Chapter 12

Multiple Access

12.1
 Data link layer divided into two functionality-oriented sub-layers

The upper layer has the responsibility to flow control and the error control in the

data link layer, and hence it is termed as logical of data link control.

Whereas the lower sub-layer is used to handle and reduce the collision or multiple

access on a channel. Hence it is termed as

Media Access Control or the multiple access resolutions.

12.2
What is a multiple access protocol?

- When a sender and receiver have a dedicated link to transmit data packets, the data link
control is enough to handle the channel.
- Suppose there is no dedicated path to communicate or transfer the data between two
devices.

-In that case, multiple stations access the channel and simultaneously transmits the data
over the channel.

-It may create collision and cross talk. Hence, the multiple access protocol is required to
reduce the collision and avoid crosstalk between the channels.

-For example, suppose that there is a classroom full of students. When a teacher asks a
 Taxonomy of multiple-access protocols discussed in this chapter

12.4
 RANDOM ACCESS PROTOCOLS
- No station is superior to another station and none is
assigned the control over another.
- No station permits, or does not permit, another
station to send.
- At each instance, a station that has data to send uses
a procedure defined by the protocol to make a decision
on whether or not to send.
Topics discussed in this section:
ALOHA – Pure and Slotted
Carrier Sense Multiple Access(CSMA)
Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection(CSMA/CD)
Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance(CSMA/CA)
12.5
 ALOHA
- It is a LAN-based protocol.

-The Aloha Protocol allows several stations to send data frames over the same
communication channel at the same time.

-This protocol is a straightforward communication method in which each network station is

given equal priority and works independently.

-Aloha is a medium access control (MAC) protocol for transmission of data via a shared
network channel.

-Using this protocol, several data streams originating from multiple nodes are transferred
through a multi-point transmission channel.
 ALOHA RULES
-Any station can transmit data to a channel at any time.

- It does not require any carrier sensing.

- Collision and data frames may be lost during the transmission of data through multiple

stations.

- Acknowledgment of the frames exists in Aloha. Hence, there is no collision detection.

- It requires retransmission of data after some random amount of time.

 - Whenever data is available for sending over a channel at stations, we use Pure
PURE ALOHA
Aloha.

-In pure Aloha, when each station transmits data to a channel without checking
whether the channel is idle or not.

- The chances of collision may occur, and the data frame can be lost.

-When any station transmits the data frame to a channel, the pure Aloha waits for the
receiver's acknowledgment.

-If it does not acknowledge the receiver end within the specified time, the station
waits for a random amount of time, called the backoff time (Tb). And the station may
12.8
 -PURE ALOHA
In Pure Aloha, Stations transmit whenever data is available at arbitrary times and

Colliding frames are destroyed.

- In this, The time is continuous and not globally synchronized.

- Vulnerable time for Pure Aloha = 2 * Tt.

- In Pure Aloha, Probability of successful transmission of the data packet.

-2G
=Gxe reduce

- In Pure Aloha, Maximum efficiency = 18.4%

- Pure Aloha doesn’t reduces the number of collisions to half.

12.9
 PURE ALOHA

12.10
 Procedure for pure ALOHA protocol

12.11
 Vulnerable time for pure ALOHA protocol

12.12
 Example

A pure ALOHA network transmits 200-bit frames on a

shared channel of 200 kbps. What is the requirement to
make this frame collision-free?

Solution
Average frame transmission time Tfr is 200 bits/200 kbps or
1 ms. The vulnerable time is 2 × 1 ms = 2 ms. This means
no station should send later than 1 ms before this station
starts transmission and no station should start sending
during the one 1-ms period that this station is sending.

