1.

A mixture is a blend of two or more substances when each of them has its own
identification and properties. A homogeneous mixture has a uniform composition of
atoms or molecules whereas a heterogeneous mixture has a non-uniform composition
throughout the mixture Combustion Ignition (CI) engines use heterogeneous mixtures as
fuels while Spark Ignition (SI) engines use homogeneous fuel mixtures. Diesel engines use
heterogeneous mixtures.

2. Combustion in SI engines takes place in three stages as follows: period of ignition Lag
Or preparation phase, flame propagation phase, and after burning or flame termination
phase.

Period of ignition Lag Or preparation phase:

According to the results of the experiments, there is a specific amount of time between
the moment the spark is supplied at point A and the moment the first tiny flame returns
at point B, which corresponds to the point at which the cylinder pressure noticeably
increases owing to combustion. Period AB, which corresponds to this time interval, is
known as the ignition delay angle. According to the chain reaction theory of combustion,
the period of preflame reactions during which the chain is formed is represented by the
ignition lag. The amount of remaining gases in the combination, the air-fuel ratio,
temperature, pressure, and fuel's molecular structure all affect how quickly the fuel
ignites.

Flame propagation phase:

The flame spreads outward and burns the fuel in the air once it appears at point B,
where it becomes self-sustaining. Initial pressure rises are slow and the rate of fuel
combustion and flame speeds are low. However, while the combustion process
continues, the pressure and temperature continue to rise due to the release of heat
energy from the burned to unburned charge, and the flame moves quickly throughout
the combustion chamber.
 These two phases of combustion, namely the ignition lag phase and the flame propagation
phase, are difficult to discern from one another. The rate of pressure rise is represented by
the slope of curve BC. It should be observed that while only a small portion of the burning
mixture makes contact with the cylinder walls at first, the rate of heat transfer to those
surfaces is minimal. The amount of turbulence and the air-to-fuel ratio determine how
quickly heat energy is generated during combustion.

After burning or flame termination phase:

Even though point C signifies the end of flame passage, combustion is not actually
finished there. It is because residual fuel and the reassociation of dissociated gases
already present in the combustion chamber cause the burning to continue. The third
stage of combustion up to point D is known as "after burning," and it continues during
the expansion stroke following point C. This stage of combustion sees a decrease in
flame velocity.

3. There are different factors that influence the flame speed. Some of them are discussed
below.

Turbulence: the flame speed is quite low in non-turbulent mixtures and increases with
increasing turbulence. This is mainly due to the additional physical intermingling of the
burning and unburned particles at the flame front which expedites reaction by
increasing’ the rate of contact

Fuel-Air Ratio: The fuel-air ratio has a very significant influence on the flame speed.
The highest flame velocities (minimum time for complete combustion) are
obtained with somewhat richer mixture.

Temperature and Pressure: flame speed increases with an increase in intake

temperature and pressure. A higher initial pressure and temperature may help to
form a better homogeneous air-vapour mixture which helps in increasing the
flame speed. This is possible because of an overall increase in the density of the
charge.

Compression Ratio: a higher compression ratio increases the pressure and

temperature of the working mixture which reduce the initial preparation phase
of combustion and hence less ignition advance is needed. High pressures and
temperatures of the compressed mixture also speed up the second phase of
combustion.
Engine Output: The cycle pressure increases when the engine output is increased.
With the increased throttle opening the cylinder gets filled to a higher density.
This results in increased flame speed.When the output is decreased by throttling,
the initial and final compression pressures decrease and the dilution of the
working mixture increases. The smooth development of self-propagating nucleus
of flame becomes unsteady and difficult.

Engine Speed: the flame speed increases almost linearly with engine speed since
the increase in engine speed increases the turbulence inside the cylinder. The
time required for the flame to traverse the combustion space would be halved, if
the engine speed is doubled.

Engine Size: the size of the engine does not have much effect on the rate of
flame propagation. In large engines the time required for complete combustion is
more because the flame has to travel a longer distance. This requires increased
crank angle duration during the combustion. This is one of the reasons why large
sized engines are designed to operate at low speeds.

4. There are different types of combustion chambers for SI engines: T-Head type, L-
Head type, I-Head type, F-Head type

T-head type:
Check out the T-Head type of the combustion chamber for the spark
ignition engines. As you can see there will be two valves on each side and
a spark plug from the top side. This type of combustion chambers was
used in the early stages of the engine’s development. In this type of combustion chamber, the
knocking tendency is more because of the distance across the combustion chamber is long.
There is need of two cam shafts for the two valves. which is another disadvantage.

L-Head type:
Check out the above L-Head type(Left side) combustion chamber.
L-Head type combustion chamber the charge need to take a right
angle turn to enter into the combustion chamber. This cause the
loss of velocity and low turbulence results in the slow combustion process. To avoid this we
have Ricardo’s turbulent head design for the L-Head combustion chamber(Right side picture).
The head design will be helpful to create the turbulence for the charge to keep the velocity for
improving the combustion process.

