Chapter 5
1 Introduction
The Research Proposal
Focus: In this chapter, you will gain knowledge on the basics of
research proposal writing. Preparation of a good research
proposal increases the chance for project approval and, possibly,
funding support. Writing the proposal ensures that a well
thought out plan for the conduct of the research study or project
exists prior to actual project implementation.
The Research Proposal formally describes the proposed solution to the
identified real life problem. It is the embodiment of the research design, and
should therefore be able to show, among others,
1. the relationships of the variables used for the project;
2. how the basic principle of research design are applied; and
3. the structure or organization of experimental units.
Contents of the Research Proposal
There is no fixed formula for planning the research design, but when it comes
to communicating and presenting the Research Proposal, there is a structure
that must be followed in terms of the chapters that compose the document.
These are:
 Introduction
o Background of the Study
o Statement of the Problem
o Significance of the Study
o Scope and Limitations of the Study
 Review of Related Literature
 Materials and Methods
 Bibliography
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5.
The Introduction section of the research paper provides the reader with an
overview of the research project. After the Abstract, it is the next part of the
paper that a reader will check in order to obtain a summary of the research
project or study. It is divided into four sections:
 Background of the Study explains why the project is being
undertaken. The identified real life problem is defined in this
section.
 Statement of the Problem states the solution being proposed, in
the form of major and specific objectives.
 Significance of the Study highlights the impact that the project
will have on humans, society and/or the environment.
 Scope and Limitations provides a perspective on assumptions
made before doing the project, as well as the extent of
experimentation and testing to be done.
The divisions allow the reader to easily choose which part of the project s/he
is most concerned about.
Background of the Study
To be able to appreciate the value of your research, a reader will want to
understand first why you chose a particular research project. The Background
of the Study provides the reader with the following information:
 The circumstances that suggested the research study undertaken,
which may include the following:
o An insight on how the project came about;
o Perhaps a historical summary of events that would explain
the origin of the problem; or
o An account of previous or past works (if any) that would
update the reader on current developments in the specific
field of study being undertaken in the investigation.
  The real life problem that the project will be addressing. This is the
unanswered question in the mind of the researcher, or a perceived
need that has not been addressed satisfactorily before, if at all.
o It should be as specific as possible in order to allow easier
definition of the project’s objectives and scope;
o If the project aims to come up with a modification to an old
system, the flaws of the old system/product should be
pointed out.
In this section, details that have direct bearing on the project being proposed
should not be included. There should be no reference to the proposed project,
even indirectly.
The following example shows the project task as the setting up of a system
that would allow remote control of a microscope (adapted from Sanchez,
Baello, Lorilla, and Estornino, 1998). The real life problem, which is the lack
of off-site analysis of patient specimens by medical experts, is implied when
the reason for doing the project is stated. The minor, or specific, objectives
are stated in the form of expected performances of parts of the system.
Determination of the project’s success would be based on whether the stated
functional objectives are met or not. It shows that the success of the project
hinges on being able to (1) electronically control the microscope via the
computer, (2) create a user-friendly software , and (3) remotely control the
microscope from another computer in a network.

Statement of the Problem

The Statement of the Problem is actually a description of what the proponents
are attempting to do (project task) in order to solve the real life problem. No
background information should be mentioned in this section. There are two
main parts:
 The Major Objective
o Should address the real life problem that was stated in the
Background of the Study section of the paper;
o Should state what the researchers plan to do (the project
task) in order to address the real life problem; Significance of the Study
o Normally starts with, “The project aims to,” followed by the A research project does not just answer questions or solve identified
project task, then the connection of the project task to the real problems. There has to be a reason why you want a question answered or a
life problem. problem solved. That is, you need to be able to justify why the problem
 The Minor Objectives investigated is important.

o May be stated in the form of specific tasks, in keeping with
the tone of the proposed solution; or in the form of expected
outcomes or performance of the parts of the system;
o Should state expected measurable and/or observable
outcomes of the research that would indicate the success of
the project.
The Significance of the Study section
 Includes a statement of the project’s relevance to felt societal or
human needs, and its potential contribution to new knowledge and
policy implications;
 Mentions what good the project can do directly or indirectly for
humans, or for the environment (which affects humans, too). That is,

