SCHOOL OF MEDICAL

LABORATORY SCIENCE
BIOCHEMISTRY FOR MEDICAL LABORATORY SCIENCE (LEC.)
SAN PEDRO COLLEGE – MAIN
CAMPUS
Instructor’s Name: Michael Dann Superio
AY 2022 – 2023 - 1ST SEMESTER MODULE NO. 5

OUTLINE

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content. For short outlines, just merge the two columns.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

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use the ones in the handout given or delete this portion altogether

I. SUGARS: STRUCTURES AND BIOCHEMISTRY

● In scientific literature, sugar is also known as carbohydrate (or
Figure 1.
hydrates of carbon)
● Most abundant biomolecules on earth
→ photosynthesis converts more than 100 billion tons of CO2
and water into carbohydrates
→ Carbohydrates are a dietary staple of some parts of the
world. For Asians, in general, they consume rice. Rice is also
a starch which is also a form of a carbohydrates
→ Oxidation of carbohydrates is a central energy-yielding
pathway in non-photosynthetic cells. We consume
carbohydrates to yield energy and if it is not used in the
body, it is stored in a different form
→ insoluble carbohydrate polymers serve as structural and Figure 2.
protective elements in the cell walls of bacteria implants
→ In the connective tissue of animals carbohydrates also ● Monosaccharides also exhibit stereoisomerism
lubricate skeletal joints and participate in recognition and → Stereoisomerism: is the difference in the configuration of a
adhesion chemical structure in space. Even if the connectivity is the
→ Most complex um carbohydrate polymers are covalently same if its orientation in space is different. Technically they
attached to proteins or lipids that act so protein on the would be different compounds
membranes are not entirely proteins they also have → Simplest carbohydrate that exhibits stereoisomerism is
carbohydrate extensions glyceraldehyde
● Has three major size classes: monosaccharides, ▪ dihydroxyacetone has its functional group on the middle
oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides so even if you put a mirror mirror it would still yield the
● Polyhydroxyaldehydes (Aldose) or polyhydroxyketones (ketose) same structure hence even if you rotate this whatever
→ Aldose: primary functional group are aldehydes direction it would be it would yield the same structure.
→ Ketose: primary functional groups are ketones ● Mirror-image stereoisomers are called enantiomers.
● Name ends in -ose ● Non mirror-image stereoisomers are called diastereomers
● Many, but not all, have the empirical formula (CH2O)n ● Configuration: three dimensional arrangement of groups around
→ Some contain nitrogen, phosphorous, or sulfur the chiral carbon.
→ There is a molecule of water hence it hydrates the carbon. → a chiral carbon is uh is a carbon that contains four different
Thus, the name carbohydrates groups attached to it
● Play a number of important roles in biochemical processes → Usually use the D and L system
→ Major sources of energy → D glyceraldehyde has its -OH oriented on the right
→ Have a key role in cell surfaces such as cell-cell interactions → L glyceraldehyde has its -OH oriented on the left
and immune recognition
→ Essential structural components

What is unique about the structures of sugars?

● Monosaccharides: monomers (building blocks) of all
carbohydrates
→ Aside from calling sugars carbohydrates, we also call it as
saccharides
● Called differently depending on the number of Carbons and
main functional group
● Simplest monosaccharides contain three carbons (triose)
→ Glyceraldehyde (aldotriose) Figure 3.
▪ Known aspoly-ols because it has a lot pf alcohols
● Stereoisomers differ from each other in configuration.
→ Dihydroxyacetone (ketotriose)
→ D,L system is widely used

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 SCHOOL OF MEDICAL
LABORATORY SCIENCE
BIOCHEMISTRY FOR MEDICAL LABORATORY SCIENCE (LEC.)
SAN PEDRO COLLEGE – MAIN
CAMPUS
Instructor’s Name: Michael Dann Superio
AY 2022 – 2023 - 1ST SEMESTER MODULE NO. 5

→ R,S system is also used, a more recent system

▪ No one-to-one correspondence between the two systems
(e.g., some D-isomers are R, while others are S)
● Possibilities for stereoisomerism increase as the number of
carbon atoms increases.
● To show structures of the molecules, Fischer projection is used.
→ developed by Emil Fischer in 1980s and 1970s
→ Shows the two-dimensional perspective of the molecular
structure
▪ The best projection for linear carbohydrates we would be
able to distinguish if it's a glucose and a galactose or
whatever that the monosaccharide is and we could also
determine if it's an L rotatory or dexter rotatory molecule

● In a Fischer projection, the orientation of the bonds represent

the direction of the bond
→ Vertical bonds: directed behind the plane
→ Horizontal bonds: directed in front of the plane

Figure 4. A wedge bond directed towards the back

What happens if a sugar forms a cyclic molecules?

