On The Measurement of Temperature in Material Removal Processes

1 2 3 1 1
M. A. Davies (2), T. Ueda(2) , R. M’Saoubi(2) , B. Mullany(3) , A. L. Cooke
1
Center for Precision Metrology, Department of Mechanical Engineering and Engineering Science,
University of North Carolina at Charlotte, Charlotte, NC
2
Kanazawa University, Japan
3
SECO Tools AB, Sweden

Abstract
Because it is key to understanding the performance of material removal processes and resultant workpiece quality, the
measurement of temperature during material removal is done extensively. We review several widely used temperature
measurement methods and show how they can be applied to temperature monitoring during material removal. Since there
is little documentation on measurement uncertainties as relates to material removal, this paper outlines the physics of
each method, detailing the sources and evaluation of uncertainty. Finally, using criteria critical in measuring material
removal, methods are compared, and the results presented in guide-format for participants in this field of work.

Keywords: Material Removal, Temperature, Measurement

measurements would benefit greatly from improved

1 INTRODUCTION
Since the goal of any material removal operation is a
component that consistently meets specifications, the
importance of measuring temperatures during these
operations and assessing their effects on both the
workpiece and the cutting edge of the tool has long been
appreciated (as in Taylor [197], Barrow [20], Komanduri
[85, 86]). While the primary reason for continued work on
temperature measurement is to improve the quality of the
finished workpiece, it can also help to predict tool wear
and aid in the development of predictive software
modeling. Furthermore, studies have shown that in
material removal processes, phenomena that can
degrade workpiece quality often follow an Arrhenius-type
(exponential) model implying that some otherwise
inconsistent behaviors can actually be attributed to
variations in temperature.
In material removal processes, temperature history is
directly related to part quality. On the down-side, it can
affect dimensional accuracy by causing subsurface
damage and introducing residual stresses. On the other
hand, if properly controlled, process heat can actually be
used to produce desirable workpiece surface hardening
[33]. However, in current manufacturing processes
temperature is still not easily measured or controlled.
For example, when coolants are used, many current
measurement methods do not apply.
Since diffusion, chemical reactions and thermal softening
depend exponentially on temperature, the productivity
and efficiency of material removal operations is adversely
affected by increased temperature. Wear of a cutting
edge and material diffusion are sensitive to small
changes in the local temperatures. Since temperatures
at the tool/workpiece interface increase with cutting
speed, the associated increase in wear is an important
consequence of exponentially activated mechanisms.
As an indirect result of accurately measuring
temperatures in material removal processes, computer
simulations of temperature fields can be improved to
include high spatial and temporal resolutions. However,
to validate measurement methods and models, the
uncertainties of both the predictions and the
measurements must be well quantified. Also, some well-
controlled material removal experiments and simulations
have been proposed to measure more basic “materials
properties” [184] that could be used in simulations of the
more complex operations on the shop floor. Such
temperature measurements [45, 46].
The primary impediment to the understanding of thermal
behavior in material removal is the inability to measure
temperatures accurately, consistently, and with high-
resolution and high-bandwidth. While technology has
improved, the list of phenomena exploited to measure
temperature has changed little. Even so, agreement
between different methods is difficult to assess. Although
the field has generated large amounts of data, advances
in manufacturing technologies change the conditions
experienced in practice to the point of rendering historical
data only marginally relevant. While one goal of this
paper is to revise and extend existing reviews of the
literature (Komanduri [85, 86]), we also focus on, and
identify, measurement methods, measurement
uncertainty, and the technological drivers that will
ultimately improve measurement.
2 HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE
The measurement of temperature in material removal
processes has an extremely long history which we have
summarized in Figure 1, where we tabulate the
introduction of important work in the field by method. The
voluminous body of work is categorized by: (1) material
removal process; (2) temperature measurement method;
and (3) date. The figure shows that the number of
publications in the field is increasing rapidly and that
most methods were first introduced in processes having
a single cutting edge (top left), with the measurement
device affixed to the tool. Some methods such as film-
thermography have been replaced entirely by more
modern solid state sensors, while other methods, such as
the dynamic thermocouple, have remained in continuous
use for nearly a century.
The origins of temperature measurement in material
removal actually predate Joule’s work on the mechanical
equivalent of heat by some fifty years, and the work of
Count Rumford [176] describes a set of calorimetric
experiments completed while he was engaged as a
superintendent in a horse-driven, boring factory for brass
cannons in Munich. Rumford “was struck with the very
considerable degree of heat which a brass gun acquires,
in a short time, on being bored; and with the still more
intense heat...of the metallic chips separated from it by
the borer.” Rumford showed that the heat generated by
the friction of a “blunt steel borer against the bottom of a
hollow metallic cylinder” … “was greater than that
produced equably by nine wax candles, each ¾ of an
inch in diameter, all burning together, or at the same

Annals of the CIRP Vol. 56/2/2007 -581- doi:10.1016/j.cirp.2007.10.009

 VerbeekႣ[219] ShallbroachႻ[182] Ⴛ[25] Ⴛ[220] Ⴃ[18] Ⴛ[227] Ⴃ[129,130] Ⴛ[114] Ⴛ[225]
Ⴃ[165] Ⴃ[102] Ⴃ[8] Ⴃ[19]Ⴃ[62] Ⴃ[23]
[81]
Ⴃ[162]Ⴃ[185] Ⴃ[161] Ⴛ[173] ღ[163-164]
Ⴃ[40] Ⴃ[2] Ⴃ[58]
ღ[30] ღ[115] Ⴃ[72]
Ⴃ[146] Ⴃ[70] ღ[190-193]
Shoreღ[186] Ⴃ[229] ღ[217] ᅁ[232]
ღ[201] ღ[196] ღ[61-64]
Gottwienღ[60]
Rumford ႑[176 ] ღ[7]
Herbertღ[68 ] ღ[144]ღ[218]
Ⴠ[124] Ⴠ[79] ᄻ[117-122]
ღ[95] BoothroydჀ[29] Ⴠ[178]
Ⴠ[103] ᄻ[155]
ᄻ[54] ᄻ[26] ᄻ[44-46]
ᄻ[36] ᄻ[156] ᄻ[221] ᄻ[126]
Schwerdᄻ[181] ᄻ[166] ᄻ[132,133]
ᄻ[95] ᄻ[106-108] ᄾ[208,206,202,203]
DevriesႣ[49-51] Ⴃ[134] Ⴃ[80]Ⴃ[171]
Schmidt႑[180]
Ⴃ[22]
ᄾ[56]
ღ[193] ღ[83] ᄾ[202]
ღ[136] ᄾ[73-75]
Peklenikღ[151,152] ღ[137] ღ[34]
ᄻ[204,213]
Outwaterღ[149] Kopsᄻ[92,93] ᄻ[76-77]
Littmanღ[113] Sato ႑[179] ღ[87] Ueda ▼ [205]
Hahnღ[66] ႑[32] ᄾ[207,209,211]
Mayerᄻ[125]Malkin ႑[123] ᄻ[93-94]
Sir Bileby႑[187 ] Ⴃ[172] Ⴃ[194] ᄻ[131]
ᄻ[222]ᄻ[189]
ღ[98] ᄻ[84]
ᄾ[212][109,105,13-154]
Pre 1920 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000

႑Calorimetry (1798) ღDynamic TC (1924) ჀThermography (1961)

ႣThermocouple (1920) ႻThermophysical (1943)
ᄻSpectral Radiance
Thermometry (1933)
Figure 1: Historical outline of thermal measurements in material removal processes.
time, with bright clear flames.” This work was clearly
ahead of its time with the temperature of the machining
process not again cited in the literature until Taylor [197].
3 TECHNIQUES & UNCERTAINTIES
Most existing methods for measuring temperature have
been applied to material removal processes. According
to Childs [38], the factors that should be considered when
choosing a temperature measurement method for a
particular application are: (1) temperature range; (2)
sensor robustness; (3) temperature field disturbance by
the sensor; (4) signal type/sensitivity to noise; (5)
response time; and (6) uncertainty. These should be
weighed against the following criteria: (1) ease of
calibration; (2) availability; (3) cost; and (4) size. In this
section, we outline the techniques that are available in
terms of these factors and criteria. Quinn[160], Childs
[38] and Nicholas and White [141] provide detailed
summaries of methods and uncertainties. According to
the ISO, uncertainty is defined as the "parameter
associated with the result of a measurement that
characterizes the dispersion of the values that could
reasonably be attributed to the measurand." We tabulate
important criteria versus method in Table 1.
3.1 Resistance Methods (RM)
Resistance methods rely on variations in electrical
resistivity accompanying temperature change. Typically,
the relationship between temperature and resistance in a
material is nonlinear, as in semiconductor devices
(thermistors), where, as more carriers are elevated to the
conduction band, the resistance drops with temperature
in a highly nonlinear relationship. Our discussion here
focuses mainly on metallic conducting devices or
resistance thermometry devices(RTDs), whereby
increased electron scattering leads to increased
resistance, but this variation can be approximated over a
given temperature range by a linear relation with a
ᄾRatio Thermometry
with optical fiber (1995)
ᅁMicro-Resistance
Thermometer (2001)
ႭSpectral Thermometry with optical fiber (1986)
temperature coefficient, alpha (D). Alpha is affected by
defects in the material lattice that can result from rapid
quenching, chemical reaction with the surroundings,
mechanical or thermal shock and phase changes.
RTDs are used extensively in calibration laboratories.
They are inherently simple, low cost and highly accurate.
While RTD's can be made cheaply from copper and
nickel, these materials oxidize rapidly. Even though the
use of such materials has increased [160], the preferred
material for use in resistance thermometers is platinum
because it is chemically inert, has a relatively high
melting temperature, a relatively high temperature
coefficient, and can be obtained in pure form. Thus, the
platinum resistance thermometer (PRT) is a very
common type of RTD. Typical PRTs (1) range from -260
ºC to 960 ºC, (2) cost less than 100 USD plus
bridge/amplifier, (3) range in size from 0.9 mm to 4 mm,
(4) have time constants of 2 sec to 20 sec, and (5) have
low uncertainty of ±0.3 ºC at 850 ºC. While they are
inexpensive, accurate and relatively easy to use,
comparatively speaking, they are relatively large, have
long time constants and are limited in temperature range.
Some of these disadvantages can be overcome by the
introduction of thin-film elements. For example, the time
constants of some sub-millimeter-scale commercial thin-
film PRTs are less than 200 ms. Custom-built micro-
RTD's have been developed for measuring cutting
temperatures (Figure 2) but are not yet commercially
available [232]. Thermistors can also be made small, but
suffer from nonlinearity and limited temperature range.
Generally, for any RTD, the sources of uncertainty in
measurements are: (1) immersion errors; (2) lag and
settling errors; (3) radiation errors; (4) alteration of the
thermal field by the sensor; (5) self-heating (small for
small bridge currents of 1-10 mA); (6) mechanical and
thermal shocks; and (7) thermal expansion. While the
first two sources can dominate, mechanical and thermal