Also, the spark plug is placed at the centre of the combustion chamber, the flame travel length
is reduced. The knocking is also reduced with this head design.
I-head type: This I-Head type combustion chamber is also called as the overhead
valve combustion chamber. As you can see the inlet and the exhaust valves are
located on the top of the cylinder head.

The main advantage of this combustion chamber is that it can achieve high compression
ratios, and also less tendency to the knock. High volumetric efficiency. We can avoid the
thermal failures by keeping the hot exhaust valve in the head instead of the cylinder.

F-Head type:

F-Head type combustion chamber is an inspired design from the L-head

type and the I-Head type combustion chambers. As you can see the F-
Head type combustion chamber in the above diagram, One exhaust valve is in the cylinder
head, the inlet valve in the side, and the spark plug is in the cylinder head. Again this has the
same disadvantage as the T-Head type combustion chamber as the two valves need to be
operated by two different camshafts.

5. Carburetion is defined as the process of mixing of combustible fuel with the proper amount
of air before it enters the engine cylinder. The purpose of carburetion if to provide and air-fuel
mixture in required quantity and quality for the efficient operation of the engine.

Various factors affect carburetion. These are engine speed, temperature of incoming air,
vaporization characteristics of the fuel, and design of carburetor.

6. Here “mixture” stand for the combination of Fuel and Air.

The proportion of fuel and air compostion may differ for different type of purpose
Lean Mixture :- It is an Air-Fuel mixture in which the proportion of air in overall mixture is more than that of
the proportion of fuel in overall mixture
Rich Mixture :- It is an Air-Fuel mixture in which the proportion of fuel in overall composition is more than
that of the proportion of air in overall mixture.
Correct Mixture :- It is also an Air-Fuel Mixture in which their is equality in proportion of air as well as fuel in
overall composition

7. An excessively high air–fuel ratio may produce high pumping loss, high peak cylinder
pressure, and high compressor outlet temperature. An excessively low air–fuel ratio may
produce the problems of deteriorated combustion efficiency, high smoke, and high exhaust
gas temperature.
Maximum power output is achieved with a 12.5:1 to 13.5:1 ratio. A rich mixture in the order of
11:1 is required for idle heavy load, and high-speed conditions.

8.

9.

10. During an idling engine demands a rich mixture which can be made leaner as the throttle is gradually
opened. During this period,the pressure in the inlet manifold is about20 to25% of atmospheric pressure. At
suction stroke,inlet valve opens and the product of combustion trapped in the clearance volume,expands in
the inlet manifold. Latter when the piston moves downwards,the gases along with the fresh charges go into
the cylinder. A rich mixture must be supplied during idling,to counteract the tendency of dilution and to get
an ignitable mixture

During maximum power engine requires richer mixture to prevent overheating of engine components , as
enriching the mixture reduces flame temperature and cylinder temperature.
During sudden acceleration, lean mixture is provided temporarily. This is due to liquid fuel
particles remaining behind the vaporized fuel air mixture when throttle is suddenly opened.
The actual requirement is rich mixture to produce more power for acceleration.

11. Simple carburetor works on Bernoulli’s principle. During the

suction stroke, air is drawn into the cylinder through venturi (also
known as choke tube). venturi tube is designed in such a way that
it offers minimum resistance to the air flow. When air passes
through the venturi the velocity of air increases and the pressure
decreases. ]. At venturi throat the velocity of air reach maximum
and the pressure reach minimum. There will be a pressure
difference between the float chamber and venturi throat. This
pressure difference is known as carburetor depression. ]. At venturi
throat the velocity of air reach maximum and the pressure reach minimum. There will be a
pressure difference between the float chamber and venturi throat. This pressure difference is
known as carburetor depression.
12.

13. Carburetor is a device for supplying a spark-ignition engine with a mixture of

fuel and air. Components of carburetors usually include a storage chamber for
liquid fuel, a choke, an idling (or slow-running) jet, a main jet, a venturi-shaped air-
flow restriction, and an accelerator pump. The quantity of fuel in the storage
chamber is controlled by a valve actuated by a float. The choke, a butterfly valve,
reduces the intake of air and allows a fuel-rich charge to be drawn into the cylinders
when a cold engine is started. As the engine warms up, the choke is gradually
opened either by hand or automatically by heat- and engine-speed-responsive
controllers. The fuel flows out of the idling jet into the intake air as a result of
reduced pressure near the partially closed throttle valve. The main fuel jet comes
into action when the throttle valve is further open. Then the venturi-shaped air-
flow restriction creates a reduced pressure for drawing fuel from the main jet into
the air stream at a rate related to the air flow so that a nearly constant fuel-air ratio
is obtained. The accelerator pump injects fuel into the inlet air when the throttle is
opened suddenly.

14. Ignition is the process of providing the energy that is required to initiate a combustion
process. When hydrocarbons interact with molecular oxygen to combust, it requires what is
known as activation energy to do so - the minimum energy needed to "activate" a chemical
reaction.