Figure 5. A solid wedge directed towards the front
● Sugars (especially 5-6 C) normally exist as cyclic molecules.
● Cyclization is a result of interaction between functional groups
→ C1 (aldehyde) and C5 (alcohol) forms cyclic hemiacetal
(aldohexoses)
→ C2 (ketone) and C5 (alcohol) forms cyclic hemiketal (ketohexoses)
● Carbonyl carbon becomes a new chiral center: anomeric carbon
● Cyclic sugar can take two different forms (α and β) and are called
anomers of each other.

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 SCHOOL OF MEDICAL
LABORATORY SCIENCE
BIOCHEMISTRY FOR MEDICAL LABORATORY SCIENCE (LEC.)
SAN PEDRO COLLEGE – MAIN
CAMPUS
Instructor’s Name: Michael Dann Superio
AY 2022 – 2023 - 1ST SEMESTER MODULE NO. 5

● Fischer projection formulas are useful for describing stereochemistry of

sugars in their linear forms
● Haworth projection formulas are more useful in describing cyclic
structure
→ Structures are viewed from the edge of the plane (ex. iattos but at a
45 degree angle)
→ Five membered rings are called furanose
→ Six membered rings are called pyranose
A. THE CASE OF LACTOSE INTOLERANCE
● Sugar intolerance results from the inability to either digest or
metabolize certain sugars, usually due to missing or defective
enzymes.
● Some adults have a deficiency in the enzyme lactase in the
intestinal villi.

● Lactose: made up of β-D-galactose and D-glucose linked at β(1→4)

● A reducing sugar because the anomeric carbon of glucose is free.
→ The anomeric carbon is free. It supposedly contains the aldehyde so ● The absence of lactase causes a build-up of lactose in the small
it’s free to yield a carboxyl group for a positive result or a lactone. intestine. It causes bacterial lactase to act on it, releasing H,
● Have two anomeric forms, each must have the β-D-galactose while the
D-glucose can be either α or β.
CO2, and organic acids instead of galactose and glucose.
● The bacterial products lead to digestive problems such as
bloating and diarrhea, the products further draw water via
osmosis thus aggravating the diarrhea.
● Even if lactase is present, other people cannot metabolize
galactose.
● If an enzyme that catalyzes the reaction pathway for galactose
is absent, galactose builds up resulting in galactosemia.
→ Galactosemia - a severe problem in infants because
galactose is converted to galactitol, which cannot be
excreted. The accumulation draws in water towards the
tissue and causes swelling, edema causes damage.
→ The critical tissue is the brain.
● Maltose is obtained from the hydrolysis of starch.
● Consists of two residues of D-glucose in an α(1→4) linkage.
● Differs from cellobiose (from cellulose) only in the glycosidic linkage
which is β(1→4).
● Mammals can digest maltose but not cellobiose.
→ The chemical structure or the chemical reactivity of sugar especially
for polysaccharides depends entirely on the type of the monomeric
units or the type of glycosidic linkage involved
● Yeast contains enzymes that hydrolyze starch to maltose then glucose,
which is fermented during brewing.

● Dietary therapy for lactose intolerance and galactosemia are

different.
→ Lactose intolerant people must avoid taking in lactose
throughout their lives.

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 SCHOOL OF MEDICAL
LABORATORY SCIENCE
BIOCHEMISTRY FOR MEDICAL LABORATORY SCIENCE (LEC.)
SAN PEDRO COLLEGE – MAIN
CAMPUS
Instructor’s Name: Michael Dann Superio
AY 2022 – 2023 - 1ST SEMESTER MODULE NO. 5