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 100 Pm
520 Pm
Line Width: 5 Pm
Material: Platinum Sensor 1
Thickness: 250 Pm
Sensor 2
800 Pm
200 Pm
1600Pm
2500 Pm
Figure 2: Micro-thermistor after Yoshioka et al. [232].
shock can be difficult to predict and can cause hysteresis
in sensor response.
As shown in Figure 3, error that results when the sensor
is not fully immersed in the medium of interest, and thus
is not at the temperature of the medium, should not be
ignored in uncertainty calculations. For example,
simplified modeling shows that a sensor must be
immersed at a depth of greater than five times its
diameter to limit the error to less than one percent.
Other materials can be used to build miniaturized PRT's
and RTD's, and use of these devices is promising for the
measurement of temperatures in material removal
processes. However, because gradients and time-
variations of thermal profiles encountered are extreme, it
is recommended that these methods be used in
conjunction with simulation and other measurement
techniques so that uncertainties due to size effects and
immersion errors can be well quantified.
3.2 Thermocouple (TC/DTC)
The thermocouple (TC) consists of two dissimilar metals
joined in such a way as to cause the voltage generated
between the contacts to be an accurate gauge of
temperature difference between the contacts. In
particular, heat transfer in an electrically conducting
material occurs by a combination of phonons and the
movement of electrons or current. The thermally induced
current is associated with a voltage drop. Thus, a
voltage drop will occur in any electrically conducting
material experiencing a thermal gradient. This is the
Seebeck effect, and it dominates the voltage generated
by a thermocouple (TC). The Seebeck effect,
summarized in Equation (2), applies to an electrically
conducting material with a one-dimensional temperature
field T(x).
dV
S (T )
dT
V(x) is the spatially varying voltage and S(T) is the
temperature-dependent Seebeck coefficient.
thermocouple consisting of two dissimilar materials
attached at a junction is shown in Figure 4. The voltage
generated by the thermocouple in either circuit is related
D
(%) (%)
L
100
Error
Error
10 Tsys
sys
Temperature
Temperature
1% Tamb
amb
0.1
Relative
0.01
Relative
0.001
0.0001
0 2 5D
5D 6 8 10 12 14
Immersion (diameters)
Immersion (diameters)
Figure 3: Immersion errors.
Commercial thermocouples have many advantages.
They are: (1) relatively low cost; (2) rugged; (3) versatile
and available for many temperature ranges; (4)
reasonably stable and reproducible; (5) subject to
relatively low uncertainty when used as designed; and (6)
fast responders, depending on size. However, the
advantages are tempered by the relative complexity of
the thermocouple system and the possible associated
sources of uncertainty.
While thermocouples are subject to errors caused by
immersion, lag and settling, radiation, and alteration of
the thermal field by the sensor, the largest error source is
due to material inhomogeneity resulting from cold work of
the thermocouple wires, chemical reactions such as
oxidation, reaction with insulating materials, or changes
in material phase with temperature. Note that these
errors can be upwards of 1 percent but can be minimized
by ensuring that the inhomogenous portions of the
thermocouple, e.g., the junctions, do not experience
thermal gradients. The second-most important source of
error in thermocouple measurement is inadequate
knowledge or control of the reference junction
temperature. To minimize this error, the reference
junction temperature T0 is generated with a well-
constructed ice-point, and instruments are allowed to
come to thermal equilibrium. Still, errors of up to 1
percent due to junction temperature are to be expected.
In material removal processes, many sources of error
associated with the thermocouple cannot be minimized,
but instead can be worsened by the removal process
itself. For example, thermocouple junctions near a tool
edge are subjected to large thermal gradients and/or
rapidly changing temperature, introducing the first and
second types of uncertainty. For a detailed study of the
effect of thermal gradient on measurement error, see
Attia and Kops [9-12].
( 2) The dynamic or tool-workpiece-type thermocouple is not
surprisingly subject to the worst inhomogeneity and
gradient errors. The presence of very large thermal
A gradients in the region of greatest material
inhomogeneity actually precludes standard thermocouple
practice. Nevertheless, researchers have attempted to
conduct theoretical and numerical analyses of the tool-

S B  S A T1  T0 
to temperature according to Equation (3),
V (3)
where V is the total voltage generated, SB and SA are the
Seebeck coefficients of the two materials, T1 is the
temperature being measured and T0 is a reference
temperature, usually the ice-point of water.
-583-
work thermocouple in order to determine the effect of a
variable temperature on the tool-work interface.
Comprehensive work by Stephenson [192] shows that if
the thermoelectric voltage generated at the interface is
proportional to temperature, the experimental voltages
will correlate to the mean temperature at the interface.
This however does not account for the high strains,
pressures, phase transformations, chemical reactions
and other physical problems that must significantly affect Material A
the Seebeck coefficient of the materials near the
interface. Furthermore, calibration of two materials V T1
against each other under quiescent conditions does little
to eliminate all uncertainty, since the inhomogeneities Material B
and changing contact conditions cannot be reproduced.
Stephenson [192] suggests that the errors from
Ta T0
inhomogeneity alone may be on the order of at least 5 Signal
percent. However, the dynamic thermocouple is (b)
Collection
inexpensive, practical, and does provide an indication of
trends in interface temperatures as well as correlations Material A
with tool wear [6]. When it was first introduced, it was the
only method of attaining thermal information about the V Material C T1
tool-workpiece interface. Moreover, Stephenson [192]
argues that it is the only existing method that shows Material B
promise for use in shop floor practice, where monitoring Ta T0
of qualitative changes may be all that is needed.
The use of thermocouples in general, be they dynamic or (a)
static, are practical, but because of their complexity, and Figure 4: 4:Typical thermocouple circuits in in
thethe
Figure Typical thermocouple circuits
the difficulties in reducing relative standard uncertainties measurement environment.
measurement environment.
to less than 10%, we conclude that this device be used
only when qualitative information is desired. In particular,
variations on the dynamic thermocouple can be used in Because thermal emission is a complex phenomenon, it
many different processes such as turning [60, 68, 186], is useful to first consider the spectral emission of a real
grinding [151], milling [193], and drilling [48]. body in relation to that of an idealized perfect radiator or
blackbody. A blackbody has three properties: (1) it
3.3 Thermophysical Processes (TP) absorbs all incident radiation regardless of wavelength
and direction; (2) for a given wavelength and
Measurements that rely on thermophysical
temperature, no body can emit more energy than a
processes(TP) are classified as semi-invasive [38].
blackbody; and (3) radiation emitted by a blackbody is
Several commercially available vehicles for exploiting this
independent of direction. The spectral emissive power,
technology exist: (1) thermo-sensitive and thermo-
indicating paints, (2) thermochromatic liquid crystals, (3) EO,b, of a blackbody is a function of temperature and


thermographic phosphors; (4) temperature sensitive
crayons and pellets; and (5) pyrometric cones. Although
to date, there has been relatively little use of these
products to measure temperature in material removal
operations, attention has been given to paints and
phosphors which have become quite sophisticated and
can accommodate a range of temperatures up to
2000ºC. Of even more interest would be if crude
measurement techniques, such as the bending of a cone
under gravity used in measuring kiln temperatures, could
be revisited with micro-electromechanical technology
(MEMs) Could, then, the transformation of a micro-cone
from conical to spherical in shape under the action of
surface tension be used as an indicator of temperature?
New approaches can be explored to build upon such
classic techniques as those introduced by Trent [228]
and others, that have utilized the hardness of a material
and/or tool to determine thermal profile, or to develop
new techniques for utilizing material phase
transformation and chip color to indicate temperature.
As one can see, these techniques are so wide and varied
that sources of uncertainty are large and are best
addressed in the context of a particular application.
However, it is not uncommon for techniques to be
commercially supplied with quoted uncertainties of 1%.
3.4 Spectral Radiation Thermometry (SRT/TCP)
The energy emitted by a body is correlated to its
thermodynamic temperature. Spectral radiation
thermometry (SRT) exploits this fact via a non-invasive
measurement that determines the thermodynamic
temperature of a body by measuring emission. Radiation
thermometry is a relatively new technique that has
depended on the development of stable semiconductor
detectors and detector arrays. Owing to its potential for
use in measuring material removal processes, we detail
the basic principles, complexities, correct use, and
uncertainties of radiation thermometry, including SRTs
and TCPs.
-584-
wavelength and is governed by Planck’s law.
C1
O5 eC 2
EO ,b OT
1
( 4)
The spectral emissive power is the power emitted per
unit area of the blackbody at a given wavelength and
temperature. In Equation 4, C1 and C2 are the first and
-
second radiation constants with values of 1.191044 x 10
16 2 -1
thermodynamic temperature of the blackbody and O is
W·m -sr and 0.014388 m·K respectively. T is the
the wavelength of the emitted energy. This equation
describes the spectrum of the emitted spectral power at
each temperature as shown in Figure 5. For a
blackbody surface, this spectral emissive power is
direction independent. To determine the total power per
surface area emitted by the black body, Equation 4 is
integrated across all wavelengths, and the result is the
Stefan-Boltzmann Law, namely, that the total emitted
Boltzmann constant, V, to the fourth power of
power per unit area, Eb, is proportional by the Stefan-
temperature.
VT 4
Eb (5)
Thus, for a blackbody, measurement of the energy
collected from the body provides a direct indication of its
temperature. Deviations from the ideal properties of a
blackbody give rise to the most common sources of error
in measurement practices.
There are several types of radiation thermometer. Among
these, we discuss: (1) total radiation thermometers; (2)
spectral band thermometers and imagers (Figure 5, red);
(3) ratio thermometers (Figure 5, green); (4)
multiwaveband thermometers; and (5) fiber-optic
thermometers. These can be categorized in relation to
the hypothetical measurement of the thermal emission of
a blackbody at 800 K (Figure 5). While all methods must
surface as indicated by the collection cone angle 'IC, the
collect some portion of the radiation emitted from the
main differences among the types are the wavelength
Spectral Band (O=O & O=O ) Detector
Ratio

(OU>O>OL) 'Ic Blackbody,

range of the collected radiation, the size of the collection 1 2
cone, and the data processing that converts measured
Graybody
emission to temperature.
The advantages of radiation thermometers are that they Typical
are non-intrusive, have extremely fast response times (on Surface
the order of nanoseconds), and, when the detectors are
set up in arrays, can provide thermal fields. A generic
radiation thermometer is shown in Figure 6.
Total radiation thermometers achieve maximum
collection of radiation from a surface by maximizing the
collection cone and wavelength band. Thus, they can be
used over a wide range of temperatures (around 200ºC
to 1800ºC), with low uncertainty. However, to the extent
that they insulate the target, they may artificially raise the
target temperature.
Spectral band thermometers, which only collect light over Figure 5: Spectral emissive power of a blackbody
a given range of wavelengths, are currently the most for various temperatures.
widely used radiation thermometer. For reasons which
we enumerate below, these thermometers are very

Aperture
Angle-defining
/Display
Amplifier
I
applicable to material removal processes.