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 this section should ideally identify the target sector of society that
will benefit from the new system or research results.
NOTE: Do not come up with just a single significance. Surely, there are
minor benefits that can be had from the project if it is really worth
doing.
Scope and Limitations
The Scope and Limitations section of the proposal provides a brief description
of what you will do (scope), and what you will not do (limitations) in the
study to be conducted. That is, the section
 identifies the specific samples (e.g. species of organism), and the
treatments to be used
 mentions the intended use of any existing theories, methodologies or
technologies
 acknowledges where experimentation and testing will be conducted
 states any existing limitations in the nature and the amount of the
samples
 describes treatments that may be done but will not be covered in the
project
 manages the expectations of the reader in terms of limitations in
procedures and tests that will be conducted
Writing Tips
To come up with a good Introduction, consider the following writing tips:
 Contents of the Introduction should be as short as possible. Go
straight to the point. Do not use unnecessary words, or very lengthy
explanations.
 Make sure that each section contains only the intended information.
The reason for dividing it into four sections is so that the reader can
go to whatever part s/he chooses to read when looking for particular
information.
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 Be careful about the use of tenses in writing the Introduction part of
your research proposal –
o The Background of the Study should be in the past and/or
present progressive tense;
o The Statement of the Problem should be in the future tense;
o The Significance of the Study is stated in the present and/or
future tense;
o The Scope and Limitations is stated in the future tense.
5.2 Review of Related Literature
The Review of Related Literature (RRL) is an exhaustive search of existing
written, preferably published, materials on topics related to the project.
Preparing the RRL enables the researcher to formulate the methods and
procedures for the project. When you search for literature on your project,
you want to find out what has been done, and what concepts and procedures
exist that could be used as part of the solution to the real life problem under
study.
The RRL is not compiled only for your use, but also for the benefit of other
researchers and lay persons who may be interested in the research study
topic.
There are at least four main categories of information that should be present
in an RRL:
1. General information – basic concepts and background information
about the project that would make the readers
 understand what the project is about, and
 appreciate the significance/importance of the project.
2. Theoretical and technical concepts – scientific or technical theories
and facts that
 provide credibility to the solution proposed,
 substantiate existing facts,
 help clarify inconsistencies, and
 fill in the existing gaps in the knowledge of the researcher.
 3. Procedures and processes – existing technologies and methods that
have been used or discovered for projects of a similar nature, that
 provide insights as to how similar problematic situations
were resolved in the past, and
 present new ideas and approaches that had not occurred to
the researcher.
4. Past researches and current works – reports of works of a similar
nature as that of the proposed project that
 ascertain the extent of work done on the same area, thus
avoiding duplication, and
 justify the need for new or further investigation by showing
that a gap in this field of study exists that your research
hopes to fill.
Coverage of Topics
Make sure that your RRL contains topics that would provide relevant
information on the various aspects of your project. Use the following to
verify if you enough topics to address the important issues that may be asked
about your project:
 Regarding the real life problem and the background of the study,
 Are there facts that show the existence of the problem?
 Did you include general information about the main topic of
the problem? There should be literature that would help any
reader who not familiar with the subject understand what
the project is all about.
 If there are some nice-to-know topics, do they contribute to
the appreciation of the project’s significance?
 Are the latest developments in the project’s field of study
included?
 Did you do an exhaustive search for literature on past and
current projects related to the currently proposed project,
and include the more relevant ones in your write-up?
 About the proposed solution,
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 Can you cite sources or provide evidence of existing theories
that will show that the proposed solution is feasible?
 Is there ample explanation of the theory behind the major
solution so that a person who is not familiar with the topic of
the project will be able to understand how your solution
works?
 Will you be able to substantiate your choice of experimental
and control treatments?
 Standard procedures that may be used, with their merits of
usability in the research are discussed.
 On the procedures and processes employed during project
implementation,
 If you are using live experimental subjects, or are dealing
with chemicals, do you have enough information on the
proper handling of the specimens and/or solutions?
 Can you present existing options for the methods of
treatment application, and be able to cite literature that
would justify your choice of methodology?
 Are all literature on processes that are included in the write-
up necessary or somewhat important for the formation of the
project’s methodology.
Presentation of Topics
Having a complete range of topics and being able to present them in such a
way that the reader can understand them, as well as stand to read them, is
equally important when writing the RRL. Once you have gathered all the
information needed, make sure that:
 The topics are arranged from general to specific.
 The topics are divided into subsections so that it is easy to determine
the flow of discussion by just looking at the section labels.
 The topics are cohesively discussed. One topic leads to another
smoothly; the relationship of a succeeding topic to the previous one
is apparent; there is a logical flow of information.
  All topics included in the write-up are essential for understanding
the project.
 The words used in the write-up are simple and easy to understand. If
there are some technical words, they are defined.
 Proper citation of sources is done whenever necessary.
 Figures and tables are used to enhance the explanations whenever
applicable.
 All figures and tables used (if any) are properly labeled, and are
actually referred to in at least one part of the text.
5.3 Materials and Methods
The Materials and Methods section of the research proposal provides, in as
much detail as possible, a step-by-step description of how the research will be
conducted.
Three Major Phases in a Research Project
3.
A research project, to be systematically and thoroughly addressed, should be
broken down into smaller, more manageable tasks or activities. These
activities may, in general, be classified into three major phases:
1. Preparation of Experimental Units – All preliminary activities
concerning the experimental units prior to experimentation fall under
this phase of the project. Experimental units could be plants, animals
or inanimate objects. Preparatory activities may include
procurement, doing local control, sampling, and propagation of
subjects.
variation of physical conditions. Examples of treatment preparation
activities are procurement of materials, extraction of chemicals,
concoction of treatment substances, cultivation of live specimens, and
setting up of testing apparatus.
Treatment, for technical researches, is usually in the form of various
tests performed on the new product or system. Changing the input
constitutes variation in treatment. When preparing for
experimentation therefore, activities to be included are treatment
determination, and local control of treatments.
In the case of descriptive or observational researches there is no
control treatment, but the observations should be based on at least
two factors which may be considered as the experimental treatments.
In any case, the selection of the factors which will constitute the
variant in the sets of observations in considered as an activity under
the Preparation of Treatments.
Experimentation and Data Gathering – Actual experimentation
consists of administering the treatments to the experimental units.
Data gathering could occur during the course of treatment, after
treatment, or both.
In technical researches, since a new product or system is the output
of the Preparation-of-Experimental-Units phase, Experimentation
and Data Gathering is normally referred to as “Testing and
Evaluation”. The experimentation part actually consists of using the
various inputs for testing, and the data gathered refers to the
generated responses of the product or system during testing.

