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Subdivision and correlation of monotonous sandstone sequences using

high-resolution heavy mineral analysis, a case study: the Triassic of the
Central Graben

M A R I A A. M A N G E - R A J E T Z K Y
Department of Earth Sciences, Oxford University, Parks Road, Oxford, OX1 3PR, UK

Abstract: The subdivision and correlation of monotonous siliciclastic sequences with poor
biostratigraphic control and few lithostratigraphic markers has long been a problem. The
need to find an efficient approach is even greater for subsurface sequences where
information from cores and wireline logs has proved inadequate. In this short paper a
novel approach, high-resolution heavy minerals analysis (HRHMA), is introduced, which is
particularly suitable for the subdivision of problematical clastic sediments where other
techniques are inconclusive. A full paper, which will present the technique in more detail,
will be published shortly.

High-resolution heavy mineral analysis
(HRHMA) is based on the recognition that the
majority of rock-forming and accessory minerals
show a wide diversity of size, habit, colour,
internal structure, chemistry and optical proper-
ties, controlled principally by specific conditions
during crystallization. Since a wide range of
lithologies provide detritus to siliciclastic sedi-
ments, their heavy mineral assemblages are
complex and an individual heavy mineral species
may comprise several kinds of varieties, each
preserving a different genetic and/or sedimento-
logical history.
The technique
Principles and practice
HRHMA records diagnostic varieties of indivi-
dual heavy minerals, thus the number of
variables is significantly higher compared to
those of a simple, species-level, analysis. Distin-
guishing the varietal types of the chemically
highly resistant minerals, such as zircon,
tourmaline and, when suitable, apatite prove
most rewarding since they are ubiquitous and
remain stable during diagenesis. Therefore,
HRHMA is especially useful in the study of
sediments from which the diagnostic but
chemically unstable species were eliminated by
post-depositional dissolution, leaving a residue
of ultrastable zircon + tourmaline + rutile +
apatite (Mange & Maurer 1992). An important
advantage of this technique is that, because it
deals with each particular species, the influence
of modifying factors [especially hydraulic and
diagenetic (Morton 1985)] is considerably
reduced. In addition to core samples, HRHMA
can be successfully applied to cuttings.
Variables are based on grain morphology,
colour, internal structure, etc. The measurement
of grain shape (degree of roundness and
sphericity) is a standard sediment petrological
procedure and is an important part in the
description of sedimentary textures. It has been
in general use since the 1930s (Wadell 1935;
Cailleux 1947, 1952; Powers 1953, 1982; Pryor
1971; Pettijohn et al. 1973). Colour varieties,
especially those of zircon, can be provenance-
diagnostic; for example, Mackie (1923) and
Tomita (1954) successfully traced sediments to
respective parent lithologies by using purple
zircon varieties. Structural types of zircon
(showing either euhedral zoning or overgrowth,
etc.) are significant since they are linked to
specific parageneses (Speer 1980).
In the present case, zircon, tourmaline and
apatite varieties were distinguished. The most
informative morphological categories range
from sharp euhedral (such as zircon) or pris-
matic crystals with sharp terminations (e.g.
tourmaline, apatite) through rounded prisms,
subrounded morphologies to well-rounded and
spherical grains. Zircons exhibiting zoning or
overgrowth were recorded separately. The col-
ourless and pink to purple zircon types were also
allocated into separate categories. During ana-
lysis the total of 100 varietal grains for each
species were point counted and then recalculated
into relative percentages.
Application
The Triassic continental red beds of the Central
Graben of the North Sea - Quadrants 22 and
29, UK, and Quadrants 6 and 7, Norway (Fig. 1)
- a r e lithologically monotonous and comprise
alternations of dominantly red mudstones,
siltstones and sandstones, representative of
alluvial fan, fluvial, sabkha and lacustrine

From Dunay, R. E. & Hailwood, E. A. (eds), 1995, Non-biostratigraphical Methods of Dating and Correlation 23
Geological Society Special Publication No. 89, pp. 23-30
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SAO PAULO on August 21, 2020