T
Ratio thermometers collect radiation at two wavelengths

Detector
and attempt to eliminate dependence on surface

Lens
emissivity. Since they, like spectral band thermometers,
are quite suited to measurements of material removal

Target
processes, we detail both types below.
Optical fiber thermometers are so named due to the
means of collecting the radiation, not to the wavelength
dA

Aperture
Target-defining

Filter(s)
range that is collected, nor to the collection angle.
Moreover, optical fibers may be utilized to collect light in
any type of radiation thermometer.
Spectral radiance thermometers, (a.k.a. single color
pyrometers), are comprised of an array of detectors that
can convert radiant power into a spatial image. A
significant disadvantage of spectral band thermometry is
its dependence on the emissivity of the surface being
measured. Emissivity, which is often incorrectly referred
to as a “property” of a surface, is actually dependent on
many factors. It is a measure of the fraction of the total
emitted radiation from a real surface to the radiation
emitted by a perfect blackbody at the same temperature,
and as such, its value is always between 0 and 1. The
term gray body is also an idealization for which the
emissivity is not a function of direction or wavelength.
emissivity H, giving the emissive power as follows.
For a gray body, Equation (5) is modified by the
HVT 4
E (6)
The discussion and equations given above provide the
simplest definition of emissivity, and its value is tabulated
for surfaces over a wide range of conditions.
In practice, emissivity varies with both wavelength and
emissivity function H(O), which is the ratio of the spectral
direction. Wavelength variation gives rise to the spectral
emissive power of a real surface to that of a blackbody as
a function of wavelength. For instance, white paper has
an emissivity of 0.2 at a wavelength of 1 micrometer and
an emissivity of 0.9 at a wavelength of 3 micrometers.
Furthermore, as mentioned previously, emissivity also
varies with direction, as shown in Figures 5 and 6
(pattern typical of metals [52]). Extensive tables of
spectral emissivity for a variety of surfaces can be found
in the literature [52].
A typical radiation thermometer is shown in Figure 6.
The signal, S(T), from the detector is a function of
temperature and is determined from the integral,
RO
H(O,IT)EO,b
O
System
Response
Figure 6: Typical radiation thermometer.
surface, T,I represent direction, O is the wavelength of
where dA is a differential area element on the radiating
the radiation and G(O) is responsivity of the detector The
most direct method of dealing with this complicated
response is to calibrate the instrument directly to the
surface of interest which has been heated and its
emissivity measured by some other detector [45].
However, this method is accurate only to the extent that
the surface being studied can be reproduced in the same
condition as when measured, vis-à-vis surface oxidation,
surface finish, etc. The instrument can also be calibrated
with a blackbody to determine its responsivity, and then
the emissivity of the radiating surface can be measured
with special instruments. For example, Davies et al. [46]
calibrate the equipment against a blackbody and then
measure the emissivity of steel (the object of their study),
as a function of wavelength, including in their uncertaintly
measurements the effects of oxidation and finish
changes which are undetermined, but can be estimated.
The salient point is that one cannot simply assume a
manufacturer supplied value for the emissivity as that
incurs potentially large measurement errors on the order
of tens of percent or more.
spectral band (OL<O<OU) is critical in determining the size
From Equation 7, it is also evident that the choice of
of the signal S(T). Because spectral content, the peak of
the radiation, and emissivity are functions of temperature,

³ O³ T³ ³I G(O )H I , T , O EO
O2
O , T dIdT dOdA
it is critical to select the band of accepted radiation to be
near the expected peak wavelength of the emission. The
S (T ) ,b (7 ) wavelength band is estimated using Wien’s displacement
A 1
law,

-585-
 OmaxT 2898 μm ˜ K
(8)
which gives the peak wavelength Omax of the spectral
emissive power for a blackbody as a function of its
temperature. For example, to measure temperatures in
the range of 500ºC, a spectral band detector should
3.7 Pm.
accept radiation in the vicinity of the peak wavelength of
Typical medium range spectral radiation
thermometers use Indium-Antimonide detectors and are
Pm to 5 Pm band. However, to measure in the range of
suited to this task because they accept radiation in the 3
radiation is centered at 10 Pm, one would want to choose
room temperature where the wavelength of the emitted
a long-range spectral radiation thermometer or a different
type of detector. To reduce the thermal noise in
semiconductor detectors, costly cooling systems are
often needed.
The ratio radiation, or two-color thermometer (TCP), has
been developed to reduce the uncertainty associated
with emissivity, but at the expense of sensitivity. If
emissivity is independent of direction, and detector
the emitted radiation at two distinct wavelengths O and
responsivity independent of wavelength, then the ratio of
O can be expressed as:
wavelengths where adequate signal can still be
maintained. Note that measurements at high
temperatures and measurements of materials with low
inherent emissivity will have higher uncertainty.
In material removal processes, uncertainty in the spectral
emissivity is typically the greatest source of error in the
measurement of temperature. Emissivities can differ
dramatically. For example, Figure 7, which shows the
emissivity of several materials, includes detailed data on
Inconel®, where it is seen that the emisivity changes
from 0.1 to 0.95, depending on surface preparation
alone. Moreover, for all materials listed in this figure, the
emissivity varies with wavelength, thus invalidating the
gray body assumption. This is notable considering that
ratio thermometers (two-color pyrometers), assume that
emissivity does not vary with wavelength. In fact, for
materials where emissivity varies with wavelength, use of
the ratio thermometer would be in question. In particular,
the combination of low sensitivity with emissivity errors
could combine, causing the uncertainty of a ratio
thermometer to actually be greater than that of a spectral
band thermometer under the same conditions. For
example, as in [38], suppose that a two-color pyrometer
measuring at discrete wavelengths of 2.2 micrometers
and 2.6 micrometers is used to measure a polished iron

H O1 EO1 , b
surface. If the ratio, r, of the readings at the two

H O2 EO 2 , b
wavelengths is 0.9, and the body is an ideal gray body,
S1 (T )
r (9) then Equation 10 yields a measured temperature of 1070
S 2 (T ) K. However, according to Figure 7, the emissivity of
polished iron at these two wavelengths is approximately
0.175 and 0.15, respectively. If we then correct Equation
If one incorporates the graybody assumption, then the 10 to include the different emissivities at the two
result is an emissivity-independent expression for wavelengths[38], we find that the actual temperature is
temperature.

C 2 O1  O2 
§ § O ·5 ·
T (10)
O1O2 ln¨¨ r ˜ ¨¨ 1 ¸¸ ¸¸
O
© © 2¹ ¹
The obvious advantage of this methodology is that
emissivity is removed from the calibration equations. In
practice, however, the graybody assumption is never
strictly satisfied, and since radiation is being collected
over narrow bands, the signal to noise ratio is reduced.
Radiation thermometry is non-invasive and can produce
thermal images or single-point measurements. However,
the trade-off for these advantages is the introduction of
numerous complicated sources of error. According to
Childs [38] and Nicholas and White [141], errors in
radiation thermometry lie in three general areas: (1)
surface characterization including fluorescence,
reflections, and emissivity; (2) variations in the
transmission path including absorption, emission
scattering, size-of-source effects and
obstruction/vignetting; and (3) signal processing. The
mathematical determination of error in radiation
thermometry is described in many texts, (e.g.,[38, 52,
141]). In measured temperature, the two largest sources
of uncertainty, uTm, are usually associated with
uncertainty in emissivity, uH, and the uncertainty in
measured radiance uEm, as expressed in Equation 11.
OT 2 §¨ u Em uH2 ·¸

2
C2 ¨ H 2 ¸¹
uT2M
©
(11)
Em2
Errors increase with wavelength, with the square of the
temperature and in inverse proportion to the square of
the emissivity. Therefore, to minimize uncertainty,
measurements should always be made at the smallest
-586-
919 K, meaning that the assumption of a gray body leads
to an error of 14%. Calibration against other temperature
measurement devices can reduce this error.
It should be cautioned that many radiation thermometry
devices allow a value of the emissivity to be “set” by the
user. In these situations, uncertainty can be reduced by
conducting measurements with this value set to one, and
then processing the raw data with the best wavelength-
dependent emissivity data available to the user.
Computing the temperature in this way necessitates
solving transcendental equations [46].
While emissivity is typically the largest contributor to
uncertainty in radiation thermometry, other significant
sources are: (1) reflection; (2) absorption; (3) size of
source, particularly focus; and (4) obstructions in the field
of view (vignetting). Note that most of these error
sources are included in the uncertainty of the measured
radiance, uEM,, the first term in Equation 11. In the
following sections, where applicable, we discuss the use
of radiation thermometers in the context of sources of
error and uncertainty and how these can be reduced.
4 MEASUREMENT CAPABILITY & CHALLENGES
Each of the methods discussed in Section 3 has been
cited in the measurement of material removal processes
documented in Figure 1. Using Figure 1 as a guide, we
highlight major work, and discuss important results. The
results are organized by process and method.
4.1 Turning
Turning is ubiquitous and is one of the most studied
processes, with the measurement of process
temperature being no exception. In this section we cover
dynamic and embedded thermocouples, spectral band
radiance, ratio radiation, with specifics regarding their
use in determining temperature.
The first estimates of temperatures in turning were likely
made by examining the color of oxidized chips, a
thermophysical method. The ability to make quantitative
 1.0 NIST Standard (Inconel®) where measurements taken of the tool-chip interface
during orthogonal cutting of carbon and stainless steels
Normal Spectral Emissivity
Heavily Oxidized
0.9
Moderately are documented. The tool-workpiece thermocouple circuit
0.8 Oxidized used in the study was calibrated using a special TIG
0.7 welding system which provided localized heating at the
0.6 Sand Blasted & tool-work contact zone (Figure 9(a)). The temperature
0.5 Moderately was measured with a standard K-type thermocouple
er Oxidized embedded in the steel specimen and yielded linear
0.4
ap
Sand Blasted relations between temperature and tool-work voltage for
eP

0.3 P20 carbide uncoated, three-layer CVD coated

hit

As Received (typ)
W

0.2
Polis (TiC/Al2O3/TiN), and four-layer CVD coated
h ed Alu Polish Electropolished
0.1 minu
ed Iro
n
(TiC/Ti(C,N)/Al2O3/TiN) inserts. Representative data for
m Polished Silver standard tool geometries are shown in Figure 9(b).
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 910 20 30 40 Restricted contact length tools were also studied,
Wavelength (Pm) producing a comprehensive set of data plotted against
thermal number, as defined by Chao et al. [37]. Grzesik
Figure 7: Spectral emissivity of various materials suggests that it is the intrinsic properties of the multi-
after Childs [38] and Nicholas and White [141]. Black layer coating that control the heat flow into the chip,
indicates Inconel®. reducing it when an intermediate Al2O3 coating layer is
employed. The presumption is that it forms a thermal
barrier affecting chip curling and controlling heat partition
measurements began with embedded and dynamic (tool-
in the chip-coating-substrate tribo-system [61]. However,
chip) thermocouples. Both methods have proven to be
recent investigation by Rech et al. [163] indicates that the
very practical and have been in continuous use for nearly
so-called thermal barrier effect of Al2O3 seems to be
a century. The embedded thermocouple was patented
substantially mitigated in continuous turning. The
by Verbeek [219] and the tool-chip thermocouple (Figure
significant uncertainty of the complex tool-work
8) was introduced shortly thereafter by Shore [186],
thermocouple circuit with multiple hot junctions in the
Gottwien [60] and Herbert [68], and then substantially
region of largest thermal gradients might also contribute
improved by Boston and Gilbert [30] ,Kraemer [95],
to the discrepancies.
Trigger et al. [201], Olberts [144], Lowack [115], Veenstra
The use of modern CNC for tool grinding can create very
[217, 218], Takayama and Murata [196] and Alvelid [6].
complex tool geometry which can perturb both the
The difficulties common to all thermocouples used in
contact zone and the temperature of the tool-chip
material removal have to do with the junction being
interface. Anagonye, et al. [7], illustrate the effects of
subjected to large thermal gradients. In the case of the
tool macro-geometric features on tool-work thermocouple
embedded thermocouple, insertion of the thermocouple
signal by showing how it varies for different combinations
leads to significant changes in the system behavior and
of tool nose radius and included angle. The resulting
hence, to errors in the measurement [9-12]. Furthermore,
effects on cutting temperature cannot be ignored. As the
the hot junction for both the embedded and tool-chip
insert included angle increases from 35 degrees to 80
thermocouple is subject to large thermal gradients. For
degrees, the thermocouple experiment shows that the
the tool-chip thermocouple, errors at additional hot-
average temperature on the rake face decreases by
junctions (between the workpiece and tool and, in some
18%. Grzesik [63, 64] has completed similar, but very
cases, the insert and the toolholder) can only be avoided
comprehensive studies on the effect of chip breaker and
if these junctions are isothermal. Much of the work on
reduced contact tooling on the tool-work thermocouple.
thermocouple measurements of turning during the last
He concludes that control of the contact length [62]
several decades has focused on eliminating the error
influences the heat flux and thermal load .
sources cited above, and is detailed in the keynote paper
by Barrow [20]. Figure 1 traces the work. The process of interrupted machining/milling, particularly
in modern high speed machining, has been shown to
Although use of the tool-work technique is an older
effect tool wear. To make measurements under such
method [20], it is still often used in single point turning [7,
challenging conditions, Lezanski and Shaw [110] and
64, 167, 191, 192]. The method has been re-evaluated in
Stephenson and Al [193], have utilized the tool-work
recent years, with current research focusing on
thermocouple method. More recently, Kitagawa [83] used
monitoring and explaining wear phenomena. For
a similar procedure to investigate variations in tool life
example, Kramer [96] used the tool-work thermocouple
between turning and end milling of Ti-6Al-4V-2Sn alloys
as an input parameter in an analytical model of tool wear
that accounts for both chemical dissolution of the tool
material into the chip and the effect of abrasion of the
tool by hard particles (cementite) within the work
material. A quantitative correlation of tool-chip interface Workpiece Material D
temperature and wear mode (flank and crater) was later Material A
proposed by Leshock and Shin [109], and was based on
tool-work thermocouple measurements during turning of Ta
AISI 4140 steel and Inconel 718 with tungsten carbide Hot Junction
tools. They found an apparent exponential increase in T1
crater wear rate with increase in tool temperature,
providing evidence relating crater wear to a temperature - Material B
dependent diffusion mechanism [109]. Tool
In examining wear of tools with multilayer coatings, use
of the tool-work thermocouple is complicated by having to Electrical Ta Material C
grapple with multiple hot junctions. Yet, because coated
Insulation
tools comprise an estimated 53% of the world market. V
Studies in this area are of extreme importance
economically. To see how the tool-work thermocouple Figure 8: Typical tool-chip thermocouple
can be used to study coated tools, refer to Grzesik [62], arrangement [20].