12.13
 Example
A pure ALOHA network transmits 200-bit frames on a shared
channel of 200 kbps. What is the throughput if the system (all
stations together) produces
a. 1000 frames per second
b. 500 frames per second
c. 250 frames per second.
Solution:-
The frame transmission time is 200/200 kbps or 1 ms.
a. If the system creates 1000 frames per second, this is 1
frame per millisecond. The load is 1. In this case
S = G× e−2 G or S = 0.135 (13.5 percent). This means
that the throughput is 1000 × 0.135 = 135 frames. Only
135 frames out of 1000 will probably survive.

12.14
 Example 12.3 (continued)
b. If the system creates 500 frames per second, this is
(1/2) frame per millisecond. The load is (1/2). In this
case S = G × e −2G or S = 0.184 (18.4 percent). This
means that the throughput is 500 × 0.184 = 92 and that
only 92 frames out of 500 will probably survive. Note
that this is the maximum throughput case,
percentage wise.

c. If the system creates 250 frames per second, this is (1/4)

frame per millisecond. The load is (1/4). In this case
S = G × e −2G or S = 0.152 (15.2 percent). This means
that the throughput is 250 × 0.152 = 38. Only 38
frames out of 250 will probably survive.

12.15
 Note

The throughput for pure ALOHA is

S = G × e −2G .
Where G is Load/ms (no. of frames transmitted per ms)
The maximum throughput
Smax = 0.184 when G= (1/2).

12.16
 SLOTTED ALOHA
- In this, any station can transmit the data at the beginning of any time slot.

- In slotted Aloha, the shared channel is divided into a fixed time interval called slots. So
that, if a station wants to send a frame to a shared channel, the frame can only be sent at

the beginning of the slot, and only one frame is allowed to be sent to each slot.

- if the stations are unable to send data to the beginning of the slot, the station will have
to wait until the beginning of the slot for the next time. However, the possibility of a

collision remains when trying to send a frame at the beginning of two or more station

time slot.

12.17
 -SLOTTED ALOHA
In this, The time is discrete and globally synchronized.

- Vulnerable time for Slotted Aloha = Tt.

- In Slotted Aloha, Probability of successful transmission (throughput) of the data

packet.

-G
=Gxe

- In Pure Aloha, Maximum efficiency = 36.8%

- Slotted Aloha reduces the number of collisions to half and doubles the
12.18
 Frames in a slotted ALOHA network

12.19
 Note

The throughput for slotted ALOHA is

S = G × e−G .
The maximum throughput
Smax = 0.368 when G = 1.

12.20
 Figure 12.7 Vulnerable time for slotted ALOHA protocol

12.21
 Example
A slotted ALOHA network transmits 200-bit frames on a shared
channel of 200 kbps. What is the throughput if the system (all
stations together) produces
a. 1000 frames per second
b. 500 frames per second
c. 250 frames per second.
Solution:
The frame transmission time is 200/200 kbps or 1 ms.
a. If the system creates 1000 frames per second, this is 1
frame per millisecond. The load is 1. In this case
S = G× e−G or S = 0.368 (36.8 percent). This means
that the throughput is 1000 × 0.0368 = 368 frames.
Only 386 frames out of 1000 will probably survive.

12.22
 Example(continued)

b. If the system creates 500 frames per second, this is

(1/2) frame per millisecond. The load is (1/2). In this
case S = G × e−G or S = 0.303 (30.3 percent). This
means that the throughput is 500 × 0.0303 = 151.
Only 151 frames out of 500 will probably survive.

c. If the system creates 250 frames per second, this is (1/4)

frame per millisecond. The load is (1/4). In this case
S = G × e −G or S = 0.195 (19.5 percent). This means
that the throughput is 250 × 0.195 = 49. Only 49
frames out of 250 will probably survive.

12.23
 CSMA -Carrier Sense Multiple Access
-Check the Availability of Channel before Transmission
-If channel is not available wait for Random Amount Of
Time

- This protocol sense the traffic on a channel (idle or busy) before transmitting the data. It
means that if the channel is idle, the station can send data to the channel. Otherwise, it must

wait until the channel becomes idle. Hence, it reduces the chances of a collision on a

transmission medium.

