The End of History and the Last Man

The End of History and the Last Man by political scientist Francis Fukuyama is a widely read and
controversial book on political philosophy published in 1992. In it, Fukuyama argues that the end of the
Cold War in 1991 established Western liberal democracy as the final and most successful form of
government, thus marking the conclusion of “mankind’s ideological evolution.”

The book asserts that the end of the Cold War signals the end of history. The term “history” does not
refer to a series of events, which, of course, continue to occur. Instead, the text focuses on an endpoint
in the evolution of history. This approach is akin to a linear, secular eschatology, the branch of theology
concerned with God’s final judgment and the afterlife. According to Fukuyama, this endpoint constitutes
the eventual political transition into liberal democracies and their economic system, capitalism, all
around the world. He believes that the world would still comprise different states as individual political
entities with certain national characteristics.

The book is divided into five parts. Each part addresses an important theme or group of themes. The
first part focuses on general ideological trends in in the Modern period and the possibility of a universal
history of humankind. The second part discusses in more detail the ideological battle that took part
during the Cold War between Communism and Liberalism, as well as the question of prerequisites for
establishing a liberal democracy such as education and technological growth. The third part of the book
examines the question of identity and its recognition, and how this question transformed throughout
the history of Western thought. Part 4 describes attitudes toward work and obstacles to liberal
democracy such as political nationalism and religion. Finally, the end of the book examines the negative
aspects of liberal democracies, including socioeconomic inequality.

Fukuyama believes that the two essential obstacles to establishing a liberal democracy are nationalism
and religion, especially in their political expression. He asserts that these traditional forms of communal
relationships should be made compliant with liberal democracies. For example, for culture this would
mean removing its political aspects and reducing it to benign forms like ethnic cuisines. At the same
time, Fukuyama admits that traditional ties are what made communities strong, and there is a danger of
atomization and loneliness in the most advanced liberal democracies.

The author dedicates the final chapters to examining some of the drawbacks of his preferred political
system. These drawbacks include economic inequalities, crime, and substance abuse. On a deeper level,
Fukuyama wonders whether the material abundance and the safety and security of liberal democracies
would produce the so-called last men whom Friedrich Nietzsche disparaged. These are passive
individuals solely focused on material comforts rather than risk-taking and great creative passions which
made humans great in the past.

The End of History and the Last Man is an important contribution to 20th century political philosophy.
The author is well versed in the history of Western thought which he presents in an accessible way. The
book comprises dozens of historical examples to back up his claims showing the author’s erudition. At
the same time, The End of History sparked discussion and criticism. In the three decades since its initial
publication, the world transformed significantly and not necessarily in favor of liberal democracy. For
example, the rise of China with its alternative social and political system in the 21st century presents a
serious challenge to the end-of-history thesis.