15.There are four types of ignition systems used in most cars and trucks: conventional
breaker-point ignitions, high energy (electronic) ignitions, distributor-less (waste spark)
ignition and coil-on-plug ignitions.

16. The typical level of energy required to ignite the mixture in a spark-ignition engine is
around 30 mJ. Ut is dependent on the initial temperature of the reactants, and the equivalence
ratio of the charge (because this affects the adiabatic temperature rise, and hence Tb). This
means that the strongest spark is needed when the engine is cold, and also if the engine is
running lean.

17. A battery ignition system is a type of ignition system used in a spark-ignition engine for
powering the spark plug so that spark can be generated to burn the air-fuel mixture in the
combustion
chamber. The
ignition system
powered by a 6- or
12-volt battery
charged by the
engine-driven
generator
(alternator).
This type of ignition system consists of battery, ignition switch, ballast resistor, ignition coil,
contact breaker capacitor, distributor and spark plug as its main component.

18. Vehicle exhaust emissions are also generated by the evaporation of fuel within the
vehicle when the vehicle stops, and during fueling. The composition of exhaust emissions
from gasoline-powered or diesel-powered vehicles differs depending on the individual
vehicle’s operating characteristics, as well as the type of fuel used.

Vehicle exhaust emissions are a major contributor to air pollution and also cause health
problems. A number of the compounds found in vehicle exhaust emissions are known to
be carcinogenic in significant, long-term exposures such as those experienced by people
living in large cities. Sulfur dioxide and carbon monoxide found in vehicle exhaust
emissions contribute to the creation of tropospheric or ground-level ozone. Tropospheric
or ground-level ozone is developed from the interaction between two or more precursor
pollutants such as nitrogen oxide and volatile organic compounds in the presence of
sunlight. This type of tropospheric ozone is believed to be responsible for poor air quality
especially during the summer months and contributes to higher levels of respiratory
illness as well as cancer in cities.

19. Following are the causes for hydrocarbon emissions from SI engine: Incomplete
combustion, crevice volumes and flow in crevices, leakage past the exhaust valve, valve
overlap, deposits on walls, and oil on combustion chamber walls. In CI engines the emission is
highly reduced but it could still happen at light loads when there is lean air-fluel mixture.

20. A catalytic converter is a simple device that uses basic redox reactions to reduce the
pollutants a car makes. When harmful nitrogen oxides react with the catalysts (platinum and
rhodium), the catalysts remove the nitrogen molecule, hold onto it, and release the oxygen
molecules. Then, the nitrogen molecules left over will join with other nitrogen molecules and
exit through the exhaust system

21. The components to be lubricated are oil Sump, Engine oil filter, Piston cooling nozzles, Oil
Pump, The Oil Galleries, Oil Cooler, the Oil pressure indicator/light.
The lubrication is achieved using oil pump to push the film of lubricant between moving parts
such as the main bearings, rod bearings and cam bearings

22.
Lubricants must have the following main characteristics
•Keep surfaces separate under all loads, temperatures and speeds, thus minimizing friction and wear.
•Act as a cooling fluid removing the heat produced by friction or from external sources
•Remain adequately stable in order to guarantee constant behavior over the forecasted useful life
•Protect surfaces from the attack of aggressive products formed during operation
lubricant additives can be categorized into various kinds based on their general roles of
performance improvement and service life extension. First category are additives that
impart new properties to the lubricant also known as surface protective additives. Examples
include antiwear additives, extreme pressure additives, corrosion inhibitors, detergents and
dispersants. The second kind of additives enhance the existing properties already present in
the lubricant hence known as performance additives. Viscosity index improvers, viscosity
modifiers, friction modifiers, pour point depressants belong to this type. The third type of
additives known as lubricant protective additives, are the ones that counteract the negative
effects or changes that take place during the service life of the lubricant. These include
antifoamants and, antioxidants. In this chapter only the major types of lubricant additives
are discussed. Other additives such as demulsifiers, emulsifier, biocides may be added
depending on the intended applications.

23.

24.
The thermosyphon cooling system is so designed that the water may circulate naturally
because of the density difference between hot water and cold water. This system has a
radiator and its upper and lower tanks are connected to upper and lower water jackets of the
cylinder using the pipes.
Forced circulation systems use electrical pumps, valves, and controllers to circulate water or
other heat-transfer fluids through the collectors. This enables a high degree of flexibility in the
positioning of the system components. For example, the tank can be installed in a basement.

Evaporative cooling system, otherwise known as adiabatic cooling, works on the principle of water
evaporation through which the air is cooled down to a comfortable temperature.
It is a cooling and ventilation technique that uses water as its refrigerant.
During the evaporative cooling process, water is evaporated in a stream of air and passes from a liquid
to a gas. This transition requires energy, which is extracted from the air in the form of heat. As a result
of this process, the air is cooled down.
The pressurized cooling systems keep the water in contact with hottest parts of the engine. Because
the system is air-free and under pressure, there are no steam pockets that form hot spots allowing you to
run longer and hotter