In technical researches where the product or system itself may be
considered as the experimental unit, preparation covers the design
and construction of the device or system. Note that in a lot of cases,
procurement of existing similar products or systems to which the
invention is being compared may be necessary. These are classified
as the experimental units in the control setup.
2. Preparation of Treatments – Treatment of experimental units could
be in the form of biological application, chemical application or
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In observational researches, experimentation is not actually achieved
since manipulation of variables is done only as far as choosing the
factors that will constitute the variant between two or more sets of
observations.
Each activity in a research project should have a well-defined set of the
outcomes that will indicate if it has been successfully completed or not. After
every activity has been completed, assessing how well the project is
progressing by checking up on your accomplishments will help you decide flowchart is an overview of the discussion to come. Do not place too many
on any adjustments that will have to be done, if necessary. details about how the project will be conducted. The Process Flowchart is not a
step-by-step guide to doing the project.
The Process Flowchart
Helpful Tips in Formulating the Process Flowchart
A Process Flowchart is a visual representation of the major processes to be
done in the project. It helps in defining the flow of execution of the project 1. Avoid having two consecutive processes in the flowchart on the same
during the planning stages, and serves as an overview of the methodology branch. Merged into one process if possible.
before reading about the details of execution.
Processes that should be included in the Process Flowchart should therefore
number at least three, based on the three major phases.

NOTE that “Procurement” is inherent to being able to produce the

mango seed flour, so it is not necessary to include it as a separate
step.
2. Use process labels that are descriptive of the task to be done. The
process label should be a name of the procedure; it should not sound
like a narration of a procedure, nor should it be stated like an
instruction for the reader to follow.
The final appearance of the process flowchart will be like a tree. The starting
activities are the branches, with all branches eventually merging towards one
final activity. BAD LABELS GOOD LABELS

