University of Gondar

College of social science and Humanities

Department of Psychology

Postgraduate in Social psychology

Course: Cross Cultural Psychology

Individual Assignment;

Submitted to: Mr. Habtamu Getnet

By: - Bereket Sereke

January, 2023

Gondar, Ethiopia
Department of Psychology/Assignment; by Bereket/2023

1. Differentiate the following terms

A. Ethnocentrism

B. Acculturation

C. Enculturation

D. Ecocultural

E. Holocultural

F. Indigenous psychology

G. Socialization

H. Cultural transmission

I. Biological transmission

J. Individualism and collectivism

Answer :1

A) Ethnocentrism is the tendency to look at the world primarily from the perspective of one’s
own culture. Part of ethnocentrism is the belief that one’s own race, ethnic or cultural group is the
most important or that some or all aspects of its culture are superior to those of other groups. Some
people will simply call it cultural ignorance.

Ethnocentrism often leads to incorrect assumptions about others’ behavior based on your own
norms, values, and beliefs. In extreme cases, a group of individuals may see another culture as
wrong or immoral and because of this may try to convert, sometimes forcibly, the group to their
own ways of living. War and genocide could be the devastating result if a group is unwilling to
change their ways of living or cultural practices.

2|Page
Department of Psychology/Assignment; by Bereket/2023
Ethnocentrism may not, in some circumstances, be avoidable. We often have involuntary reactions
toward another person or culture’s practices or beliefs but these reactions do not have to result in
horrible events such as genocide or war. In order to avoid conflict over culture practices and
beliefs, we must all try to be more culturally relative.

B) Acculturation

Acculturation simply means an adjustment to a different culture, usually the dominant or powerful
one. It refers to the cultural transformation of an individual or a group to adapt according to another
culture. In finer terms, acculturation means the cultural contact and interchange process wherein a
human being adopts, learns and adjust to some or great extent as per the values, rules, patterns and
practices of a new or prevailing culture in the society, which is not their native culture.

Acculturation is primarily found amongst the people who migrate from different countries, who
try to incorporate the new culture in their lives. It takes place when people belong to different
culture comes into contact with one another, wherein the people adopt traits of a new culture or
take part in another culture.

Nevertheless, it is a process of extensive cultural borrowing, between the superordinate and

subordinate cultures. The borrowing can be two-way, but usually the less powerful culture borrows
traits from the more powerful one.

Further, when acculturation continues for a very long period it turns out as assimilation, wherein
the original or native culture of the person or group is forsaken and the new culture comes into
being. However, acculturation may also result in separation, integration, marginalization or
transmutation apart from assimilation.

C) Enculturation refers to that learning process in which an individual comes to know about the
rules, customs, skills and values of the society. The word enculturation is commonly juxtaposed
with ‘acculturation‘ which refers to the modification of culture of an individual or group, due to
the interaction with other culture.

We all know that it is because of the culture we speak, behave, celebrate and express in a specific
way. Culture implies a varied set of intangible aspects i.e., features, norms and knowledge, of a

3|Page
Department of Psychology/Assignment; by Bereket/2023
specific group of people in a society, including language, beliefs, religious orientation, social
heritage, dressing style, hygiene habits, music, cuisine, etc.

An individual adopts culture by way of enculturation or socialization. Socialization indicates the

process incorporating the norms and beliefs of the society in one’s life. In this article excerpt, we
are going to talk about the differences between enculturation and acculturation.

Key Differences Between Enculturation and Acculturation

The difference between enculturation and acculturation can be drawn clearly on the following
grounds:

1. Enculturation is the culture learning process in which an individual comes to know about ṭhe
rules, values and behavioral patterns of his/her own native culture. Conversely, acculturation
refers to a process of cultural learning wherein the members of a particular cultural group get
influenced by another culture, by coming in contact with it and adopts it to some or great extent.

2. Enculturation is the first and foremost introduction of a person to the culture, which takes place
just after birth. In contrast, acculturation is the subsequent familiarization with different
cultures.

3. In enculturation, a person learns or acquires one’s own culture, to which he/she belongs. On
the contrary, in acculturation, one’s culture is subsumed by another culture.

4. Enculturation contains only one culture, whereas two or more culture is there in acculturation.

5. Enculturation is an essential requirement for an individual to survive in a society, which occurs

without any influence. As against, acculturation is not a must, for the survival, but one can
learn other’s culture when required.

6. Enculturation does not lead to a modification in the existing culture. On the other hand, in the
case of acculturation transformation in one’s culture or amalgamation of two or more cultures
is seen.

7. In the case of enculturation, there is no risk of assimilation, whereas if acculturation continues

for a prolonged period, then it results in assimilation.