-587-
 1000 1-TiC/Al2O3/TiN 2 - TiC/Ti9C,N)/Al2O3/TiN B Contour levels (˚C)
3 - P20 uncoated 3b TC TC A=350
900

Temperature °C
TC C
carbide D B F G
TC B=320
800 TC
1b 3a 320 G
C=200
700 New tool
TC F
1a E D=125
600 270 W
2a
TC
500 2b a = AISI 1045 steel 220 TC
400 b = AISI 304 steel TC TC

(b) 0 50 100 150 200 T(˚C

Thermal Number, Pec
TC TC
120

70

20
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
t(s

Figure 10: Results from fine, embedded, type-K

(a) thermocouples on the rake and flank overlaid on
Figure contours from an infrared image from Ay [13].
Figure 9:
9: Tool-chip
Tool-chip thermocouple
thermocouple arrangement
arrangement of
of
Grzesik [57]. Grzesik [61-64].
material of the bead in a thermal gradient[38, 141].
with K10 carbide tools. Longer tool life in milling has Micro-scale techniques such as those first used by Usui
been attributed to the intermittent nature of this process et al. [214] to embed 10 micrometer diameter platinum
resulting in shorter tool-chip contact times and lower wire in a divided carbide tool tip can decrease the effects
maximum temperatures, an observation that is in of the thermocouple on the process.
agreement with suppositions and data originating with
Taylor [197]. Recently, embedded thermocouples have been used by
several authors to establish semi-empirical equations
Other recent turning studies using the tool-work
that relate tool temperature to cutting process
thermocouple include the investigation of cryogenic
parameters and tool wear [13, 14, 19, 41, 141]. Such an
cooling in turning steel [53] and the temperatures in
approach is illustrated in Ay et al. [14], where an
turning hardened tool steel [1]. Reis [167] uses the tool-
experimental study is performed using nine fast
chip thermocouple to measure temperatures in
response, K-type, fine thermocouples [13] inserted at
Aluminium 6351 with the goal of correlating abrasive
various locations in a carbide tool in order to monitor
wear in high Silicon aluminium to thermal effects at the
temperature variations of the tool and workpiece in
tool-chip interface. Modest temperatures of only about orthogonal cutting. The response time of the
270ºC are seen in this work. The researchers make the thermocouples is less than one second which allows
effort to isolate both the tool and the workpiece. The researchers to derive a semi-empirical model of the
benefits of this method are shown by Stephenson [192] dynamic temperature changes. Using their measurement
to be outweighed by associated losses in system setup and a process similar to that used in infrared
stiffness. imaging, the authors are able to provide comprehensive
The tool-work thermocouple technique has been data for temperatures in cutting, with both worn and
extensively used for the investigation of the role of unworn carbide inserts in a number of materials, as
coating, tool geometry, chip form, tool wear and cutting
shown in Figure 10. Embedded thermocouples have also
parameters in turning. However it should be restated that
been used by Kops and Arenson [89, 90] for temperature
the method has three major error sources [192]: (1) the
measurements to determine the convective heat transfer
thermoelectric voltage is an average of the tool chip
coefficients in turning. This data is necessary for
interface temperature, but even this assumption is flawed
accurate prediction of machining error caused by thermal
if the material exhibits a nonlinear voltage-temperature
expansion of the workpiece. The study also revealed
relationship; (2) parasitic interfaces will cause significant
that for proper representation of convective cooling of a
errors if their temperatures are not known and held
workpiece in turning, separate values of the heat transfer
constant; (3) loss in stiffness due to excessive grounding
coefficient (h), are needed for the cylindrical surface, side
material can cause vibration and should be avoided when
faces, chuck zone and impinging coolant zone.
a single machine ground will suffice. Xu et al. [230] have
suggested new calibration techniques to reduce the An investigation of cutting temperatures during hard
errors associated with the tool-work thermocouple. turning of high chromium hard-facing materials and
titanium alloys with PCBN inserts was carried out by Ren
As does the dynamic thermocouple, the embedded
et al. [169]. A K-thermocouple is employed and is located
thermocouple has a long, productive history. The
remotely at the interface between the tool insert and
historical development of work in this area is covered
supporting shim. The tool-shim interface temperature
comprehensively in Barrow [20] who discusses the first
results are then fed into FE modelling to predict the
embedded thermocouple designs [40, 102, 162, 165,
average tool-chip interface temperature. The effect of
185, 219], efforts to obtain distributed temperature
microstructure and machining parameters on cutting
measurements by scanning/repositioning the
temperatures were similarly investigated using titanium
thermocouple on the tool surface [8, 18, 40, 70, 146, 185]
alloy as a reference material. Results show that the
or on the tool-chip interface [42, 229] and by
average cutting temperatures ranged from 600 ºC to
extrapolation techniques [102, 161]. As pointed out by
700ºC and increased with higher cutting speed and
Barrow [20], the embedded thermocouple is subject to
feedrate. Note that tools with larger carbide grains
errors associated with changing the thermal field that it is
showed lower cutting temperatures and exhibited lower
desired to measure, elucidated more recently in the
sensitivity to cutting speed and feedrate [169]. This
numerical simulations and experiments of Kops and Attia
study illustrates the relatively modern combined
[9-12]; additionally the embedded thermocouple is
subject to errors induced by placing the inhomogeneous

-588-
 S free-cutting stainless steel, Fang et al. [59], were able
to correlate thermocouple temperature and adhering
layer formation on the tool. The embedded thermocouple
technique has also been used by some authors to
investigate the effect of cryogenic cooling on cutting
temperature in the machining of titanium alloys [71] and
ceramics [223]. For example, Wang and Rajurkar [223]
show that tool wear in machining advanced structural
silicon nitride with CBN tools can be significantly reduced
by cryogenic cooling, reducing the maximum cutting
temperature by more than 300ºC.
Moriwaki et al. [129] placed thermocouples at four
locations in the toolholder to measure the temperature
rise during single crystal diamond machining of
aluminium and oxygen-free copper. Although it had been
thought that temperature rise in diamond machining was
negligible, this work revealed a temperature rise near the
Figure 11: Embedded thermocouple arrangement cutting edge of up to 10ºC and more than 3 micrometers
used to measure rake face temperatures in dry of induced thermal expansion at the tool shank. In
cutting of cast iron GG25 by Weinert et al. [225]. another study of the precision machining of oxygen-free
copper performed by Moriwaki et al. [130]), three 0.35
Adjustable Workpiec ºC 1000
ºC 1000 mm copper-constantan thermocouples are implanted
Workpiec
Toolpost 800
Inser 800
CHIP
CHIP within the workpiece to measure real-time temperature
Tool 20,000 600
Objective/
Objective 20,000 600 T rise as the tool cuts through the thermocouple. The
Guard RPM 400
Spindle 400 O
T thermoelectromotive force signal shows good agreement
Spindle 200
Microscope
Body
200 O
O with simulations, and is a good example of the rapid
Feed response that can be obtained with modern micro-
Feed
thermocouples.
Camera
Infrared V
V
C
C Controlling the temperature in the cutting of natural
100 Pm
Pm
Camera
Pm
100 materials such as bone and is important in order to avoid
Z-axis
Machine
-Axis
Z
damage [128]. Lucas et al. [116] use six embedded
thermocouples to investigate the temperatures around
Figure 12. Experimental arrangement of Davies the cutting site for wood and bone in ultrasonic
et al. [44-46] and an example thermal machining. The authors suggest that the design of
micrograph. ultrasonic cutting blades must necessarily be impacted if
thermal damage is to be avoided.
measurement/finite-element approach and is similar to
that outlined by El-Wardany et al. [58]. Kishawy [82] also Spectral band radiance measurements of material
removal processes dates to Schwerd [181] and Kraemer
used embedded thermocouples to investigate the effects
[95] who focused light from a cutting process directly
of different process parameters on the cutting edge
onto a thermocouple. Other types of detectors, such as
temperature during high-speed hard turning of D2 tool
lead sulphide cells and germanium photodiodes, were
steel using polycrystalline cubic boron nitride (PCBN)
used similarly by several researchers [36, 54, 166], with
tools. The effects of tool geometry and edge preparation
scanning methods being added by Lenz [106-108], and
on tool temperature were also investigated by Coelho et
Van Worden and Prins [156, 216]. Boothroyd [29],
al. [39] in the high speed cutting of Inconel 718 using a
Salmon et al. [178] and Mayer [124] developed the first
variety of tool materials (Al2O3-based, Al2O3-based + SiC,
thermal images of the tool-chip interface using IR-
and PCBN). A new method recently introduced by
Weinert et al. [225] used PVD-coatings for temperature sensitive film. Jeelani [79] and Lauscher [103] improved
measurements by means of the Seebeck effect. A on earlier IR photographic techniques by taking
NiCr/Ni thermocouple was applied as a sensor pattern on advantage of the development of more sensitive films
a silicon nitride insert tip. Comparative temperature and more accurate calibration techniques to measure the
measurements in cast iron GG25 confirm the temperature distribution in the orthogonal machining of
functionality and reliability of coating technology (Figure an 18% Ni maraging steel.
11). Along with the introduction of high bandwidth solid-state
detector arrays, the use of imaging techniques in recent
Several authors have attempted to use embedded
years has proliferated, and we list many examples[26].
thermocouples to investigate heat transfer and to
Wang et al. [221] took advantage of modern imaging
estimate heat flux at the tool-chip/tool-work interface [2,
systems to produce the first dynamic thermal images of
23, 100, 101, 163, 164, 233]. An example is in Battaglia
curling chips, and Narayanan et al. [135] used a similar
et al. [23], where the heat flux in a workpiece during hard
system to measure the temperature field at the tool-chip
turning with CBN tools is estimated by thermocouples
interface during machining of Brass 332, with images
embedded in the workpiece, and then used to determine
being retrieved through a sapphire tool that is transparent
the temperature at the machined surface. This
at the measured wavelength. A two-color pyrometer
information led the authors to surprisingly conclude that
these temperatures are not high enough to cause the calibration method that compensates for unknown
transformed surface layers as seen in hard turning. emissivity value was also used. Ng et al. [138] utilized a
thermal imaging system with adjustable emissivity input
The effect of tool-wear on work-piece surface to measure chip temperatures in orthogonal turning of
temperature and integrity have also been examined in hardened die steel, AISI H13 (52HRC), with
aluminium machining by O’Sullivan [142]. Results show polycrystalline cubic boron nitride (PCBN) tools. While
that: (1) machined-surface temperatures decrease with the effect of wavelength dependent emissivity is not
corresponding increases in feed rates, and (2) the addressed, good agreement with simulations is
progression of tool wear is accompanied by a consistent demonstrated. In Stephenson [190], a direct radiance
increase in workpiece temperature. When machining Ca- system was used as a comparison to the tool-work