Prepare the Nanoparticle Solution Preparation of the Nanoparticle Solution

Biscuits will be baked Baking of Biscuits

Observing the Current and Observation of the Current

Voltage Output and Voltage Output

3. Try to limit the total number of branches to four. A project usually

The trick to coming up with a good flowchart is to represent only those
activities which are vital to the success of the project. Bear in mind that the
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has several activities that may be started simultaneously. A
flowchart may therefore have a number of branches that is equivalent
to the number of independent processes that may be started
simultaneously. Caution should be exercised, however, in having
too many activities started simultaneously.
 4. Arrange the processes so that the first activity that will be done is
represented on the upper left hand side. Naturally, the preparation
of the experimental units and the treatments will be the first to be
done. It does not matter if the treatments are prepared first, or the
experimental units. Usually, the process that needs a longer time to
perform is started first, hence it is placed on the left.
5. Routine procedures such as local control, replication, and
randomization, and other activities that take up only a few minutes
to an hour to perform are usually not worthy to be mentioned as a
process.
6. “Procurement” is a step that is included in the Process Flowchart only
when it is about an existing product that will be used for control
setups. If the materials to be procured will be used as ingredients or
components to a formulated solution, do not include it in the
processes to be represented.
7. “Data Gathering” is a procedure that is not separately represented if
it is done during the experimentation proper. If done separately after
treatment, use a label that is indicative of the data to be gathered for
the project.
8. The representation of the processes should be as simple as possible.
Do not use fancy boxes to enclose the process labels in. Simple
square boxes will do.
9. Use flow lines that are either horizontal or vertical. Having diagonal
lines makes the flowchart look messy.
10. Make sure you use a sans serif font that is readable, and consistent in
size and type for the entire flowchart.
 All processes represented in the flowchart are independent of
other processes in the sense that combining them would remove
an important part of the project.
 If the research is about the development of a new product or
system, all parts of the device, technique, or process that can be
done independently have separate design-and-implementation
processes; with the last process being about testing and
evaluation of the new product or system.
 The process labels are specific enough to represent the project’s
activities, without being mistaken as belonging to any other
project.
 Each process label is stated so that it serves as a name of a
procedure. It does not sound like a narration of a procedure, nor
is it stated like an instruction for the reader to follow.
 The sequencing of the processes is clearly indicated. Arrow lines
clearly indicate which processes are needed before another
process is executed.
 There are no diagonal lines in the flowchart.
 A sans serif font of the same type and size is used throughout the
entire flowchart.
 The final flowchart looks like a tree, with all branches ultimately
converging downwards towards a single process.

Use the following checklist to see if your Process Flowchart will do:
 All the three phases are represented:
 Preparation of Experimental Units
 Preparation of Treatments
 Experimentation and Data Gathering