24 M.A. MANGE-RAJETZKY
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the analysed wells.

environments, with occasional marine incursions have long been a problem, compounded by their
near to the base. The succession is rarely poor biostratigraphic record.
complete and thickness is extremely variable. Triassic stratigraphy of the central and north-
This is due both to variation in the initial ern North Sea is based on the lithostratigraphy
depositional thickness as a result of accommo- established for geographical areas (Deagan &
dation space available at a particular location, Skull 1977) and subsequently modified by well
controlled by salt-related tectonics (Hodgson et data (Vollset & Dor6 1984; Lervik et al. 1989;
al. 1992), and to erosion due to extensive middle Fisher & Mudge 1990; Cameron 1993). Dating
Jurassic uplift. Their subdivision and correlation the sequences still involves a great deal of
 Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ at CAPES-UNIVERSIDADE DE
SAO PAULO on August 21, 2020
HIGH-RESOLUTION HEAVY MINERAL ANALYSIS
CONVENTIONAL HEAVY MINERAL ANALYSIS,
CUMULATIVE HEAVY MINERAL COMPOSITION,
REFERENCE W E L L 22/24b-5
300 feet
m transitional and commences with a laterally
Apatite Zircon Tourmaline Rutile Chr.spinel. monazitr
~aaurolite
Fig. 2. Heavy mineral spectrum of reference Well 22/
24b-5 using conventional heavy mineral analysis.
uncertainty, though recently in the south Central
Graben palynomorphs have been successfully
integrated into a refined lithostratigraphy (Gold-
smith et al. 1995).
Earlier heavy mineral analyses are found
mostly in confidential oil company reports.
These were employed to provide the clues on
provenance and to establish some kind of heavy
mineral stratigraphy. Jeans et al. (1993) at-
tempted to construct a heavy mineral stratigra-
phy in the UK Triassic (Western Approaches,
onshore England and the central North Sea).
They included several wells from Quadrants 22
and 29 in order to facilitate correlation and to
detect the regional extent of particular heavy
mineral assemblages. Since all these analyses
were limited to species level, the potential of
H R H M A was not tested.
The low resolution of conventional, species-
level analysis, as applied to highly mature
25
assemblages (using the 0.063-0.210mm size
fraction) is depicted in Fig. 2: the apatite-
dominated heavy mineral spectrum of reference
Well 22/24b-5 shows no visible mineralogical
markers and negligible overall variations in
the relative proportions of individual species.
HRHMA, on the same sequence of samples, has
provided a strikingly different picture when the
cumulative percentages of zircon, tourmaline
and apatite varieties and ratios of heavy mineral
pairs were plotted against depth (Fig. 3). This
figure reveals that the heavy mineral varieties of
these seemingly monotonous red beds change
systematically, thus permitting the establishment
of subdivisions, termed heavy mineral zones.
Subdivisions
The Triassic sequences in Quadrant 22 comprise
three major, well-constrained heavy mineral
zones (SB, M and A). These can be subdivided
into subzones. Figure 4, showing the occurrence
of tourmaline varieties, illustrates these zones
and their lateral continuity: (1) The lower (Zone
SB) contains monotonous, polycyclic suites
typified by the extreme roundness of apatite. It
is laterally extensive and corresponds to the
Smith Bank Formation. The overlying se-
quences represent the Skagerrak Formation;
(2) The middle zone (Zone M) is generally
widespread lower part, characterized by uniform
mineralogy (subzone q), but the grains are less
rounded than below. The simple, uniform suites
of the lower portion of this zone evolve into
higher diversity assemblages, substantiating
further subdivisions (e.g. subzones d, c, etc.).
The varietal composition of the uppermost part
(subzone b), distinguished by the appearance of
sharp prismatic tourmaline and further reduced
apatite roundness, is particularly important.
These assemblages are precursors of a significant
change, detected in the top interval. (3) The
upper zone (Zone A) is highlighted by a
contrasting varietal spectrum. At its lower
boundary all varietal patterns change dramati-
cally with the abrupt increase in abundance of
the first cycle grains. The horizon at the base of
Zone A can be traced from well to well, thus
providing a basin-wide Marker Horizon (MH).
The well analysed in Quadrant 29 and wells in
Quadrant 7 in the Norwegian sector comprise
only two major divisions. The upper interval
(Zone A), bounded by the MH, corresponds to
that of Quadrant 22, but in the sequences below
Zone A only individual heavy mineral zones can
be delineated. Their mineralogy differs from that
in Quadrant 22 since they frequently contain
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26 M.A. MANGE-RAJETZKY