-589-
wavelength (8 Pm to 14 Pm) direct radiance
thermocouple. Chu and Wallbank employed a long
measurement system calibrated against a thermocouple
to verify that in cutting mild steel, the condition of the
flank face of the tool is the most important factor in
determining the temperature on the newly machined
surface. Davies et al. [44-46] developed a radiance
microscope system to measure temperature fields in
radiance in the 3 Pm to 5 Pm band with a 256x320 indium
orthogonal cutting. The system measures spectral
with better than 10 Pm spatial resolution. The system
antimonide detector array, and can resolve temperatures
was used to measure the emissivity of the workpiece
material as a function of wavelength by first calibrating
against a blackbody, and then by calibrating directly
against a thermocouple on the workpiece. The system
and representative results, with a maximum uncertainty
of ±50ºC at the maximum measured temperature of
800ºC, are shown in Figure 12. Results consistently
indicate discrepancies between measurements and finite
element simulations outside the uncertainty band. The
failure of simulation is thought to be due to increased flow
stresses which occur when the material is heated rapidly,
as in machining [170]. It may be advantageous to
investigate using solid state detectors to measure
dynamic behaviour and unsteady chip formation given
their fast time response and sensitivity. Ivester et al.
used do so, machining simultaneous thermal and visual
measurements of machining in Aluminium [78]. Taking
into account that aluminium has a low emissivity (less
than 0.1) in the spectral band, and that errors are
inversely proportional to emissivity, these are, indeed,
system with a broad spectral band (3 Pm – 14Pm) to
difficult measurements to make. Miller et al. [126] use a
measure chip temperatures during machining of AISI
1025 steel, and also provide a very thorough description
of the dependence of uncertainty on wavelength and
emissivity. While other recent efforts with thermal
imagers give varying degrees of description, we note that
Dessoly et al. [47], show thermal fields resulting from
machining of hardened 52100 steel with a self propelled
rotary tool. In their work, however, the measured
temperatures are substantially lower (only 300ºC) than
those typically reported in hard machining.
the mid- to long-wavelength range (greater that 3 Pm)
While solid state detectors targeted at measurements in
can measure even dynamic events [155], they are
expensive and require cooling to liquid nitrogen
temperatures. As an alternative, the infrared charge-
coupled device (IR-CCD) technique based on CCD
sensors and modern electronics has been used
successfully to determine tool temperature fields in three
areas: orthogonal turning at conventional cutting speeds
[117, 118, 120-122], high-speed orthogonal machining
with a unique gas-gun propelled apparatus [195] and 3D
turning [148]. The disadvantage of IR-CCD's is that their
spectral responsivity peaks at shorter wavelengths
(0.27Pm - 1.05Pm). However, they are inexpensive, and
for high temperatures they can be quite effective. A
typical IR-CCD, described in [117], is shown in Figure 13
(4.5 Pm), silicon-based, CCD camera with an observation
(a). It consists of a near infrared (NIR), high resolution
area of 3.5 mm by 2.5 mm. Temperature measurements
are restricted to the range of 500ºC to 1000ºC and are
made with no coolant. A calculation of the uncertainty
[120], which considers only a black body calibration
source and assumes an emissivity higher than 0.5 for the
tool insert, shows the maximum error to be less than 5%.
The temperature distribution map for machining stainless
steel at 220 m/min, [119], is given in Figure 13 (b) and
maps that include even the use of chipbreaker geometry
cutting, [119], are shown in Figure 13(c,d). Local
-590-
maximum temperature points are present on the tool face
in two locations as seen in Figure 13(c), possibly
suggestive of design changes that could reduce wear.
This agrees qualitatively with results previously obtained
by Wanigarathne et al. [224], in their investigation of
progressive tool wear in machining of AISI 1045 steel
with coated (TiN/TiCN/TiC) grooved tools, where they
(7.5 Pm to 13 Pm) spectral system.
measured the temperature with a medium wavelength
In an attempt to tackle the issue of emissivity uncertainty,
Shin et al. [105, 153, 154] have developed an emissivity
measuring pyrometer which they applied to laser-
assisted machining (LAM) of ceramics with composition
including silicon nitride (Si3N4) (Figure 14). A value for
emissivity is determined by first measuring the laser light
reflected from the surface and then by applying the
relationship that for an opaque surface, emissivity is the
difference between one and the measured reflectance.
The emissivity measurements greatly reduce the
measurement uncertainties to ±2.5% at 1500ºC and to
±5.5% at 700ºC. Findings indicate that overall flank wear
increased gradually with time, but decreased with rising
workpiece temperature due to degrading material
strength.
Ratio radiation (two color) thermometry can also
indirectly overcome problems with uncertainty in
emissivity. The two-color pyrometer was introduced to
the study of turning by [208] and laser cutting [212] by
Ueda et al., who used optical fiber to collect radiation,
with Ge and InSb cells being used to achieve a high-
speed response. The basic pyrometer system is shown
in Figure 15. The infrared rays radiated from the object
are accepted by an optical fiber, and divided into two
channels by a fused fiber coupler. The fiber coupler
makes it possible to compensate for measurement error
arising from the location of the fiber. One channel is
linked to the InSb cell, the other to the Ge cell. Because
the two detectors have different spectral sensitivity, the
ratio of their two output signals changes with the
temperature of the object. By taking the ratio of the
output voltages of the two detectors, the sensitivity of the
pyrometer is independent of the emissivity of the object
and the temperature measured is independent of the
measuring distance. In a variation of this system,
infrared radiation emitted from the contact area between
the chip and rake face is transmitted through a diamond
tool and accepted by a chalcogenide fiber. The fiber
leads the radiation to a two-color detector comprised of
wavelength ranges 1Pm to 5 Pm and 6Pm to 13 Pm,
InSb and HgCdTe detectors, sensitive to radiation in the
respectively. Based on assumptions discussed above,
Ueda et al. obtain a signal that is related to temperature,
but independent of emissivity. The maximum
temperature on the rake face is found to be
approximately 190°C for aluminum and 220°C for copper
at a cutting speed of 620 m/min. These results agree well
with simulation. Using a similar arrangement with InSb
and Ge detectors, Ueda et al. measure the temperature
on the rake face of a chamfered CBN cutting tool used
on hardened steels [206]. Figure 16 summarizes the
temperatures measured with the device for steels of
various composition and hardness. Clearly, increases in
hardness and speed lead to significant increases in
temperature, such as with hard turning where
temperatures approaching 1000ºC are produced. A
similar arrangement was used more recently by Lazoglu
et al. [104] to measure hard turning of 51CrV4 steel (68
HRC) with a CBN tool.
Taking advantage of the emissivity insensitivity of two-
color pyrometry, Ueda et al. have also made significant
headway in solving the problem of determining tool-chip
interface temperature in the presence of coolant [3, 4,
203]. In Al Huda et al. [3] and in Ueda et al. [203], an
optical fiber is inserted into an alumina tool so that it
nearly reaches the rake face as shown in Figure 17(a).
Radiation is collected by the optical fiber and thus the
temperature can be determined independent of changes
in the emissivity of the target. Results confirm [184] that
coolant does not reach the tool-chip interface in turning.
For example, the machining of AISI 1045 steel [3] with
water soluble overhead-jet coolant versus dry machining
shows only a 3% decrease in cutting temperatures over a
range of cutting speeds from 200 m/min to 300 m/min at
a cutting depth of 0.8 mm and a feed rate of 0.2 mm/rev
(Figure 17(b)). Similarly, results for mist coolant show a
decrease in rake temperature from 1060ºC to only
1000ºC in turning AISI 1045 steel at 300 m/min. Müller
and Renz [132] developed a two-color pyrometer with
high spatial and temporal resolution which was
subsequently used [72, 97, 133] to measure Figure 13: (a) IR-CCD measurement arrangement of
temperatures of the newly cut surface in extremely high M’Saoubi et al. showing the (b) temperature maps (ºC) for
speed machining (up to 100 m/s) of three different machining SS2541 machined with an S6 insert at a
workpiece materials: carbon steel AISI 1045, aluminum cutting speed of 200 m/min and a feed of 0.15 mm. (c)
alloy AA 7075, and titanium alloy Ti6Al4V. Tool temperature map during oblique cutting with a chip
breaker geometry insert cutting stainless steel 316L at
Pursuing a thermophysical-based (TP) approach first
180 m/min with a feed of 0.3 mm/rev and (d) temperature
developed using paints by Shallbroach[182], Bickele[25],
profile on rake face [117-122].
Vierrege[220], Rossetto [173] and Kato [81], Wright and
Trent [227] correlated micro-hardness with the
temperature history of steel tools and was thus able to
develop thermal profiles for a variety of cutting conditions Laser Dynamometer
[228]. Ostafiev et al. [147] developed a grid of channels
filled with special thermosensitive paint in a split carbide Tool
tool, from which they developed the isotherms shown in Charge
Figure 18. Lo Casto et al. [114] use a constant melting Workpiece
Amplifier
point potassium nitrate powder on a plane parallel to the
Pyrometer
rake face to determine tool temperatures in cutting of
C40 steel with Ceramic (Alumina) inserts. Olson et al.
[145] propose online machine tool monitoring using thin- Data
film sensors (0.18 mm) able to simultaneously measure Processor Acquisition
heat flux and temperature, thus providing input for an System
improved inverse calculation of tool temperatures.
4.2 Milling Figure14:
Figure 14:Emissivity
Emissivitymeasuring
measuringpyrometer
pyrometerofofLei Leiet al.
Despite the introduction of extremely high speed et al.
[105] [94] measuring
measuring surfacesurface temperature
temperature of nitride with
of silicon
machining centers during the past two decades, milling silicon nitride
a CBN toolwith
in aalaser
CBNassisted
tool in amachining
laser assisted
cell.
process temperatures have received substantially less machining cell.
attention than turning. The difficulties of measuring InSb-pyrometer
rotating tools and multiple moving axes make the
experiments significantly more challenging than similar
Target Optical
experiments in turning. Nevertheless, many researchers Fiber
Area
output
have attempted to measure both interrupted turning and Condenser
milling processes, with most focusing on use of the
dynamic thermocouple. We also discuss how embedded Cladding
Object
thermocouples and direct radiance and ratio radiance
properties can be applied to the measurement of
temperature in milling. Ge-pyrometer
The dynamic thermocouple has been adapted to milling
Figure 15: Two-color pyrometer designed by Ueda et al.
via the addition of a slip ring. However, rotating Figure
Similar15: Two color
systems havepyrometer
been useddesigned
measureby Ueda
numerous
secondary hot junctions, such as those between insert et al. and utilized to processes
measure numerous
material removal [202-203,material
206-212].
and toolholder, tool and collet, collet and toolholder, and
removal processes [176-180].
toolholder and machine spindle complicate matters.
Narutaki et al. [136] appear to have been the first to of both gray cast iron and 2024 aluminum. Results
employ the tool-work thermocouple for measurements indicate that in both materials the peak temperatures
during interrupted cutting. Their study was of diffusive decrease as the time out of cut is increased, going from
wear mechanisms in Alumina-Zirconia tools used to mill 550ºC to around 500ºC in gray cast iron, and from 275ºC
plain carbon steel S45C at high surface speeds of to 250ºC in 2024 aluminum. Kitigawa et al. [83] provide
300m/min to 600m/min. The tool-work thermocouple further evidence for the supposition that interrupting the
implementation necessitated the addition of titanium cut decreases the maximum tool-chip temperature. Their
carbide with good electrical conductivity to the tool. No technique was to sinter a thermocouple wire coated with
detail of the setup or calibration of the thermocouple is ceramic into a carbide tool, essentially converting a chip-
given, but average rake temperatures of 1100ºC at 400 wire combination into a dynamic thermocouple, which
m/min, and 1300 ºC at 600m/min, are reported. was then used while cutting titanium. Measurements of
Stephenson et al. [193] employ the tool-chip cutting temperatures during intermittent turning are
thermocouple in interrupted and continuous turning tests shown in Figure 19, which includes data for continuous
and interrupted machining, with and without coolant. With