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Write-up of the Methodology
After establishing the major phases of the project’s execution, a detailed
discussion should follow. The write-up of the methodology should describe
in sufficient detail the procedures to be employed in the research. Should a
reader decide to conduct the experiment himself, provided that all materials
are at hand, he should be able to do so by simply following what is described
in the write-up.
Sequencing of Discussions
The sequence of discussion of the methodology more or less follows the
flowchart. This is why it is important to have a good graphical
representation of the major activities in the project before a discussion is
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done. The coherence of the discussion will depend largely on how well the
flowchart is organized.
Here are some rules that you may follow:
1. Logically, discussion should start from the process on the upper left
hand side of the flowchart, moving to the next process down the line.
2. Move to the right, instead of downward, only when the succeeding
process needs another process to be completed before it can begin.
3. Finish the discussion on all connected processed on one side of the
flowchart before moving on to the right.
In the following example, both A and B must be discussed before C; but
before moving down to F, D and E need to be tackled first. The entire left
branch (A-B-C) is traversed before proceeding with the discussion on the
right branches (D and E).
A B D E
F
Writing the Methodology
Describing how a procedure will be done entails providing, in paragraph
form, details such as the materials and equipment that will be used, processes
that will be applied, method of data collection, duration of treatments and
observation, and the plan for validating the results.
To be considered as a well-prepared methodology,
 all stated processes, equipment, and materials should conform to
accepted scientific standards;
  application of the basic principles of research design (local control,
replication and randomization) must be established;
 the choice of experimental treatments should have a logical, sound
basis;
 control treatments should be present, making use of both negative
and positive control setups whenever possible;
 the described method of data collection should include details on
when observations will be done, how often, and what type of data
will be collected; and
 the planned method of validation for establishing significant
differences in the of the results should clearly indicate the
relationship of the experimental treatments’ and the control
treatments’ data.
A correct methodology should be able to address the specific objectives set at
the start of the study. This will allow you to systematically answer the
overall research problem.
Here are some helpful tips in writing the methodology:
1. Label various parts of your methodology write-up. A length of
continuous text that covers more than three-fourths of a page in
double spacing is difficult to follow. When writing your
methodology, you have to divide the work into smaller chunks and
tackle each one separately. Just like in the Review of Related Literature,
a reader should be able to follow the sequence of steps in the
execution of the project by looking at the section labels.
2. Each process in the flowchart usually (but not always) corresponds
to a section in the write-up of the methodology. Instances when
this does not apply are when necessary distinctions of treatment
preparations are done in the flowchart. Sometimes, descriptions of
processes in the flowchart are too small to warrant being placed in
separate sections, so they are combined into one segment when the
write-up is done.
3. Sometimes, before the methods are discussed part by part, a
summary of the entire methodology may be done. This provides the
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user with an idea on how the major phases depicted in the process
flowchart are related to one another.
4. Do not discuss materials gathering as one separate section in the
Materials and Methods even if it is sometimes indicated in the
process flowchart. The inclusion of this phase in the flowchart only
signifies that this procedure does take time, and that it is a
consideration when planning for the schedule of activities.
5. Specify the amount and type of materials to be used, whenever
applicable. Materials are a necessary part of any procedure. They
are used for treatment preparation as raw materials or chemical
additives, as part of a device that will be constructed, as experimental
units, as measuring devices, or as containers. Materials could be
tangible, or such as chemicals and biological agents. Intangible
materials are theoretical model components. Examples are
characteristics of objects or entities that will be used as input to a
computer software, and mathematical variables.
a. Chemical components of a mixture normally have a defined
specific value and unit of measurement in the proposal stage.
Both the name and the formula of each chemical to be used
should be indicated together when first mentioned.
Subsequent mentions should use consistently either the
formula or the name.
b. Biological components differ highly in specifications. Raw
materials used for treatment preparations are usually
quantified, but in the case of microorganisms approximate
amounts are used.
c. When constructing a device, material specifications and exact
dimensions may be hard to fix during the proposal stage.
Criteria and considerations for selection of materials,
structural characteristics of the finished product, and/or
other engineering concepts intended for application in the
project are instead discussed.
d. Sources of materials are mentioned if obtained from special
places or establishments such as faraway locations,
institutions, and laboratories. Names of commercial
 establishments are not normally mentioned, unless the assume that the distribution of the treatments to the different
establishment specializes in the obtained material. experimental subjects will be done randomly. A mere mention of the
number of experimental units from each block that will be assigned a
6. Procedures should be described so that the reader will be able to
particular treatment will be enough.
create a mental picture of how a process will be performed. In
some cases, simple words such as pouring and stirring are sufficient 12. Always deal with facts. Do not inject your own opinion or analysis.
to convey the actions. Sometimes, however, qualified actions such Present only what is observable, proven true, or presented by an
are “gradually pouring” and “stirring in one direction only” are expert. All decisions favoring one option over another should be
necessary. based on information from a credible source.
7. When using standard or previously established procedures, there is 13. Use a more formal style of writing. Formality lends an air
no need to describe the process in detail. A reference may simply objectivity in a write-up.
be made to process that is described in the Review of Related Literature
a. Always write in a passive, participative voice to maintain
(RRL), citing th author and the process. In the case of well-known
formality. Not using personal pronouns and similar
standard procedures such as a “Soxhlet extraction,” or complicated
references projects objectivity.
processes such as the “use of an Atomic Absorption
b. Avoid wordiness. Omit unnecessary words; shorten wordy
Spectrophotometer,” inclusion of the procedure in the RRL is not
phrases.
even necessary.
c. Do not use slang and contractions.
8. Special institutions and laboratories used as a place of work should
be cited. In the course of experimentation or fabrication of devices, d. Numbers should be written as numerals when they are
establishments outside of the school and home that have been used greater than ten, or when they are associated with
as a place of work should be mentioned. measurements.

9. Choose your words carefully. Use simple but accurate descriptions Examples: 6 mm
2g
of objects and actions. Avoid the use of highly technical terms. Some
two explanations
words, although they have the same meanings, are not appropriate six factors
for certain situations. Read about the topic extensively to determine 100 people
which terminologies are best employed for certain situations.
e. When one list includes numbers where some are over ten
10. Don’t be too obvious about showing how the basic principles of while others are under ten, all numbers in the list may be
research design are applied in the project. You do not need to expressed as numerals.
specifically state that a particular part of the procedure describes how
Example: 17 bananas, 13 mice and 2 dogs
local control will be done, or how randomization will be applied.
These principles are supposed to be an inherent part of the process, f. Never start a sentence with numerals. Spell out all numbers
so it should be conveyed; not stated. that begin sentences (as well as the measurement unit if the
number is associated with measurements).
11. There is no need to describe how randomization procedure will be
done. If correct local control has been established, it will be safe to Wrong: Eight mg of NaCl will be used as the starting amount.

