Journal of the American Institute for Conservation

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AN INVESTIGATION INTO KANDINSKY'S USE OF

RIPOLIN IN HIS PAINTINGS AFTER 1930

Gillian Mcmillan, Francesca Casadio, Inge Fiedler & Veronique Sorano-

Stedman

To cite this article: Gillian Mcmillan, Francesca Casadio, Inge Fiedler & Veronique Sorano-
Stedman (2013) AN INVESTIGATION INTO KANDINSKY'S USE OF RIPOLIN IN HIS PAINTINGS
AFTER 1930, Journal of the American Institute for Conservation, 52:4, 258-277, DOI:
10.1179/1945233013Y.0000000010

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 AN INVESTIGATION INTO KANDINSKY’S USE OF RIPOLIN IN
HIS PAINTINGS AFTER 
GILLIAN MCMILLAN, FRANCESCA CASADIO, INGE FIEDLER,
AND VERONIQUE SORANO-STEDMAN

Conservation Department, Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum

Conservation Department, The Art Institute of Chicago

Centre Pompidou

Vasily Kandinsky worked in a variety of media throughout his long career, and it appears from technical exam-
inations and from his writings that he experimented with and manipulated his materials and techniques. This
article describes the scientific investigation of five paintings dated after , four of which were recorded by
the artist as containing “huile + rip” (“rip” being thought to refer to the renowned brand of oleoresinous
enamel paint Ripolin or perhaps to another similar enamel type paint mixed with other media). Following a
thorough non-invasive investigation of the paintings with XRF, selected paint samples were analyzed with
FTIR spectroscopy, optical and polarized light microscopy, and SEM with energy dispersive x-ray spectroscopy.
The results were compared to an extensive database of reference enamels and artist tube paints from the same era
along with actual paints left by the artist in his studio. This study draws attention to the artist’s complex use of
mixed media, which if the artist’s statements are accurate, may well have included mixtures of oleoresinous
enamel paints and fine artist’s tube paints, occasionally supplemented with dry pigments, used together with
artists’ oils on the same painting.
KEYWORDS: Kandinsky, Ripolin, Paint analysis, Oleoresinous paint, Enamels

. INTRODUCTION
A pioneer of Western abstract art, Vasily Kandinsky
(–) was intensely interested in the relation-
ship between the visual arts and music and in the
expression of a deep spirituality he called his “inner
necessity.” Kandinsky’s choices of materials evolved
with his painting style throughout his career, as docu-
mented by the growing number of technical studies
available in the literature (Wackernagel , ;
Wackernagel et al. ; Fischer et al. ; McMillan
and Kowalski ; Steele et al. ). Kandinsky
moved to Paris in  and settled with his wife Nina
into a small apartment in Neuilly, a suburb of Paris,
where he lived and painted until his death in .
The contents of the entire Neuilly studio, including
several artworks and other studio materials, were
donated to the Centre Georges Pompidou by the
artist’s wife, a bequest that was officially accepted in
, a year after Nina Kandinsky’s death (Derouet
). This legacy constitutes an invaluable repository
of material evidence on the artist’s practice of painting
and its contents have been meticulously cataloged, with
particular attention to painting materials and tools
(Dagron ). Specifically the following categories
have been described: dry pigments, tube colors, cans,
additives, materials for grinding and mixing paint, sup-
ports and preparations, brushes, books, and commer-
cial catalogs of paint. Importantly for this study, the
inventory also included four cans of white enamel
paint (three of the Valentine brand and one by
Ripolin) along with two black enamel paints
(“Fahrrad-Email” paint for bicycles and “Emaille-
Lackfarbe noir”): a tangible proof that Kandinsky
acquired non-artist’s materials and may have incorpor-
ated them in his work.
Kandinsky kept rather meticulous records of his
artistic output in small notebooks that he called his
Hauskataloges or Handlists (Roethel and Benjamin
, –; Endicott-Barnett , ), preserved
today in the Kandinsky Archives at the Centre
Georges Pompidou in Paris (MNAM/CCI). They
contain entries for most (but not all) of his many
works. The entries in Handlist IV (Kandinsky –
), which is the volume referred to in this paper,
usually include a Handlist number; a thumbnail pencil
sketch of the work; a date; the size; to whom a work

