PHYSIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY( Communication Within the Neuron)

I. The Action Potential

A. Embedded in membranes of neurons are thousands of spaces or pores called ion channels.
These channels can open and close allowing specific ions to pass. Ion channels triggered by a
change in voltage are called voltage-dependent ion channels. Some ion channels are opened
and closed by chemical, they are called chemical-dependent/neurotransmitter-dependent
ion channels.
B. The inside of a membrane at rest is about -70 mV. This negative charge is actually stored up
electrical energy, hence the reason we say ‘resting membrane potential’.
C. If we apply a positive charge to the inside of the axon then depolarisation will occur. If this
depolarisation is of sufficient magnitude that it breaches the threshold of excitation, then an
action potential will occur.

II. Voltage-dependent Sodium Channel

A. When the threshold of excitation is reached sodium channels open and Na+ rushes in,
propelled by the forces of diffusion and electrostatic pressure. Thisinfusion of sodium ion
produces rapid depolarisation of the membrane’s potential, moving the charge from –70 mV
to +40 mV. The polarity of the cell in now changing with the inside becoming more positively
charge and the outside becoming more negatively charged.

III. Voltage-dependent Potassium Channels

A. Further depolarisation is needed before the potassium channels begin to open.

IV. Refractory Period

A. When the action potential reaches its peak, at about 1msec form the time it started, sodium
channels close. No more sodium is allowed to enter the cell. They will reopen, only when the
membrane’s resting potential is restored. The sodium channels are said to be in a refractory
stage.
B. The polarity of the cell has now changed with the inside becoming more positively charge
and the outside becoming more negatively charged. As the potassium channels are still
opened, positively charged K+ continue to leave the cell under the forces of diffusion and
electrostatic pressure. The inside of the membrane will now begin to return to its normal
negative value. The potassium channel soon close as the resting membrane potential is
being restored.
C. Sodium channels also reset in preparation for other action potentials.
D. Hyperpolarisation
1. Usually as the resting potential is restored the membrane overshoots it -70 mV. But as
the potassium channels closes it is restored to its original value. The sodium potassium
pump also kicks in and swaps 3 Na+ ions for 2 K+ ions.

V. Conduction of an Action Potential

A. The all-or-nothing law
1. An action potential either occurs completely or not at all. Once triggered in is conducted
all the way down to the end of the axon. It keeps the same size and does not grow or
diminish.
B. The rate law
 1. If an action potential does not vary in size, how then do we account for the varying force
of muscular contractions and the varying intensity of stimulations?
2. It is the axon’s rate of firingthat determines the necessary information i.e more than one
action potential at a given passage in time. A higher rate of firing produces stronger
muscle contractions and stronger stimulations.
C. Myelinated Axons
1. The conduction of an action potential is different for axon covered in myelin. In
myelinated axons, parts of the axon are not exposed to extracellular fluid. This means
that when sodium channels are opened there is no sodium to enter the cells. The axon
therefore creates an electrical disturbance that jumps to the next node of Ranvier and
retriggers an action potential. This form of message transmission, hopping from node to
node is called saltatory conduction.Saltatory conduction uses up less energy and occurs
a lot faster than message transmission in unmyelinated axons.