→ Galactosemia-afflicted people must avoid milk during their → The hydrogen bonds connect individual cellulose to each
childhood. The development of metabolic pathways for other which accounts for the strength that cellulose has in
galactose during puberty alleviates the problem in most protecting the plant cell.
individuals. ● Starch are polymers of α-D-glucose. Has different forms; can be
distinguished from one another by their degrees of chain
II. STRUCTURES AND FUNCTIONS OF branching.
POLYSACCHARIDES → Amylose: linear polymer linked at α(1→4) glycosidic bonds
● When many monosaccharides are linked together, the result is → Amylopectin: branched chain polymer with branches
a polysaccharide. starting at α(1→6) linkages along the chain of α(1→4).
● Polysaccharides that occur in organisms are usually composed
of a very few types of monosaccharide.
→ Homopolysaccharide: polymer consisting of only one type
of monosaccharide.
▪ Ex. glucose-glucose-glucose,
galactose-galactose-galactose
→ Heteropolysaccharide: polymer consisting of more than
one type of monosaccharide.
● Complete characterization of a polysaccharide includes
→ Specification of which monomers are present
→ Sequence of monomers
→ Specific type of glycosidic linkage
● Starch are storage molecules and therefore should have a
How do Cellulose and Starch differ from one
mechanism for releasing glucose.
another? → Enzymes can hydrolyze these different forms of starch: α
● Cellulose is the major structural component of plant cell walls. and β-amylase.
→ Linear homopolysaccharide of β-D-glucose, with all residues → β-amylase is an exoglycosidase, cleaves from the
linked in β(1→4) glycosidic bonds. non-reducing end of the polymer, and produces maltose.
→ Individual polysaccharide chains are hydrogen-bonded → α-amylase is an endoglycosidase, cleaves anywhere
together. along the chain to produce glucose and maltose.
● Animals are not capable of hydrolyzing cellulose because of
the absence of cellulase.
→ The disaccharide that is yielded from the metabolism of
cellulose is cellobiose.
→ Cellulase attacks the β(1→4) glycosidic bonds.
→ Certain bacteria have cellulase, including bacteria found in
termite gut and ruminants.
▪ Termites are able to eat wood because of the presence of
bacteria that degrades cellulase into cellobiose and
therefore, into glucose.
▪ The same thing goes with ruminants which are animals
that have a four-chambered stomach that have bacteria in
their gut that can degrade cellulose into glucose. ● Amylose can be completely degraded to glucose and maltose
▪ Cows, goats, and other ruminants can live off mostly on by the two amylases; amylopectin is not completely degraded
plants because of the presence of this bacteria. because the branches are not attacked.
→ Debranching enzymes that attack α(1→6) are used by plants
and animals.

● The polymeric structure of cellulose

→ A repeating disaccharide of a cellobiose.