© American Institute for Conservation

of Historic and Artistic Works 
DOI: ./Y. Journal of the American Institute for Conservation , Vol.  No. , –
 INVESTIGATION INTO KANDINSKY’S USE OF RIPOLIN IN HIS PAINTINGS 

was sold (if it was sold); and sometimes the price
(figs. a, b). Significantly for all of those interested in
painting techniques, in Handlist IV—which contains
the notations for paintings from Dessau and Paris
from the years –—after  the artist also
often included a note on the media and occasionally
the support. Between October  and March of
, of the  paintings Kandinsky entered in this
Handlist, a total of  works have either “ripolin,”
“rip,” “Ripol,” or “ripol” included in the medium
notes written in Kandinsky’s hand, as detailed in
table . The first notation of “huile + ripolin” occurs
in the entry for Handlist No.  in October of .
The fact that “Ripol” is listed with what appears to be
a capitalized initial only in one instance in the Handlist
raises the question whether the artist actually intended
to simply refer to the generic product (non-artist’s
enamel paints) rather than to denote an actual brand.
In any case other works are listed as “huile” or
“Tempera + huile” for example, without a ripolin desig-
nation. Therefore it is apparent that the artist was
making a distinction between works with ripolin and
those without.
Although the artist’s own notes are an important
documentation of his painting practice, Kandinsky’s
use of mixed media is a very complex subject to
unravel scientifically. In a  letter to
J. B. Neuman, Kandinsky wrote:
“For your information, what I call ‘watercolor’
does not mean that it is really watercolor,
because I mix different techniques; for instance
several ‘watercolors’ are painted in oil only or
in gouache, or in tempera, or in distemper
(which I grind myself) or they are painted in
several media at the same time on one and the
same sheet of paper. (Equally, what I call ‘oil’ is
also not always painted in oil but is mixed in
the same way)” (Roethel and Benjamin ,
).
He also wrote to Hans Thiemann in : “[As of
this moment] I have listed  ‘oil-paintings’ and 
‘watercolors’. The [quotation marks] indicate that this
division is a conventional one because in the case of
oil there are often other media at work (e.g. tempera,

FIG. . V. Kandinsky, Handlists (MNAM, Centre Georges Pompidou): (a) detail of the  handlist entry for Leichtes ();
and (b) two pages from the years –, with entries for Moderation () and Action Variées () ©  Artists Rights
Society (ARS), New York / ADAGP, Paris New York.

Journal of the American Institute for Conservation , Vol.  No. , –
 GILLIAN MCMILLAN ET AL.

TABLE . RELEVANT DETAILS FROM ENTRIES IN HANDLIST IV (–) LISTING “RIPOLIN”, “RIP”, “RIPOL”, OR “RIPOL” IN
a
THE MEDIUM NOTES

Date HL Title (French/English) Medium note Catalog Location

# #
October   Noir Bigarré (huile + ripolin) 
Variegated Black
October   Pointes (huile + ripolin)  Long Beach Museum of Art (The
Points Milton Wichner Collection
Bequest)
December   Stabilité Animée (huile + rip.) 
Animated Stability
January   La Petite Émourante (huile + rip.) 
Touching Little Thing
February-April  Ensemble Multicolore (huile + rip)  Musée National d’Art Moderne,
 Many-Coloured Centre Pompidou, Paris (Nina
Ensemble Kandinsky Donation)
July   La Toile Jaune (huile + rip.)  Solomon R. Guggenheim
Yellow Painting Museum, New York
February   Vers le Bleu (huile + Ripol.) 
Toward Blue
February   L’Ensemble Chaud (huile + ripol.) 
Warm Ensemble
March   Le Carre Rouge (huile + rip.) 
The Red Square
March   L’Élan (huile + 
Elan gouache + rip.)
July   Une Figure Entre (huile + rip.) 
Autres
One Figure Among
Others
December   L’Allégresse (huile + rip.) 
Cheerfulness
December   Surchargé (huile + ripol.) 
Overburdened
January   Vert et Rouge (huile et ripol 
Green and Red s. bois)
May   Et Encore (huile + rip)  Kunstmuseum Bern (Herman
And More and Margrit Rupf Stiftung)
May-August   Autour Du Circle (huile + rip.)  Solomon R. Guggenheim
Around the Circle Museum, New York
September   Modération (huile + rip)  Solomon R. Guggenheim
Moderation Museum, New York
October   Deux Lignes (huile + rip) 
Two Lines
March   Deux Noirs (huile + rip) 
Two Blacks
July   Contrastes Réduits (huile + rip) 
Reduced Contrasts
August   Fraîcheur (huile + rip 
Coolness s. carton)
Continued