-591-
 60v% CBN
5º Rake, 6º Clear.,
Distance a Measure
1000 0.1 mm land, 0.2 Distance b plane
mm nose AISI52100
(700HV1)
900 15CrMo4
Chip flow
Temperature °C

(650HV1)
a=0.1 mm, direction
800 AISI1055
f=0.1 mm/rev (700HV1)
Primary
AISI52100 Motion
700 (510HV1) Thermal paint (a)
AISI1045 0
Pm
600 a=0.8 mm, 980° 831° 699° 567° 422°
(210HV1)
f=0.15 mm/rev
-1000

Distance b
500
100 200 300
Cutting speed m/min -2000

Figure16:
Figure 16:Data
Datafrom
fromUeda
Uedaetetal.
al.[206]
[180]showing
showingthe
the
-3000
effectof of
effect material
material hardness,
hardness, composition
composition and
and cutting 0 2000 4000
cutting speed
speed onon maximum
maximum rake
rake temperatures.
temperatures. Distance a (b)
Figure
Figure 18:18:
(a)(a) Split
Split carbide
carbide tooltool with
with thermo-sensitive
thermo-sensitive
Oil-mist nozzle
Chip
1000 paintand
painT grid grid(b)
and (b) isotherms
isotherms (Ostafiev
(Ostafiev [133]).[147]).
Temp˚C

Tool
w/piece
Depth of cut
● d=1.0mm 1000
♦ d=0.8mm
■ d=0.6mm
6mm continuous
Optical fiber 800 900 intermittent
Two color pyrometer 75 125 175 225

Temperature, °C
Cutting speed V m/min Dry
Work- 1100 Direction 30mm Wet
Mist Nozzle of cut
Temp˚C

piece
chip
Tool
tip ○ Dry cutting
● Wet cutting tool
800
150 250 350 Workpiece 300
Top view Side view
Cutting speed V m/min 200
(a) (b)
100
Tungsten 0
Figure
Figure 17:17:
(a)(a) Two-color
Two-color pyrometer
pyrometer arrangement
arrangement of Ueda wire (25Pm) 0 10 Time t (ms) 50 60

et of
al.Ueda
[203] et
andal.results
[176] and results
(b) for (b) AISI
cutting for cutting
1045 at AISI
various (a) (b)
1045 parameters
at various parameters with and
with and without without
flood flood
coolant.
coolant. FigureFigure
19: (a)19:
Orthogonal interrupted
(a) Orthogonal turningturning
interrupted
arrangement
arrangement of of Kitigawa
Kitigawa [73]
[83] and
and resulting
resulting temperature
measurements
temperature for cutting titanium
measurements withtitanium
for cutting carbide at at a
coolant, the maximum temperature is decreased by
withcutting
carbidespeed
at at of 100 m/min
a cutting speedandof a100
feed rate of 0.1
m/min
approximately 15%. Otherwise, the data does show that mm/rev.
if the time in cut is less than the rise time (in this case and a feed rate of 0.1 mm/rev.
approximately 20 ms); there is good evidence that the
desired effect can be achieved. Direct radiance measurements of milling seem to be
Several researchers have used embedded somewhat lacking, likely due to the difficulty and risk of
thermocouples to measure temperatures in atypical mounting an expensive pyrometer onto the moving axes
machining situations. For example, in their study of the of a machine-tool. Lin et al. [111] utilize a direct radiance
performance of whisker reinforced Alumina tools in measurement system (single-color pyrometer) with a spot
milling and continuous turning of Inconel® 718, size of 1 mm, which they mount to moving machine axes.
Elebestawi et al. [57], attached a nickel-chromium Measurements were made of the surface temperatures
thermocouple at a point 0.4 mm from the cutting edge of generated behind a three-flute end mill as it carved a slot
a rotating tool. Measured temperatures cluster at values in AISI 1050 steel plate at a surface speed of
between 300ºC and 350ºC for interrupted cutting, and approximately 300 m/min. At a point 10.5 mm behind
rise to higher temperatures of between 350ºC and 500ºC the center of the cutter, a rise of 50ºC to 60ºC is
for continuous cutting. Surface speeds ranged from 400 reported. Inverse calculation methods are proposed as a
m/min to 750 m/min. means of linking measurements to temperatures under
the tool.
In another example, Ng et al. [140] implant K-type
thermocouples into the workpiece to study high-speed Ueda et al. [202], employing ratio radiance thermometry,

[206, 208], to less than 10 Ps by using shorter

ball nose end milling of nickel-based superalloys using improved the response time of the two-color pyrometer
coated (RiAlN and TiAlCrN) carbide tools. At high
spindle speeds, the response time of a thermocouple is wavelength detectors, namely InAs and InSb, that

Pm ranges, respectively ( 20). Fiber-optic collectors are

as important as that of a dynamometer, since flute
variations can be seen in both signals. Because results
of this comprehensive work are consistent with those
found in [3, 4, 57, 193, 203], this would indicate that no
substantial difference in workpiece temperature was
observed when machining in either dry or spray mist
cutting environments. Ng et al. [140] also demonstrate
that decreases in maximum cutting temperatures can be
achieved by increasing flood coolant pressure from 27
bar up to 70 bar.
respond to radiation in the 1Pm to 3Pm and 3Pm to 5.5
positioned at four points around the tool, 0.5 mm from the
flank face. During one cycle of intermittent cutting, the
cutting edge, starting at between 349.7°C and 360°C, is
heated to 730°C by the cutting process, and thereafter
cools almost linearly from 730°C to 580°C. Therefore, a
thermal shock of 150°C is imparted with every revolution.
Qualitatively, the behavior agrees with simulations by Ng
et al. [139]. Ueda et al. [73, 74, 203] have used the two-