4|Page
Department of Psychology/Assignment; by Bereket/2023

D) The eco-cultural approach offers a framework for describing and interpreting similarities and
differences in human behavior across cultures. As adaptive to context, psychological phenomena
can be understood “in their own terms” and external evaluations can be avoided. This is a critical
point, since it allows for the conceptualization, assessment and interpretation of culture and
behavior in non-ethnocentric way. It explicitly rejects the idea that some cultures or behavior are
more advanced or more developed than others. Beginning in 1966 Berry developed the eco-
cultural approach. This approach examines both the ecological and cultural contexts of societies
and the individual behaviors that are developed by populations living in them.

In general terms, the ecological perspective in the social and behavioral sciences has given rise to
the fields of ecological anthropology, and ecological psychology. In ecological anthropology,
features of cultures are seen as long-term and accumulated adaptations by populations to the
demands and constraints of the ecological contexts in which they have evolved. In ecological
psychology, individual behaviors are seen as being developed into a repertoire that is adaptive to
the demands and experiences of an individual in their ecological, social and cultural situations or
settings.

The eco-cultural approach to studying cultural and psychological phenomena draws from both
these academic traditions. The eco-cultural approach is rooted in two exogenous contexts:
ecological and sociopolitical.

F) Indigenous psychology: is a scientific study of human mind and behavioral processes that are
indigenous, not taken from other areas, and intended for people who are the subject of such
research (Kim & Berry, 1993).

It is Understanding each culture from its own frame of reference, including its own ecological,
historical, philosophical, and religious or spiritual context; based on knowledge which emerges
from the target culture rather than either directly or indirectly from another location; an underlying
premise which suggests psychological principles cannot be assumed to be universally similar- this
knowledge stems from scholars located in the specific culture, has meaning within the specific
culture, and is for the individuals within that culture; advocates examining knowledge, skills, and
beliefs individuals have about themselves and how they function in their cultural context, which

5|Page
Department of Psychology/Assignment; by Bereket/2023
is not restricted to the study of indigenous individuals or even the use of a particular method,
rather indigenous psychology is in fact necessary for all cultural, indigenous, and ethnic groups,
including economically developed countries; some scholars argue that theories and strategies used
in the United States are in fact indigenous to the U.S. cultures.

Culture makes human beings unique from animals because without culture, people would not be
able to think and behave the way they do. Humans are able to communicate with one another,
make meaningful conversations, are able to manage their physical and social world, and more
importantly, they make their own identity. All of these are because of culture. There are two
approaches in understanding culture: understanding a culture from within and understanding a
culture from without but I will only discuss about understanding a culture from within.

G) Socialization is the process through which the individual learns to become an accepted member of the
society. At birth the neonate is neither social nor unsocial. Because of this helplessness at birth, he has to
depend on other social beings for his care and welfare. As he grows in a social environment and in a social
context, he develops various types of behavior which are called social and gradually grows to become a
social animal.

The interaction of the baby with his environment and particularly mother helps him in the above
process. Thus, the learning to adopt to the social norms, values and standards is called
socialization. There are four main agents of socialization family, school, peer groups (friends and
collogues), and mass media.

Socialization is a very important process in the forming of personality. Socialization occurs when
one interacts with other people. Socialization allows all individuals in a community to develop
very similar values, norms, and beliefs (O’Neil, 2009). Socialization is a lifelong process, though
the early stages of socialization are crucial (Shepard, 2009, p. 90). Without Socialization a person
will develop different physical and mental disabilities. Socialization is a very important life
process.

6|Page
Department of Psychology/Assignment; by Bereket/2023

Enculturation and socialization

 The process of enculturation involves parents, and other adults and peers, in a network of
influences all of which can limit, shape, and direct the developing individual.
 The end result (if enculturation is successful) is a person who is competent in the culture,
including its language, its rituals, its values, and so on.
 The concept of socialization refers to the process of deliberate shaping, by way of tutelage
(himaye), of the individual.
 It is generally employed in cross-cultural psychology in the same way. When cultural
transmission involves deliberate teaching from within a group, we are dealing with the process
of socialization

H) Cultural Transmission: is the process through which cultural elements, in the form of
attitudes, values, beliefs, and behavioral scripts, are passed onto and taught to individuals and
groups.

Environmental pressure, things like natural disasters, flooding, limited land to farm, is only one of
many potential ways that can lead to cultural adaptations. Others include technological innovation
(e.g., printing press, electricity) and contact with other cultures (immigration or colonization),
which may promote or inhibit changes in cultural practices. Through cultural transmission, goods
and services may be exchanged by two cultures, as well as values, languages, and behavior
patterns. This section will review three main methods for cultural transmission.

I) Biological transmission: Individual development can be considered as the outcome of

interactions between a biological organism and environmental influences. A starting point for the
discussion the distinction between nature and nurture. Thus, there are maturational theories that
place great emphasis on biological factors.