Journal of the American Institute for Conservation , Vol.  No. , –
 INVESTIGATION INTO KANDINSKY’S USE OF RIPOLIN IN HIS PAINTINGS 

TABLE . CONTINUED
Date HL Title (French/English) Medium note Catalog Location
# #
August-September  Actions Variées (huile + rip.)  Solomon R. Guggenheim
 Various Actions Museum, New York
January   Balancement (huile + rip.) 
Balancing
January-February  Accord Réciproque (huile + rip.)  Musée National d’Art Modern,
 Reciprocal Accord Centre Pompidou (Nina
Kandinsky Donation)
March   Transparent (huile + rip.) 
Transparent
a
In Kandinsky’s Handlist the year is noted at the beginning of the entries for that year and the month is written in Roman
numerals in the upper left of the entry, (see fig b). The titles of the works are as they appear in the Roethel and Benjamin
Catalogue Raisonné () and the cat. rais. nos. are listed as are the present locations, if the work is in a public collection.

watercolors, gouache, India ink [Tuschel]] and equally
so with watercolors” (Roethel and Benjamin , ).
Although Kandinsky did not mention Ripolin in these
statements, but rather used generic terms like tempera
and distemper, researchers have yet to grasp a firm
knowledge of the formulas of his complex paints. Dis-
temper, for example, is a paint type often associated
with wall and mural painting, a subject Kandinsky
taught at the Bauhaus. It seems from his statements
that the artist may possibly have continued to use
them, mixed in some way, in his easel painting.
. DISTINGUISHING RIPOLIN FROM ARTIST’S TUBE PAINTS
AND THE COMPLEXITY OF MIXED MEDIA
The use of oleoresinous enamel paints is often associ-
ated with visual characteristics such as glossy finish,
fluid application that does not retain the mark of the
brush, and surface phenomena such as pooling or drip-
ping of paint and wrinkling of the paint film. However,
surface appearance alone, albeit useful, can sometimes
be misleading. Thus, when attempting to scientifically
determine the presence of Ripolin in specific works of
art previous research on the composition of oleoresi-
nous Ripolin enamel paints before  provides a
benchmark against which to compare unknown
samples (Gautier et al. ). Briefly, French Ripolin
paints are high quality paints, containing only trace
amounts of fillers, if any. Calcium sulfate, calcium car-
bonate, barium sulfate, kaolin clays, or silicates are not
used in substantial proportions to bulk up the paints.
Only limited amounts of calcite and kaolin are found
with selected red hues and ochre colors, and trace
amounts of barium sulfate were used only in sporadic
cases (especially for paint swatches containing red
organic pigments) (Casadio and Gautier ). White
Ripolin paint—blanc de neige—is based on pure zinc
oxide for all paints produced before ca.: the
pigment is characterized by small particle size (with
high concentration of particles in the – nm
length/diameter range) and a very limited presence of
acicular zinc oxide crystals, probably due to the fine
grinding process to which the paints were subjected
(Muir et al. ). Lead white is hardly ever found in
French Ripolin paints and when present only at trace
levels, it is always consistently associated with chrome
yellow pigments, as a byproduct of the synthesis of
these colors (Casadio and Gautier ). The compo-
sition of the ready-mixed colored paints remained
fairly consistent during the first half of the th
century. Colorants such as cadmium pigments, cobalt-
based blue pigments, emerald green, and cobalt
violets have not been detected in any Ripolin product,
while other pigments such as vermilion and red lead
are only occasionally used for highly specialized lines
(such as the Ripolin carrosserie line of car and boat
enamels) (Casadio and Gautier ). Most pigments
used for the various hues are inorganic in nature, with
the exception of Hansa yellow (PY), toluidine red
(PR), and alizarin crimson (PR) (Gautier et al.
). The binding medium for the paints is composed
of oil binders (likely stand oil, supplemented with
other oils) and natural resin components used in
higher proportions in the darker colors. The presence
of metal carboxylates and added driers (typically the
organometallic salts of cobalt, manganese, lead, and
possibly, zinc) has been documented (Muir et al.
). It is important to note that even though alkyd
paints became available at Ripolin from at least
, they were not widely distributed until much
later in the mid-s. Ripolin product lines based
on drying oils remained available from the beginning
of the Ripolin enterprise in  until well into the
s.
Early th-century enamel paints are mostly manu-
factured with the same set of starting components;