HIGH R E S O L U T I O N H E A V Y M I N E R A L A N A L Y S I S
REFERENCE WELL

22/24b-5
VARIETIES OF RATIOS OF
TOURMALINE ZIRCON APATITE ZIRCON/TOURMALINE APATITE MORPHOLOGICAL TYPES
Rounded&S pberlcall/ itounckd/
APATITE/ZIRCON ZIRCON/RUTILE RdcLprlsm~&~ubrdd.Spherical
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.:.az

M H Marker Horizon L E G E N D

Tourmalines Zircons
AngularI P r i ~ t i c ~LXXXX.~prxsrnR~ ~ Subromadcd[ ~ Roundedl E ~ b ~ &-~ A n h e ~ a l ~ R~adlCXlms[~pR?n~l~rp~ [ ~ Z ~

Apatites
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& .toundcdlSub~oundr : : :: ] Roundcd~[~ Sphcrical
prtsms ~ i. 9 i ,~ ~ -

Fig. 3. Results of HRHMA, reference Well 22/24b-5, indicating heavy mineral zones and subzones and the
position of the Marker Horizon.

first-cycle suites. unit can be determined by detailed logging of

In the Marnock Field of the north Central core, it is not easily distinguishable on wireline
Graben high-quality reservoir sandstones, de- logs (Cameron 1993).
posited at the top of the Skagerrak Formation The recognition of Zone A, with the Marker
during the late Triassic (Norian to Rhaetian), Horizon at its base, in and beyond the Marnock
are informally termed the Marnock Sandstone Field, amplifies the value of HRHMA. This
unit (Hodgson et al. 1992; Cameron 1993). method, by revealing mineralogically distinct
Varietal signatures of the analysed sandstones intervals, has thus provided both a framework
from this field unequivocally identify this unit as for lithostratigraphic subdivision and a potential
the mineralogically distinct and laterally wide- aid for the correlation of relevant zones, either
spread Zone A, with highly significant implica- on a local or on a basin-wide scale. Provenance-
tions, since its base is defined by mineralogical controlled fundamental changes in mineralogy
criteria as the MH. Although the base of this also pinpoint correlatable mineralogical markers.
Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ at CAPES-UNIVERSIDADE DE
SAO PAULO on August 21, 2020