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 8 mg of NaCl will be used as the starting amount.
Correct: Eight millimeters of rain was observed.
Wrong: 79 mice will be fed with rice grains.
Correct: Seventy-nine mice will fed with rice grains.
Application of Research Design
To determine if the process descriptions in the Materials and Methods section
fit accepted standards, check that this section of the research proposal has:
 identified the control (negative and positive controls, if
appropriate) and the experimental treatment/s used
 listed the variables included in the study: independent
(manipulated factors), dependent (responding factors), extraneous
(constant factors)
 identified the area of study, the research workplace, and the type
and source of equipment utilized
 specified the quantity, type, size, and source of material/s and
samples used
 detailed the sampling technique employed
 specified the measures taken to handle living organisms in a
humane and ethical manner while the project is ongoing, and after
project completion
 sequenced appropriately the processes in step-by-step,
chronological, detailed procedures (except in cases of standardized
analyses)
 explained the replication and the randomization processes utilized
 described the data-gathering procedures to be used
 specified the data-processing methods to be applied
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 explained how data validation will be done
 described the statistical tests to be applied on the data, if any, and
how the results of these tests will be used
 Addressed the hypotheses that you set out to test in the conduct of
your study (i.e. what you hypothesized that your study results
should prove)
5.4 Bibliography
The Bibliography is the last section in a scientific paper which lists all of the
published work that you cited in the text of your paper, as well as those
resources that you used in your research. Aside from being a list of all your
references, it also serves as a guide to the reader who wants to read more
about the subject matter.
This section is also referred to as the Reference List and is found at the end of
a scientific paper and the bibliographic entries are written in the prescribed
format. Different journal use different styles and formats for the
bibliographic references. The format commonly used in scientific papers is
the APA (American Psychological Association) format, although you should
consult your teacher regarding the format you should adopt for writing your
bibliography.
The APA Style
The format for references as prescribed by the APA is fully described in the
5th edition of the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association.
The APA manual contains guidelines for grammar, punctuation, and for
formatting references, statistics, tables, etc., as well as tips for writing and
formatting research papers. If you are unable to find a copy of the manual in
the library, information about the APA style is also available online (see
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl /resource/560/01/ or
http://www.apastyle.org).
Preparing the List of Bibliographical Entries
Basic guidelines
1. The Bibliography/References section is placed at the end of the paper.
It should begin on a new page with the title, “Bibliography”, bold-
faced and centered at the top of the page.
2. In general, you have to provide the following information regarding
any type of published work that you use as a reference:
a. Name of author/s
b. Date of publication
c. Title of Book/Article
d. Publication data
1) Title of Journal/Periodical
2) Volume number, Issue number, and Page numbers
3) Place of publication and Publisher
3. The bibliographic entries are to be arranged in alphabetical order.
Alphabetization is based on a letter-by-letter comparison of the
author’s last name, ignoring spaces and punctuation. In case the
author’s name is not known, alphabetize by the title, ignoring any
articles (i.e., A, An, or The) at the beginning of the title.
4. Each reference is written using double spacing, with no space
between entries.
5. For each entry, the first line is typed flush with the left margin, while
any succeeding lines are indented about a half inch (½”) from the left
margin. This is called a hanging indentation.
6. You should pay close attention to the way the information included
in the bibliographic entries are to be written:
a. NAMES
Each entry starts with the name/s of the author/s. Authors’
names are listed with the last name first, followed by the initials
of the first and middle names. If there is more than one author in
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a bibliographic entry, the succeeding names are written with the
first and middle initials first, followed by the author’s last name.
Write “and”, instead of using an ampersand (&), before the name
of the last author.
b. DATES
The date of publication follows the name of the author. For
books and journal articles, this pertains to the year of publication.
For periodicals and online resources, the complete dates are
written with the name of the month spelled out. You may use
either the month-day-year style (June 14, 2008) or the day-month-
year style (14 June 2008), but remember to be consistent with
whatever style you choose. Dates are enclosed in parentheses
and a period after the closing parenthesis.
c. TITLES
Sentence-style capitalization is used for the titles of books or
articles, i.e., only the first word in the title (and subtitle, if any) is
capitalized. Exceptions to this rule include journal and
periodical titles (which are written in title case) and proper
names.
Titles of books, journals and periodicals are italicized.
Historically, when papers were written by hand or using a
typewriter, the titles of publications were underlined. If you
were to write your entries by hand, you should still underline the
titles.