Key differences between Cultural and biological transmission

 In transmission, parents transmit cultural values, skills, beliefs, and motives to their offspring.
In this case it is difficult to distinguish between cultural and biological transmission, since we
typically learn from the very people who are responsible for our conception; and biological
parents and cultural parents are very often the same.

7|Page
Department of Psychology/Assignment; by Bereket/2023
 In cultural transmission, we learn from our peers in day-to-day interactions during the course
of development from birth to adulthood. Iin this case, there is no confounding of biological
and cultural transmission.
 In cultural transmission, we learn from other adults and institutions (for example in formal
schooling), either in our own culture or from other cultures.
 If the process takes place entirely within our own or primary culture, then cultural transmission
is the appropriate term.

J) Individualism VS Collectivism

Individualism as a social theory is one that favors freedom of an individual’s action as opposed to
have collective or state control. Many people would want to be granted maximum independence
and be allowed to think and act based on their own conviction. It is in this regard that proponents
of individualism theory will therefore find no meaning in communal rules and dictates as to the
order of doing things.

There are many standards defining and measuring a culture, some of these are obvious from one
culture to another and others need some analysis before recognizing them. Two of these traits are
collectivism and individualism, which differ greatly from country to country and culture to culture.
In addition to defining those, the possibility of coexistence of the two traits will be examined. First,
collectivism simply defined is the idea of everyone being a part of a larger group and all behavior
stemming from this. More specifically, collectivism includes looking at the needs of those in your
group before looking at your own, readiness to cooperate with your group, shared beliefs, and
happiness based on the welfare of those around you.

When it is not possible to think and act in the same way, individualistic people will want to assume
that each person can make right judgment regarding any situation and set precedence have no room
in determining what their cause of action should be. This then raise the question on the importance
of having rules written or implied in the society.

On the other hand, collectivism is the principal that that gives the group or society priority over an
individual. The needs and perception of an individual may differ from the expectations of the
society in which case the individual under the collectivism theory will be forced to give priority to
the society. The need for law and order is strongly manifest in a collectivistic society since it is

8|Page
Department of Psychology/Assignment; by Bereket/2023
generally agreeable that the individual differences and ambitions cannot allow people to live and
act harmoniously without set forms of control.

It is highly unlikely to establish a society that is fully individualistic or fully collectivist since the
two must find their place in the society owing to their diverse characteristics which in some cases
complement each other. The model of collectivism is however most popular and rightly so for
reasons outlined in this essay. Collectivism parse is however a threat to liberty of mind or
innovation as most people act in traditional way and are unwilling to easily accommodate changes
in what they perceive as traditions or societal expectations. People’s diversity is therefore assumed
to have been correctly put into consideration by the people who set the standards which may not
be the case.

Note: The difference between individualism and collectivism brings disharmony in the society
and creates mistrust. In a family where one person feels they need to stand against a practice or a
certain order, another member may feel no need to act in opposition or be seen to be disrespectful.
Consequently, the two people besides differing in opinion lose trust one for another as each person
feels the other can betray them.

2. Discuss the following points in your local/ Ethiopia context by focusing on

your own experience.

 Oobedience training: the degree to which children are trained to obey adults.

 in Ethiopia, parents teach their children to respect elders through rewards and
punishments

 Rresponsibility training: the degree to which children are trained to take on responsibility for
subsistence or household tasks.

 Ethiopian parents, for example train their children to take responsibilities subsistence
or household tasks such as toileting, looking after cows, looking after cropland etc.
since their childhood.

 Nurturance training: the degree to which children are trained to care for and help younger
siblings and other dependent people.

9|Page
Department of Psychology/Assignment; by Bereket/2023
 Ethiopian parents, for example train their children to help younger siblings and other
dependent people such as younger babies, elders, disabilities and sick people etc.

 Aachievement training: the degree to which children are trained to strive towards standards
of excellence in performance.

 Self-reliance: the degree to which children are trained to take care of themselves and to be
independent of assistance from others in supplying their own needs or wants.

 Ggeneral independence training: the degree to which children are trained (beyond self-
reliance as defined above) toward freedom from control, domination, and supervision.

Reference

Chapter 4: Socialization. (n.d.). Retrieved October 5, 2009, from

http://www.latech.edu/tech/liberal-arts/sociology/white/3socialization.htm

Huitt, W., & Hummel, J. (n.d.). Piaget’s theory of cognitive development. Valdosta, GA:

Valdosta State University, Retrieved October 5, 2009, from

http://chiron.valdosta.edu/whuitt/col/cogsys/piaget.html

O’Neil, D. (2009, January 3). socialization. Retrieved September 28, 2009, from
anthro.palomar.edu/social/soc_1.htm

Shepard, J. M. (2009). Sociology (Cengage Advantage Books). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth

Publishing Company.

10 | P a g e