27

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 Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ at CAPES-UNIVERSIDADE DE
SAO PAULO on August 21, 2020
28 M.A. MANGE-RAJETZKY
Whereas in the south Central Graben the
Skagerrak Formation is subdivided into widely
correlatable sandstone and mudstone members
(Goldsmith et al. 1995), this has not been
possible in the north Central Graben. As
recounted above, however, results of H R H M A
now provide a framework within which subdivi-
sions can be made and this is particularly
important for the thick Zone M. Until H R H M A
has been carried out in the south Central Graben
the provenance and lithostratigraphic relation-
ships of the two groups of Skagerrak Formation
sediments are unlikely to be resolved.
Correlation
Well-to-well correlation of particular zones was
achieved by comparing the varietal patterns and
changes in the distributional trends of particular
heavy mineral ratios with the wireline log motifs.
An example for confident correlation using
heavy mineral varieties is shown by the tourma-
line patterns in Fig. 4.
Two distinct correlations are evident; the first
relates to the upper zone (Zone A) whereas the
second connects the underlying intervals: (1)
Zone A has been recognized in the majority of
wells and forms a mineralogically fully-con-
strained interval. It can be correlated basin-
wide. In Quadrant 22 and in Well 6/3-1 subzone
q of Zone M (evolving from Zone SB) and
subzone b (underlying the MH) can be corre-
lated across several wells. Other subzones (e.g. c
and d) have a more limited extent. (2) The lower
zones in Quadrant 22 and in Well 6/3-1 differ
from those in Quadrant 29 and Quadrant 7
(Norwegian sector), and consequently cannot be
correlated with them.
Evolution and provenance
The threefold character of the most complete
sequences in Quadrant 22 indicates three phases
of sedimentation:
(1) The Smith Bank Formation was deposited
in a low energy environment. The wide
spatial distribution and homogenization of
the fine to very fine grained detritus
suggests occasional distal sheet floods. Its
polycyclic aspect indicates reworking of
mature pre-existing sediments. High spheri-
city of the grains, many with a 'frosted'
appearance, signal that aeolian (probably
marginal Permian) deposits could be im-
portant contributors.
(2) In the lower subzones of Zone M of the
Skagerrak Formation sedimentation corn-
menced with limited internal drainage
which progressively evolved into a higher
energy fluvial regime. This is deduced from
the upwards increase in mineralogical
diversity and enhanced spatial variations.
In the lower part of the sequence the main
source of the detritus was intrabasinal,
probably derived from fault scarps, intra-
basinal highs and, occasionally, from mar-
ginal areas such as the East Shetland
Platform and adjacent contemporary ex-
posures (containing pre-Triassic sediments,
metasediments and ophiolites of the Cale-
donides). The variations observed in the
different wells can be interpreted in terms
of separate systems with varying energies
operating at different periods, frequent
intrabasinal reworking and local tectonic
movements. Mineral signatures of subzone
b (Fig. 4) and its broader spatial extent
point to an expanding drainage network,
reaching distant primary lithologies. This
stage is seen as being the precursor of an
event that caused widespread modifications
in palaeogeography.
(3) The dramatic change at the MH and the
broad basin-wide continuity of Zone A
represent an event which occurred on a
regional scale. By the late Triassic the
northward drift of continents caused a
change from a semi-arid to a semi-humid
climate. Tectonic pulses initiated uplift in
Scandinavia and Greenland (Ziegler 1978;
Jacobsen & van Veen 1984). Prior to these
changes transport of material from Scan-
dinavia was inhibited by low energy con-
ditions, the existence of intrabasinal highs
and marginal sub-basins adjacent to the
Fenno-Skandian Shield. By Zone A time,
increased run-off and basin configuration
permitted the expansion of transport paths
as far as the Fenno-Scandian complexes,
thereby diluting the previously dominant
intrabasinal polycyclic suites with abun-
dant first-cycle minerals. The broad spatial
dispersal of the first-cycle detritus, shown
by the lateral continuity of Zone A, was
promoted by a well-established fluvial
system.
Sand provenance in the lower zones in Quadrant
29 and Quadrant 7 (Norwegian sector) share
common characteristics, indicated by the fre-
quent presence of first-cycle material. However,
there is a dissimilarity between Quadrants
29 + Norwegian sector 7 and Q u a d r a n t s
22 + Well 6/3-1 in the interval below the MH,
which suggests that the two groups of sediments
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SAO PAULO on August 21, 2020
HIGH-RESOLUTION HEAVY MINERAL ANALYSIS
were the products of separate depositional
systems. These may have existed at different
times and were confined to different structural
settings.
Concluding remarks on the applicability of
HRHMA
The use of this technique has provided remark-
ably good results for a variety of sedimentary
formations, the majority of which were prob-
lematical. In massive structureless turbidite
sequences (Witch Ground Graben, North Sea),
a heavy mineral stratigraphy and well-to-well
correlation has been successfully established. In
addition, varietal signatures have revealed the
existence of different fan systems, fed from
contrasting sources (Mange et al., unpublished
work). A similarly good resolution has been
achieved for Rotliegend sediments (Mange,
confidential data). Here boundaries of heavy
mineral zones, erected independently, were
found not only to coincide accurately with
lithostratigraphic units, identified by the inter-
pretation of electric logs, but also formed
discrete zones within these major divisions.
Facies changes were also highlighted by differ-
ences in the varietal spectra.
The wealth of informative data obtained by
using H R H M A ensures that the extent of
subjectivity involved in this technique (mainly
the definition of morphological and colour
categories) is minimal, and is negligible when
compared to the complexity of information it
yields. H R H M A is internally consistent, adds
versatility and sophistication to conventional
heavy mineral analysis, permits subdivision and
correlation of monotonous, biostratigraphically
barren siliciclastic sequences and complements
facies analysis. It can also indicate changes in
sedimentary processes, in suitable cases it
provides information on dating, assists in
differentiation and/or identification of submar-
ine fans and always helps reconstructing prove-
nance.
This work benefited from stimulating discussions with
Harold G. Reading, Philip A. Allen and David T.
Wright. Steve Wyatt's continued help and assistance in
the laboratory is highly appreciated.
Permission to use heavy mineral data was granted
by Shell UK Exploration and Production, Esso
Exploration and Production UK Limited, BP Ex-
ploration, BP Norway, Agip UK, Mobil North Sea
Limited, Monument Oil and Gas and ARCO British
Limited, all of whom the author gratefully acknowl-
edges. The opinions expressed here are those of the
author and do not necessarily reflect those of
companies involved in supplying material.
29
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