-Vulnerable time = Propagation time (Tp)

12.24
 Vulnerable time in CSMA

12.25
 CSMA - types
1-Persistent: In the 1-Persistent mode of CSMA that defines each node, first sense the shared

channel and if the channel is idle, it immediately sends the data. Else it must wait and keep track of

the status of the channel to be idle and broadcast the frame unconditionally as soon as the channel is

idle.

Non-Persistent: It is the access mode of CSMA that defines before transmitting the data, each node

must sense the channel, and if the channel is inactive, it immediately sends the data. Otherwise, the

station must wait for a random time (not continuously), and when the channel is found to be idle, it

transmits the frames.

P-Persistent: It is the combination of 1-Persistent and Non-persistent modes. The P-Persistent

mode defines that each node senses the channel, and if the channel is inactive, it sends a frame with

a P probability. If the data is not transmitted, it waits for a (q = 1-p probability) random time and
12.26
 Behavior of three persistence methods

12.27
 Flow diagram for three persistence methods

12.28
 CSMA/CD carrier sense multiple access/ collision detection

It is a carrier sense multiple access/ collision detection network protocol to transmit data

frames.

he CSMA/CD protocol works with a medium access control layer.

Therefore, it first senses the shared channel before broadcasting the frames, and if the channel

is idle, it transmits a frame to check whether the transmission was successful.

If the frame is successfully received, the station sends another frame.

If any collision is detected in the CSMA/CD, the station sends a jam/ stop signal to the shared

channel to terminate data transmission.

 CSMA/CD carrier sense multiple access/ collision detection

A station monitors the medium after it sends a frame to see if the transmission was

successful. If successful, the transmission is finished, if not, the frame is sent

again.

Throughput and Efficiency: The throughput of CSMA/CD is much greater than

pure or slotted ALOHA.

For the 1-persistent method, throughput is 50% when G=1.

For the non-persistent method, throughput can go up to 90%.

 Collision of the first bit in CSMA/CD

In the diagram, starts sending the first bit of its frame at t1 and since C sees the channel idle at t2, starts

sending its frame at t2. C detects A’s frame at t3 and aborts transmission. A detects C’s frame at t4 and

aborts its transmission. Transmission time for C’s frame is, therefore, t3-t2 and for A’s frame is

t4-t1

So, the frame transmission time (Tfr) should be at least twice the maximum propagation time

(Tp) (Tfr=2*Tp) This can be deduced when the two stations involved in a collision are a maximum

12.31
distance apart.
 Collision and abortion in CSMA/CD

12.32
 Flow diagram for the CSMA/CD

12.33
 Energy level during transmission, idleness, or collision

12.34
 CSMA/CA – Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance

The basic idea behind CSMA/CA is that the station should be able to receive while transmitting

to detect a collision from different stations.

In wired networks, if a collision has occurred then the energy of the received signal almost

doubles, and the station can sense the possibility of collision. In the case of wireless networks,

most of the energy is used for transmission, and the energy of the received signal increases by

only 5-10% if a collision occurs.

It can’t be used by the station to sense collision. Therefore CSMA/CA has been specially

designed for wireless networks.

12.35
 CSMA/CA – Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance

These are three types of strategies:

InterFrame Space (IFS): When a station finds the channel busy it senses the channel again,

when the station finds a channel to be idle it waits for a period of time called IFS time. IFS can

also be used to define the priority of a station or a frame. Higher the IFS lower is the priority.

Contention Window: It is the amount of time divided into slots. A station that is ready to send

frames chooses a random number of slots as wait time.

Acknowledgments: The positive acknowledgments and time-out timer can help guarantee a

successful transmission of the frame.

