 Fast Ethernet cabling is given as under.

By Jignesh Patel
 HIPPI (High-Performance Parallel
82
Interface)
 It is a standard point-to-point protocol for transmitting
large amounts of data at relatively short distances,
mainly on local area networks ( LAN s).
 Its use can make computers, interconnected storage
devices, and other resources on a LAN function as
though they were all within a single supercomputer.
 HIPPI is considered an ideal technology for the
transfer of "big data," such as data warehouse
updating, audio and video streams, and data backup
within a range up to 10 kilometers.

By Jignesh Patel
 The following table summarizes HIPPI technologies.

HIPPI Technology Speed Maximum Distance Physical Medium

One 50-pair twisted

HIPPI-800 800 Mbps (100 Mbps) 25 meters
pair copper wire

Two 50-pair twisted

HIPPI-1600 1600 Mbps (200 Mbps) 25 meters
pair copper wire

multimode
1 kilometer with... fiber optical fiber
HIPPI-800 Serial 800 Mbps
10 kilometers with... single mode
fiber optical fiber
multimode
1 kilometer with... fiber optical fiber
HIPPI-1600 Serial 1600 Mbps
10 kilometers with... single mode
fiber optical fiber
twisted pair copper
HIPPI-6400 6.4 Gbps 50 meters
wire
HIPPI-6400 6.4 Gbps 1 kilometer optical fiber
83 By Jignesh Patel
 Fibre Channel
84

 The successor to HIPPI.

 Instead of using 50 to 100 twisted pair, redo using
single fiber was the attempt.
 Supports 3 service classes.
 Purecircuit switching with guaranteed delivery.
 Packet switching with guaranteed delivery.

 Packet switching with no guaranteed delivery.

By Jignesh Patel