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 SCHOOL OF MEDICAL
LABORATORY SCIENCE
BIOCHEMISTRY FOR MEDICAL LABORATORY SCIENCE (LEC.)
SAN PEDRO COLLEGE – MAIN
CAMPUS
Instructor’s Name: Michael Dann Superio
AY 2022 – 2023 - 1ST SEMESTER MODULE NO. 5
● Starch is actually helical in structure and is based on the
α-anomer of glucose.
● Iodine settles on the space at the center of the starch, it fits
there. The particular adjustment to the structure by iodine yields
the blue color which is interpreted as a positive result in the
presence of starch.
How is glycogen related to starch?
● Starch to plants as glycogen is to animals: both are storage
polymers.
● Glycogen is a branched-chain polymer of α-D-glucose; similar to
the amylopectin part in this regard.
→ Glycogen is more highly branched, every 10th residue is a
branch compared to every 25th in amylopectin
→ Average chain length in glycogen is 13 glucose residue, and
12 layers of branching
→ Has glycogenin at its core, an enzyme that acts as a primer
to convert glucose into glycogen.
● Found in animal cells in granules, observed in liver and muscle
cells.
● Glycogenin starts to bind glucose-glucose-glucose. The entire
globular complex will act as a primer and after sequencing the
first few glucose molecules into glycogen, other enzymes will
follow in attaching glucose molecules into the sequence until the
entire glycogen molecule is yielded.
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● The number of branch points in the glycogen structure is
significant for two reasons:
1. A more branched polysaccharide is more water-soluble;
the more glycogen in a solution is, the faster energy can
be released.
2. When an organism needs energy quickly for
spontaneous reflexes, the enzyme glycogen
phosphorylase has more potential targets if there are
more branches. This allows quicker mobilization of
glucose.
Chitin
● A polysaccharide similar to cellulose in both structure and
function.
→ Linear homopolysaccharide with all residues linked in
β(1→4) glycosidic bonds.
● Differ from cellulose in the monomeric unit.
→ Cellulose: β-D-glucose
→ Chitin: N-acetyl-β-D-glucosamine
● Plays a structural role, has a fair amount of mechanical strength
because of hydrogen bonds.
→ Major components of the exoskeletons of invertebrates; cell
walls of algae, fungi, and yeast.
What role do polysaccharides play in the structure of
cell walls?
● Heteropolysaccharides are major components of bacterial cell
walls.
→ They are also cross-linked by peptides in prokaryotic cell
walls.
→ The repeating polysaccharide units consist of two residues
held at β(1→4) like cellulose.
→ Residues are N-acetyl-D-glucosamine and N-acetylmuramic
acid.
● N-acetylmuramic acid is found only in prokaryotic cell walls;
does not occur in eukaryotic cell walls.
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 SCHOOL OF MEDICAL
LABORATORY SCIENCE
BIOCHEMISTRY FOR MEDICAL LABORATORY SCIENCE (LEC.)
SAN PEDRO COLLEGE – MAIN
CAMPUS
Instructor’s Name: Michael Dann Superio
AY 2022 – 2023 - 1ST SEMESTER MODULE NO. 5
● Plant cell walls consist largely of cellulose.
● Pectin, another component of plant cell walls, is composed
mostly of D-galacturonic acid residues.
→ Galacturonic acid is a derivative of galactose
→ Extracted from plants; used as a gelling agent in yogurt fruit
preserves, jams and jellies.
● Lignin (L. lignum, “wood”) a non-polysaccharide component of
plant cell walls; a polymer of coniferyl alcohol, very tough and
durable.
→ If you’re chopping wood, it is not the cellulose that is giving
the resistance, it’s actually the Lignin.
Do polysaccharides play any specific roles in
connective tissues?
● Glycosaminoglycans: polysaccharide based on a disaccharide
in which one of the sugars is
→ An amino sugar
→ One of the sugars has a negative charge because of a
sulfate or a carboxyl group
● Involved in a wide variety of cellular function and tissue.
→ Heparin: a natural anticoagulant that prevents blood clots
→ Hyaluronic acid: a component of vitreous humor of the eye
and the lubricating fluid of the joints. Used also for
dermatological purposes.
→ Chondroitin sulfates and keratan sulfate: component of
connective tissues
→ Glucosamine sulfate and chondroitin sulfate: OTC drugs
that help repair damaged cartilage.
BSMLS – 2G Team Writers: Cataag, Kanashiro, Ypil
● Glycosaminoglycans, which are formed from repeating
disaccharide units, often occur as components of the
proteoglycans.
II. GLYCOCONJUGATES: PROTEOGLYCANS,
GLYCOPROTEINS, AND GLYCOLIPIDS
A. GLYCOCONJUGATES
● Aside from being energy storage and structural materials,
sugars are also information carriers:
→ They serve as destination labels for some proteins
→ They serve as mediator of specific cell-cell interaction and
interaction between cells and extracellular matrix
▪ If a cell tries to contact or communicate switch another
cell, carbohydrates are central to the communication
through the presence of glycoconjugates
● Other roles of specific carbohydrate-containing molecules
include:
→ cell-cell recognition
→ cell adhesion
→ cell migration
→ blood clotting
→ immune response
● When an informational carbohydrate is covalently bonded to a
protein or lipid, it forms a glycoconjugate.
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 SCHOOL OF MEDICAL
LABORATORY SCIENCE
BIOCHEMISTRY FOR MEDICAL LABORATORY SCIENCE (LEC.)
SAN PEDRO COLLEGE – MAIN
CAMPUS
Instructor’s Name: Michael Dann Superio
AY 2022 – 2023 - 1ST SEMESTER MODULE NO. 5

B. TYPES OF GLYCOCONJUGATES

Glycoproteins
● Have one or several oligosaccharides covalently joined to a
protein.
→ The oligosaccharides have various complexity depending on
the molecule.
→ Outside cell: on the outer face of the plasma membrane, in
the extracellular matrix, and blood
→ Inside cell: Golgi complexes, secretory granules, lysosomes
● Highly rich in information; forms specific sites for recognition
and high-affinity binding by other proteins.