-592-
color pyrometer shown in Figure 20 to make
measurements of other milling processes. They have
shown that: (1) in milling of hardened carbon steel, the
temperature of the cubic boron nitride (CBN) tool rises
rapidly with increased cutting speed (to approximately
850°C at 600 m/min) [73]; (2) the hardness of the
workpiece greatly effects temperature; and (3) the
minimum quality lubricant (MQL) technique can be used
to lower the tool flank temperature significantly (by more
than 80ºC in their example [203]). In another study of
high-speed machining with a miniature ball endmill [75],
Ueda et al. implemented a three-color pyrometer
consisting of mercury cadmium telluride (MCT), InSb and
InAs detectors, to improve the accuracy of measurement.
4.3 Drilling
The process of measuring temperature during drilling
operations is challenging at best with the early literature
describing calorimic measurements [180]. We describe
specific methods and practices for the application of
embedded and dynamic thermocouples, metallurgical
methods and spectral radiance thermometry to
temperature measurement in drilling.
De Vries et al. [49, 51] determined drill and flank face
temperatures with iron-constantan embedded
thermocouples [48, 50], and this type of work continues
today [171]. Devries et al. found that workpiece
attributes, such as size and the presence of pilot holes,
affect temperature substantially, in line with the work of
Attia and Kops. Several researchers have attempted to
use indirect methods to study workpiece temperature at
the cutting site in drilling operations [134], where
embedding thermocouples at the hot spot is impractical
or impossible. One such method involves estimating heat
flux into the workpiece from the cutting site by combining
experimental temperature results with inverse heat
conduction thermal models. Kalidas et al. [80] used this
approach to develop a predictive model for cutting site
workpiece temperature in drilling As-cast Aluminum alloy
356 using uncoated and MoS2-coated HSS drills. Internal
workpiece temperatures were measured with inserted
type-E thermocouples, and were found to have risen by
as much as 40°C, with the cause being attributed to heat
fluxes occurring from the cutting tips and chisel edge. A
study by Battaglia and Kusiak [22, 80] employs an
inverse method for estimating internal heat fluxes during
high speed drilling, and predicts tool wear, as well.
Another procedure for measuring workpiece temperature
is described in [234] for MQL drilling of titanium alloy
Ti6Al4V with uncoated and coated (TiAlN, CrCN or TiCN)
K10 carbide drills. Type-K thermocouples are located
0.2mm from the wall of the drill hole and inserted at
different depths in order to capture the temperature
gradients along the drilling axis. The authors conclude
that workpiece temperatures could be reduced
substantially (50%) when the MQL is applied internally
through the tool instead of via an external nozzle.
Although the higher temperatures were recorded when
machining with uncoated drills, a comparison of
temperatures logged while using different coatings did
not reveal any substantial differences. Bagci and Ozcelik
[15-17, 150] determined temperatures in drilling AISI
4140 steel and Aluminum alloy Al 7075-T651 by inserting
a standard K-thermocouple into the internal coolant (oil)
hole of a TiAlN coated carbide drill. With varying spindle
speeds and feed rates, the maximum temperatures found
for AISI 4140 and Al 7075-T651 were in the range of
165°C to 420°C and 160°C to 240°C, respectively. Their
experiments compared favorably with finite element
method (FEM) simulations
A drill-foil dynamic thermocouple was used by Bono and
Ni [27] to measure temperature distribution along the
-593-
cutting edges of a drill. The thermocouple is created
when a drill contacts a metal foil embedded in the
workpiece. As the drill progresses, the contact moves
along the cutting edges, “scanning” the temperature
along the way. In the cases where the workpiece itself is
composed of electrically conducting material, then sheets
of insulating material and foil are stacked between two
plates of the workpiece material, and the process
proceeds as above. The device is calibrated with a
standard thermocouple clamped between the drill point
and a piece of the foil. Bono and Ni [28] also employed
this methodology to validate a finite element model that
predicts temperature profiles along the cutting edges of a
drill. Contrary to conventional thought, this model shows
maximum temperatures occurring on the chisel edge.
In an application of metallurgical methods, Al Huda et al.
[3] compared heat treated high speed steel (HSS)
calibration specimens to those from cutting experiments
to deduce temperatures in the range of 650°C to 900°C
[127, 198]. This method capitalizes on the fact that high
speed steels such as M2, M7, M33 exhibit microstructure
changes starting at temperatures in the range of 600°C
to 650°C. These temperatures establish the lower limits
for the subsequent determination of tool isotherms. More
recently, taking into account the relationship of vanadium
content to workpiece temperatures and functionality,
Reissig et al. [168] used a transmission electron
microscope coupled with an energy dispersive X-ray
vanadium in the E phase of Ti6Al4V workpiece
measurement system to determine local concentration of
specimens after drilling., finding reductions even at
intermediate temperatures.
The drilling operation provides only limited access for
infrared measurements of the tool temperature in a blind
hole. Hence, thermal measurement is necessarily
restricted to outer surfaces of the workpiece where
temperature is only indirectly affected by tool-work
interaction in the borehole. A work-around for this
dilemma, based on spectral radiance thermometry[56], is
found in Belotserkovsky et al. [24], where an IR fiber-
optic radiometric sensor, consisting of a polycrystalline
silver halide (AgCl0.5Br0.5) multimode unclad fiber, was
used to monitor the surface temperature distribution
during mechanical drilling in plastic and aluminium. The
radiometer had two separate channels with IR
Pm to 15 Pm. The input tips of the IR fibres were located
pyroelectric detectors operating in a spectral range of 6
1 mm or less away from the rotating sample and drill. A
blackbody calibration procedure in combination with
heated drill specimens within the temperature range of
20°C to 70°C, yields an estimated overall system
uncertainty of +/- 0.2 °C, and repeatability of +/- 0.15 °C.
Measurements indicate maximum surface temperatures
of 55°C when cutting with a 6 mm diameter drill bit in a
workpiece 12 mm thick.
Dörr et al. [55] overcame lack of access to tool-work
contact zone by fabricating a workpiece of thickness
equal to bore-hole depth and by using an infrared camera
to measure tool temperature at exit of the drill. Beneath
the workpiece, a 45° deviation mirror was used to direct
the signal onto the camera as illustrated in Figure 21.
Coating systems were shown to reduce tool temperature.
4.4 Abrasive processes - Fixed
Abrasion encompasses a wide range of topics and
methods, from grinding to polishing. But because the
average temperatures encountered in fixed versus loose
abrasive processes typically differ by an order of
magnitude, the challenges of understanding process
temperatures and measurement issues for the two cases
are dissimilar, and generally will be addressed as
separate topics.
Temperatures occurring in fixed abrasive processes are
generally measured with dynamic and embedded
thermocouples, and direct radiance techniques, and
these topics are covered in the following paragraphs.
Grinding is an energy intensive process as was
determined quite early by calorimic studies [32, 66, 123,
177, 179], with most of the resulting heat largely
dissipated through the workpiece. Detrimental effects
include variations in workpiece hardness and
microstructure, grinding burn, cracking and discoloration.
As with other types of machining, correlations among the
physical processes occurring during grinding, such as the
degree of chip formation, sparking and temperature
change, have long been sought. In 1952, Outwater and
Shaw [149] found in their experiments that sparks formed
during grinding were actually caused by exothermic heat
being released during chip oxidation which occurred
immediately after the chips left the grinding zone. As a
result, it was concluded that the grinding zone must be
measured directly, and to do so, they implemented
dynamic thermocouple techniques which had been
introduced to turning in the 1920s.
Since then, other thermocouple variations have been
used, as described in Tönshoff [199]. Notably,
thermocouples have been embedded directly into the
grinding wheel [34, 43], and spectral radiance
thermometry has yielded insights into temperature
magnitudes and gradients at both local and global levels
[125]. We list several references of particular interest: In
1967, Kops and Shaw [92, 94] used various IR films and
PbS detectors to measure grinding temperatures; in the
1980’s, Ueda successfully utilized ratio thermometry and
optical fibers to collect IR from the grinding zone [204,
205, 207, 209-211, 213]; Xu et al. [231] performed
experimental work to compare results obtained from
three different measurement methods; embedded
infrared optical fiber and embedded and dynamic
thermocouples, finding all results in good agreement. In
1974, Kops and Hucke [88, 91] provided the first large
scale field of view of the grinding process, which
contained both the workpiece and the grinding wheel [76,
77, 177]. In the following sections, greater detail on these
various techniques, along with the significance of their
measuring capabilities, is provided.
Outwater and Shaw [149] used the tool-grit dynamic
thermocouple consisting of a grinding wheel (vitreous
bonded silicon carbide) and a workpiece. To overcome
high impedance while capitalizing on high thermoelectric
power, it was necessary to use a vacuum-tube voltmeter
to record voltage/temperature variations. Their system
was calibrated in a furnace reaching temperatures of
1600 ºF (871 ºC) and measured against a chromel-
alumel thermocouple. While conducting tests on a variety
of metals, and recording grinding temperatures up to
6000 ºF (3316 ºC), they found that they were able to
extrapolate the calibration curve outside the measured
range. They speculated that the measurements
corresponded to the mean temperatures of several grits
and were thus lower than true peak temperatures. A
microstructure analysis of the ground surfaces led them
to conclude that while temperatures were high, a high
rate of heat dissipation also occurred. König and Lowin
[87] developed this method further.
Newer research focuses on a type of dynamic
thermocouple (grindable thermocouple), embedded in the
workpiece. The hot junction is formed when the grinding
wheel brazes two embedded wires together or brazes a
single wire to the workpiece. Various configurations are
summarized in [21] and [200].
The first single wire grindable thermocouple, presented
by Peklenik in 1957 [151, 152], consisted of a 0.2 mm
-594-
Figure
Figure20:
20:Two-color
Two-colorpyrometer
pyrometerfor formeasuring
measuringthethetool-
flank temperature in milling of AISI
tool-flank temperature in milling of 1045 steel,steel,
AISI 1045 Ueda et
al. [202].
Ueda et al.[175].
Drill
Workpiece
Infrared Radiation
Mirror
Figure 21: Spectral radiance experiment [55]
[51].
diameter insulated Platinum wire, was inserted into a
0.25 mm diameter hole in the workpiece (Figure 22). This
thermocouple is reported to have response times on the
order of 2 μs. Pu et al. [157] used the same
configuration, calibrating the thermocouple as described
in [230], and claiming an uncertainty of only 1%. Using
several of these thermocouples along the length of the
workpiece, they investigated grinding burn in creep feed
grinding of 45C steel and 20CrMnTi with a corundum
grinding wheel. They concluded that grinding burn is not
film boiling. Batako et al. investigated the effect of the
single pole wire geometry on the temperatures recorded
during wet and dry high efficiency deep grinding (HEDG)
of soft steel [21], for three different formations of hot
junctions, namely a wire (25 μm in diameter), a thin foil
(10 μm by 15 μm) and thicker strips (widths ranging from
18 μm to 50 μm and breath of 750 μm). Under dry
conditions, all three provided similar results, but under
wet conditions the thicker strips provided the most
reliable readings. Other researchers have implemented
this technique to evaluate grinding processes, [99, 174,
175], such as in Davidov [43], who inserted a single pole
thermocouple into a grinding wheel.
Nee and Tay [137] presented a version of the grindable
thermocouple, whereby, instead of one insulated wire
plus workpiece acting as the other ‘wire’, two standard
thermocouple wires are placed between a split workpiece
and separated from each other by thin insulating mica
sheets. The advantage of this system is that calibration
is easier than with Peklenik’s original configuration.
Calibration and initial testing with a hot slider gave a time
constant of 3.4 ms. Dry grinding tests on mild steel with
silicon carbide wheels determined that table/workpiece
speed had the greatest influence on temperature
followed by depth of cut and wheel speed. Maximum
recorded temperatures were approximately 2300 ˚C.
Rogov et al. [172] applied this two pole technique to fine
grinding of glass. Thermocouple wires were embedded in
K8 optical glass, with the hot junction formed between
the wires and the wheel. They found that maximum
material removal rate and smoothest surface were
obtained when running under the hottest conditions, high
load and minimum coolant volume. The maximum
temperatures were on the order of 190˚C.
Brinksmeier et al. [34] evaluated the capabilities of three
type-K thermocouple (chromel-alumel) pairs, separated
by an insulating layer embedded in the grinding wheel, to
record grinding temperatures. Each pair differed in its
physical form, with the thin film sensor thermocouple
having the shortest response time. This sensor was
made up of layers of Chromel and Alumel separated by a
layer of SiON, deposited on silicon by evaporation
techniques (Figure 23). The sensor signal was
transmitted by wireless means to a data acquisition
system at a rate of 40 kHz. While this type of
thermocouple has very short response times, it has not
been fully calibrated. Nevertheless its potential is highly
apparent.
Littmann and Wulff [113] used embedded thermocouples
to measure grinding temperatures. They inserted
constantan wires into a workpiece below the surface to
be ground. Owing to the distance of the thermocouples
from the surface, and time constant effects, temperatures
recorded by this method were conservative. However,
careful placements of the gauges at a range of depths
below the surface gave insights into the existence of
thermal gradients within the workpiece. Gou et al. [65],
while grinding hardened bearing steel with vitrified CBN
wheels, used embedded type-K thermocouples to
experimentally validate numerical models which assess
the extent of heat partition into the workpiece. They found
good agreement between model and experiment under
conditions whereby 4% to 8.5% of the heat went into the
workpiece.
In 1957 Mayer and Shaw [125], as an alternative to the
chip-grit thermocouple, used a direct radiance
measurement technique with lead sulphide cells to
monitor grinding temperature. A hole, approximately 2.25
mm in diameter, was drilled through the side of a cup
grinding wheel in order to allow radiation from the ground
surface to strike a PbS cell which was positioned so that
it would be kept at constant temperature in an ice bath.
The cell was calibrated against a standard chromel-
alumel thermocouple and an electrically heated steel
work piece, while running dry grinding tests on
ANSI52100. The results correlated well with the
numerical model produced by Outwater et al. [149],
whose study also looks at how different coolants affect
expected grinding temperatures.
In 1967 Kops and Shaw [92-94] examined thermal
signatures of surface grinding with the aid of high speed
infrared films by Kodak and Polaroid, and lead sulphide
PbS detectors.. The work necessitated a variety of
special instruments and test rigs custom built for their
purpose, with recording of results going to IR film.
Experiments with single grains revealed the torsional
compliance of the abrasive-bond set, while PbS
detectors, focusing on a 1.5 mm area of grinding wheel
just above the grinding zone, showed the effect of up and
down grinding, as well as the increase in depth of cut due
to thermal expansion of the workpiece. The films also
show that the grinding wheel is not cooled completely in
the non-grinding section of its revolution. In 1974, Kops
and Hucke [88, 91] used an imaging system with an InSb
photovoltaic detector to record thermal gradients during
surface grinding. The camera was mounted on the
grinding machine table and relayed images to a monitor
where they were recorded to a video camera (Figure 24).
The award winning movie that resulted from these
experiments [88] provided useful information regarding
heat dissipation into the workpiece during grinding and
revealed the existence of a secondary heat input to the
workpiece, namely the stream of hot chips ejected from
under the hood. Similarly, Sakagami et al. [177] utilized
-595-
full field IR to evaluate thermal gradients arising during
grinding. Their camera was Indium antimonide-based,
with a field of view of 6.7 mm by 6.7 mm, pixel resolution
of 52.5 μm and an integration time of 0.15 ms. Krylon
ultra flat mat paint was used to improve workpiece
emissivity. The system was calibrated from room
temperature to 400˚C with an E-type thermocouple
attached to painted plate. In addition to recording the IR
variations emitted from the side of the workpiece they
incorporated a dynamometer into their experimental
setup. Results obtained during dry cut grinding with CBN
and AL2O3 wheels correlated with their heat partition
model. Due to camera resolution, the experiment did not
capture the thermal gradients within 100 μm of the
surface.
Hwang et al. [76, 77] used a high speed InSb detector
by 7.68 mm, and spatial resolution of 30 Pm to
with a sensitivity of 0.025 ºC, a field of view of 7.68 mm
investigate thermal gradients in taper and plunge grinding
of AISI 4340 steel. Filters avoided saturation of the
detectors at higher temperatures. Calibration was against
a K-type thermocouple from 30˚C to 600˚C. Steady state
results from the taper test agree well with those obtained
from constant depth tests when each was performed at
comparable depths, a finding which can greatly shorten
test times. They also found large thermal gradients of
500 ˚C over 1mm, in the workpiece.
Ueda used an optical fiber, plus InAs and PbS cells with
response times on the order of μs and 200μs,
respectively, to collect IR from the grinding zone[204,
205, 210]. In tests, a workpiece was fitted with a
Peklenick type thermocouple and two IRP's were placed
into blind holes in the workpiece. Pyrometers were used
to detect the highest temperatures. In 2001, Xu et
al.[231] performed a similar set of experiments to
investigate three different measurement devices:
embedded and dynamic thermocouples and an
embedded infrared optical fiber. While the dynamic
thermocouple recorded higher temperatures, after
accounting for the depth of the embedded sensor, it was
found that results from all three methods proved
comparable. Ueda adjusted the location of the InAs
pyrometer so that it focused on the grinding wheel exiting
the grinding zone, and was able to measure the radiance
from single abrasive particles as they exited from the
grinding zone (Figure 25). Three different grinding wheels
were tested, and it was determined that the exiting
temperature of the abrasives did not vary significantly
with depth of cut or workpiece speed, but did vary with
wheel speed. Chandrasekar et al. [35]undertook similar
tests with an optical fiber placed in a through-hole in the
workpiece. Indium antimonide operating with a bandwidth
of from 0.65μm to 5.3 μm was used.
By modifying the setup used by Chandrasekar, Hebbar et
al. [67] completed similar experiments on the grinding of
ceramics. Average grinding wheel temperatures obtained
on Si3N4, Zircronia, steel and ferrite were 692 ˚C, 592 ˚C,
721 ˚C and 620 ˚C, respectively.
4.5 Abrasive Processes - Loose
In loose abrasive processes, such as lapping and
polishing, the magnitude of the applied loads and relative
velocities are such that high temperatures and severe
thermal gradients are not expected to occur. Since
temperature and rate of platen wear are not prime factors
affecting final part quality, there is little research in this
area. Still, there has been some interest in gauging
temperature during polishing, with thermocouples and
direct radiance methods being applied, and these are
discussed below.
Following the proposal of a flow theory to explain the
quality of surfaces obtainable in glass polishing by Sir
 Location of the introduction of chemical mechanical planarization (CMP)
thermal joint Workpiece into the IC manufacturing line in 1989, there has been a
welded during resurgence of interest in material removal mechanisms
grinding Pt - wire (diameter
0.2mm) coated in and process control methods that might lend themselves
insulating synthetic to process automation. This has spurred further scientific
resin. Inserted in a
hole of approx. study, with the majority of the research in this area
0.25mm in diameter focused on understanding global polishing temperatures.
No research directed at determining polishing flash
Workpiece temperatures has yet been conducted, but is an area
with embedded deserving of further research.
thermocouple
Grinding wheel Sugimoto et al. [194], utilized thermocouples to study
wafer pad polishing. They attached two thermocouples to
Preamplifier the back of a silicon wafer (one at the center and one at
the edge), on the assumption that because of the high
RC Generator
Film to thermal conductivity of silicon, these temperatures would
record be indicative of those at the wafer pad interface.
Cathode ray output
oscillograph Maximum temperatures recorded for the polishing of
oxide coated wafers with the slurry supplied at 8 ºC, was
Figure
Figure 22:
22: Schematic
Schematic of of Peklenik’s
Peklenik’s Thermocouple
Thermocouple [151]. about 24 ºC.
[137].
Wang et al. [222], used a non contact infrared thermal
sensor to assess the temperature of a polishing pad
exiting out from under a tungsten coated wafer. The
sensor operated in the 7 μm to 14 μm range. The
temperature recorded at exit served to isolate the end
point of the polishing process, reached when the blanket
layer of tungsten is removed. When this occurs, the heat
generated by friction and the exothermic reaction cause a
noticeable change in recorded temperature, with maxima
on the order of 75 ºC.
Stein et al. [188, 189] measured the point where the pad
Figure
Figure 23:
23: Thin
Thin film
film thermocouples
thermocouples integrated
integrated into
into exits the tungsten coated wafer, using an infrared sensor.
grinding wheel,wheel,
grinding Brinksmeier et al.[29].
Brinksmeier et al.[33]. They performed several tests covering a wide range of
process parameters and consumable types. They
reported maximum detected temperatures of less than 60
ºC, but did not describe calibration. White [226], Lin
[112] and Hocheng [69] also used thermal imaging
cameras with large fields of view to look at the pad
temperature exiting the wafer in CMP.
Mullany [131], capitalized on the transmission of silicon at
certain wavelengths, to study the temperatures at the
wafer pad interface during CMP. She used an HgCdTe
camera with a large field of view, and an operating
bandwidth of 2.0 μm to 5.6 μm. By modifying the CMP
configuration to expose the back of the wafer, she was
able to observe thermal gradients at the pad-wafer
interface [131] (Figure 26). Thermal fields were mapped
using a heated water bath whose temperature was
monitored with a thermocouple. Results of this work
provided a unique insight into how process parameters
Figure
Figure 24:24: Experimental
Experimental setup
setup forfor thermal
thermal imaging
imaging with and polishing pad properties influence thermal gradients
withThermovision
AGA AGA Thermovision
750 and750 and videorecording
videorecording equipment and maximum process temperatures. Maximum
equipment Sony-matic;
Sony-matic; IR camera
IR camera traveling traveling
with with
the table [88]. temperatures while polishing blanket oxide wafers were
the table [79]. around 28 ˚C.
4.6 Electro-Discharge Machining
Output Voltage