12.36
 CSMA/CA – Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance

The algorithm of CSMA/CA is:

-When a frame is ready, the transmitting station checks whether the channel is idle or busy.
-If the channel is busy, the station waits until the channel becomes idle.
-If the channel is idle, the station waits for an Inter-frame space (IFS) amount of time and then
sends the frame.
-After sending the frame, it sets a timer.
-The station then waits for acknowledgement from the receiver.
-If it receives the acknowledgement before expiry of timer, it marks a successful transmission.
Otherwise,

- it waits for a back-off time period and restarts the algorithm

12.37
 Timing in CSMA/CA

12.38
 Note

In CSMA/CA, the IFS can also be used to

define the priority of a station or a frame.

12.39
 Note

In CSMA/CA, if the station finds the

channel busy, it does not restart the timer
of the contention window;
it stops the timer and restarts it when the
channel becomes idle.

12.40
 Figure 12.17 Flow diagram for CSMA/CA

12.41
 12-2 CONTROLLED ACCESS

In controlled access, the stations consult one another to

find which station has the right to send. A station cannot
send unless it has been authorized by other stations. We
discuss three popular controlled-access methods.

Topics discussed in this section:

Reservation
Polling
Token Passing

12.42
 Figure 12.18 Reservation access method

12.43
 Figure 12.19 Select and poll functions in polling access method

12.44
 Figure 12.20 Logical ring and physical topology in token-passing access method

12.45
 12-3 CHANNELIZATION

Channelization is a multiple-access method in which the

available bandwidth of a link is shared in time,
frequency, or through code, between different stations.
In this section, we discuss three channelization
protocols.

Topics discussed in this section:

Frequency-Division Multiple Access (FDMA)
Time-Division Multiple Access (TDMA)
Code-Division Multiple Access (CDMA)

12.46
 Note

We see the application of all these methods

in Chapter 16 when
we discuss cellular phone systems.

12.47
 Figure 12.21 Frequency-division multiple access (FDMA)

12.48
 Note

In FDMA, the available bandwidth

of the common channel is divided into
bands that are separated by guard bands.

12.49
 Figure 12.22 Time-division multiple access (TDMA)

12.50
 Note

In TDMA, the bandwidth is just one channel

that is timeshared between different
stations.

12.51
 Note

In CDMA, one channel carries all

transmissions simultaneously.

12.52
 Figure 12.23 Simple idea of communication with code

12.53
 Figure 12.24 Chip sequences

12.54
 Figure 12.25 Data representation in CDMA

12.55
 Figure 12.26 Sharing channel in CDMA

12.56
 Figure 12.27 Digital signal created by four stations in CDMA

12.57
 Figure 12.28 Decoding of the composite signal for one in CDMA

12.58
 Figure 12.29 General rule and examples of creating Walsh tables

12.59
 Note

The number of sequences in a Walsh table

needs to be N = 2m.

12.60
 Example 12.6

Find the chips for a network with

a. Two stations b. Four stations

Solution
We can use the rows of W2 and W4 in Figure 12.29:
a. For a two-station network, we have
[+1 +1] and [+1 −1].

b. For a four-station network we have

[+1 +1 +1 +1], [+1 −1 +1 −1],
[+1 +1 −1 −1], and [+1 −1 −1 +1].

12.61
 Example 12.7

What is the number of sequences if we have 90 stations in

our network?

Solution
The number of sequences needs to be 2 m. We need to
choose m = 7 and N = 27 or 128. We can then use 90
of the sequences as the chips.

12.62
 Example 12.8

Prove that a receiving station can get the data sent by a

specific sender if it multiplies the entire data on the channel
by the sender’s chip code and then divides it by the number
of stations.

Solution
Let us prove this for the first station, using our previous
four-station example. We can say that the data on the
channel
D = (d1 ⋅ c1 + d2 ⋅ c2 + d3 ⋅ c3 + d4 ⋅ c4).
The receiver which wants to get the data sent by station 1
multiplies these data by c1.
12.63
 Example 12.8 (continued)

When we divide the result by N, we get d1 .

12.64