Glycolipids
● Membrane lipids in which the hydrophilic head groups are
oligosaccharide.
→ Act as a specific site for recognition by carbohydrate-binding
proteins.
→ Gangliosides are specific types of glycolipid and the
carbohydrate moieties are available for signal transduction

Glycoproteins on cell surfaces (A) and Glycoproteins in cell

lysates (B)

Proteoglycans
● Much bigger and heavier in terms of mass
● Macromolecules of the cell surface of extracellular matrix, a
type of glycoprotein ● Carbohydrates present in the palms membrane as short,
→ Unique from other glycoproteins because of sometimes branched, chains of sugars attached either to
glycosaminoglycan. exterior peripheral proteins (forming glycoproteins) or to the
→ One or more glycosaminoglycan chains are joined covalently polar ends of phospholipid molecules in the outer lipid layer
to a membrane protein (forming glycolipids).
→ Glycosaminoglycan moiety of the proteoglycan dominates A. Subheadings
the structure; often the main site of biological activity.
▪ Moiety - part of the structure ● Subheading Titles
→ Major components of connective tissues such as cartilage → Font: Arial
▪ If you take in OTC drugs that help repair cartilages, most ▪ Setting: Bold
of the drugs contain glycosaminoglycans ▪ Size: 9.5
▪ Color: White
→ All caps
→ Preceded by capital letters

B. SUBHEADING 2

Sub-Subheading
● Sub-Subheading Titles
→ Font: Arial
▪ Setting: Bold
▪ Size: 9.5
▪ Color: Depending on the Subject’s Color Assigned
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 SCHOOL OF MEDICAL
LABORATORY SCIENCE
BIOCHEMISTRY FOR MEDICAL LABORATORY SCIENCE (LEC.)
SAN PEDRO COLLEGE – MAIN
CAMPUS
Instructor’s Name: Michael Dann Superio
AY 2022 – 2023 - 1ST SEMESTER MODULE NO. 5

→ Note: Sub-subheadings are not listed in the outline ● Figure Label

→ Font: Arial
II. CONTENT FORMATTING ▪ Size: 7.5 pt
→ Bold
A. GENERAL FORMATTING ▪ Figure Name only
▪ Ex. Figure 1
→ Regular
● Body Text
▪ For Description
→ Font: Arial
▪ Size: 8.5 pt
▪ Color: Black B. TABLES
→ Bold
▪ For highlighting important terms Table 1. Sample table
→ Italics Title 1 Title 2
▪ For direct quotations from the instructor or other
reference.
→ Alignment: Left
→ Indentation ● Table Label
▪ Set to 0.25” from 0.5” → Font: Arial
▪ Size: 7.5 pt
Lists: Bullets → Bold
● Main Point ▪ Table Name only
→ Definition / Supporting Point ▪ Ex. Table 1
▪ Detail → Regular
− Smaller Detail ▪ For Table Description
o More Details* → Alignment: Left
= Even more details* ▪ Always anchored to the table
● If the table does not fit in a single column, it may be attached as
List: Numbering part of the appendix.
I. 1st Main Point
A. Definition / Supporting Point III. IMPORTANT / NICE TO KNOW INFO
1. Detail
a. Smaller Detail A. NTK
i. More details
II. 2nd Main Point
A. Definition / Supporting Point On additional information:
1. 1st Detail 1. Information from other sources can be added to further
2. 2nd Detail explain an unclear or incomplete point from the ppt or lecture of
a. Smaller Detail the professor.

List: Numbering and Bullets 2. “Nice to know” and “FYI” can be added but must be typed in a
1. 1st Main Point table such as this one.
● Definition / Supporting Point
→ Detail
▪ Smaller Detail
− More details*
REVIEW QUESTIONS (optional)
o Even more details*
2. 2nd Main Point
1. Question 1
a. Answer 1
III. TABLES AND FIGURES b. Answer 2
c. Answer 3
A. FIGURES d. Answer 4
2. Question 2
a. Answer 1
b. Answer 2
c. Answer 3
d. Answer 4
Figure 1. Rectangle
● Figure
→ Positioned at the center Aswers: a, b
→ Use in-line with text wrapping then center

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 SCHOOL OF MEDICAL
LABORATORY SCIENCE
BIOCHEMISTRY FOR MEDICAL LABORATORY SCIENCE (LEC.)
SAN PEDRO COLLEGE – MAIN
CAMPUS
Instructor’s Name: Michael Dann Superio
AY 2022 – 2023 - 1ST SEMESTER MODULE NO. 5

REFERENCES

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