h: indicative of temperature
l l: intervals between grains Process temperatures during electro-discharge
b: size of cutting grain machining (EDM) have not been extensively measured,
and the lack of experimental data is certainly correlated
h to the measurement challenges, most notably the very
high temperatures, short discharge durations, small
b Time (ms) electrode gaps and the presence of a dielectric fluid.
Metallurgical examination of the workpiece surface after
Figure
Figure 25:25: A typical
A typical output
output voltage
voltage signal
signal obtained
obtained by EDM has given insights with respect to the magnitude
by measuring
measuring the radiance
the radiance emittedemitted by the abrasive
by the abrasive particles and gradients of the temperatures experienced by the
particles
as as from
the exited the exited from zone,
the grinding the grinding zone,
Ueda [207]. workpiece [215]. In 1995, Albinski et al. [5] assessed
Ueda [184]. plasma temperatures by measuring the intensity of the
Fe I line spectrum emission. The intensity of the emitted
Beilby [187], researchers have wondered if the radiation at two different wavelengths (411.854 nm and
magnitude of the flash temperatures occurring in glass 413.206 nm) was captured by monochromators and
polishing can cause localized melting of the glass. photomultipliers. The relative intensities were then used
However, few measurements were made. With the to estimate plasma temperatures to be in the range of
8,000K to 10,000K. Kloche et al. [84] also measured the

-596-
 Table 1 : Comparison of methods.
RTD Thermo-
couple
Temperature Range Metal 0ºC-
Melting 3000ºC
Spatial Resolution 500 Pm >500 Pm
*10 Pm
Properties
Time Resolution 2 ms 100 ms
Ease of set up Easy Easy
Dominant Material Junctions
Uncertainty Damage
Cost Low- Low
Medium
radiation emitted from the discharge zone, using a high
speed framing camera that consisted of a macro lens, a
beam splitter and three CCD cameras. The CCD
cameras were each fitted with different filters, ranging
from 450 nm to 700 nm. The system was calibrated and
the cameras characterized against a tungsten lamp at
temperature of 3000K. The emission intensities were
recorded during 3μs time intervals and were used to
solve a modified Max Planck equation for the process
temperatures. The values obtained ranged widely from
4742K to 6426K, probably owing to blackbody
assumptions and inconsistencies between sequential
discharges, necessarily affecting many input parameters.
Wire EDM relies on a thin wire (approximately 250 μm
diameter) to carry pulses of current to the workpiece.
While many sources of wire breakage are understood,
the role that temperature plays in the process is not
completely clear. Due to the difficulty in accessing the
wire during machining, alternatives to the temperature
measurement techniques outlined in Section 3 have been
developed. For example, Kunieda et al. [98] make use of
how wire temperature affects specific resistance to
compute wire temperature. That is, by knowing these
values, and by measuring the changes in the ratio of the
total current to the current carried in the different sections
of the wire EDM circuitry, it is possible to calculate the
temperature of the wire. Peak temperatures recorded by
this technique were on the order of 180 ˚C. Obara et al.
Figure 26: Infrared polishing measurements of
Mullany et al. [131].
-597-
Method
Dynamic Single-Color Two-Color Thermo-
Thermo- Pyrometer Pyrometer physical
couple
Work 20ºC- 0ºC-5000ºC+ Ttrans
Melting 5000ºC+
Interface 5 Pm (T 20 Pm 100Pm
Average dependent)
- ms to Ps ms to Ps Poor
Easy Difficult Difficult Easy-
Medium
Junction Emissivity Gray Body
Control Assumption
Low Medium- Medium Low
High
[143] presented a similar technique, but did not take wire
wear and impulse frequencies into consideration. They
estimated a time-averaged wire temperature of less than
100 ˚C. Using the above methodologies, wire
temperatures reported are all lower than those typically
causing wire rupture. However, for more accurate
measurements, it is necessary to also include effects of
both wire wear and of process impulse frequency.
5 COMMENTARY ON MEASUREMENT PRACTICES
Because of its relationship to workpiece quality and wear,
as well as to the scientific aspects of tooling, the
measurement of temperature during material removal
processes is being aggressively pursued, but mostly in
the purview of established methods. However, in some
cases, such as with wire-EDM, milling and drilling, new
methods are being devised that can circumvent some
measurement difficulties.
Despite this new work and data, one must still depend
largely on information available in the current literature,
where the chances that published data can match an
exact experimental or shop floor situation are very low,
considering that even small changes in process
parameters, materials, tooling etc., can lead to large
uncertainties. An example of this, with a few exceptions,
is in the case of orthogonal turning where trends agree,
but agreement between experiments in the literature is
hard to establish since each measuring environment is
slightly different. Another observation is that combined
standard uncertainties are rarely reported, and when
reported, they all too often correspond to manufacturer
quoted uncertainties. These tend to be artificially low
because they apply to instruments under the best
calibration conditions, and not for those encountered in
most material removal processes. However, what we can
say is that combined uncertainties in any reported
process measurement are likely to be within ±10%, at
best, and that is our educated estimate based on
experience, both in the shop and with published studies.
The value of this information from the perspective of
process predictions is in regard to simulation, where one
can say that if the simulation does not agree to within
±10% of the most well controlled measurements, then the
methodology and/or the input data may be in error.
Modern methods of temperature measurement
accommodate ever higher bandwidths in tandem with
higher resolution. Additionally, it is now possible to utilize
high-fidelity numerical simulations in concert with these
measurements to identify material constitutive behavior
[158, 159, 183]. In fact, FEM-supported simulation of the
cutting process also make it possible to evaluate the
cutting temperatures both in the chip and the tool
(Bouzakis et. al. [31]).
Finally, choosing a method of temperature measurement
in experimental material removal operations is a daunting
task, given the variety and sub-categories within each.
Beyond that, there are aspects common to each which
should also be considered. In Table 1, we summarize
methodology versus these aspects with quantitative
estimates of the ranges to be expected for each of the
various parameters. These are only estimates and are
based on our knowledge of best practices for the given
method, but should provide a starting point for the new
researcher in the field or the seasoned researcher
considering the use of a new method.
6 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors sincerely thank the following persons for
their valuable contributions to the preparation of this
manuscript: P.-J. Arrazola, H. Altena, E. Brinksmeier, K.
Bouzakis, J. Byrne, T. Childs, E. Davies, B. Denkena, T.
Estler, C. Evans, R. Hocken, H. Kals, F. Klocke, L. Kops,
I. S. Jawahir, D. Lung, S. Malkin, M. Mitsuishi, T.
Moriwaki, Y. Shin, H. Shinno, K. Weinert, A. Zhender.
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