Journal of the American Institute for Conservation , Vol.  No. , –
 GILLIAN MCMILLAN ET AL.

however, proprietary formulations make it so that it is
often possible to distinguish one brand from another.
Previous analysis of other French commercial white
enamel paints of the late s (Casadio and Gautier
) as well as modern literature dealing with forensic
analysis of paints (Bell et al. ; Stewart et al. ),
provide further examples of the possibility of discrimi-
nating among paint producers based on the scientific
analysis of their products. Therefore, the manufactur-
ing characteristics of Ripolin paints described above
can be very helpful in distinguishing Ripolin paints
from artist’s tube paints and other brands of enamel
paints, especially when ready-mix enamel paints are
used straight out of the can. However, when artists
manipulate the oleoresinous enamel paints by adding
extra medium, paints from a tube, or even dry pigments
and other solid substances, the distinguishing criteria
listed above can become difficult to verify, as the ultimate
paint composition is effectively and substantially
modified by the artist.
To the best of the authors’ knowledge, no study to
date has ever addressed the use of non-artist’s enamel
paints in Kandinsky’s oeuvre. To begin to fill this gap,
the present investigation focused on five paintings for
which either Kandinsky himself noted the use of
Ripolin or ripolin-like paints, or anecdotal indications
of such use exist. Enamel paints provided a smooth
glossy finish with high covering power (much higher
than thinned-down artist’s tube paints) and would
have been well suited to the flat and thinly painted char-
acter of the late Paris period paintings at the center of
this study. Furthermore, the quick-drying properties
of this medium would have allowed the artist to lay
down the background color right after outlining the
geometric forms in black paint, pencil or ink, without
fear of later smudging such background paint when
painting into the geometrical shapes.
. MATERIALS AND METHODS
. HISTORIC REFERENCE MATERIALS
The Art Institute of Chicago (AIC) has an extensive
collection of Ripolin enamel paint cans () and paint
sample cards ( “brochures”) covering the entire
color range produced by the company in France
during the period – (Gautier ), which
is complemented by a limited selection of early
th-century artist’s tubes of paint. Reference samples
from paint swatches of a Ripolin paint sample card
postdating  available in the Ripolin reference col-
lection at AIC were analyzed for comparison with the
painting materials described in this work, as well as a
historic can of Ripolin Blanc de neige (AIC ref.
HPA) and a historic tube of Lefranc Blanc de zinc
pour decoration artistique (AIC ref. .). The
latter two white paints are undated, but likely
pre-date .
Samples of dried paint from the can of Ripolin Blanc
ivoire  and from the three Valentine Rapide cans con-
tained in the Kandinsky Archives were also analyzed. It
is important to note here that when the cans were
opened in , the Valentine Rapide paint was still
liquid and it was possible to paint it out on microscope
slides. This is not unusual as many historic Ripolin and

TABLE . DESCRIPTION OF THE FIVE KANDINSKY PAINTINGS STUDIED IN THIS WORK

Title Date Collection (accession Current media Dimensions Handlist

number) description (cm) number
(notes)a
Leichtes  MNAM, Pompidou (AM Oil/oil and  ×  HL 
–) enamel on (artist’s
cardboard frame)
Yellow Painting July  Solomon R. Guggenheim Oil and enamel . × . HL 
(La Toile Jaune) Museum, New York on canvas (huile + rip.)
(.)
Around the Circle May–August Solomon R. Guggenheim Oil and enamel . ×  HL 
(Autour du cercle)  Museum, New York on canvas (huile + rip.)
(.)
Moderation September Solomon R. Guggenheim Oil and enamel . × . HL 
 Museum, New York on canvas (huile + rip.)
(.)
Various Actions August– Solomon R. Guggenheim Oil and enamel . × . HL 
(Action Variées) September Museum, New York on canvas (huile + rip.)
 (.)
a
Italicized text indicates Kandinsky’s notation in the Handlists.

Journal of the American Institute for Conservation , Vol.  No. , –
 INVESTIGATION INTO KANDINSKY’S USE OF RIPOLIN IN HIS PAINTINGS 

FIG. . Two of the paintings examined for this study: (a) V. Kandinsky Leichtes (), Ripolin on cardboard,  ×  cm,
artist’s frame. MNAM Pompidou (AM –) Courtesy of Bertrand Prévost – Centre Pompidou, MNAM-CCI/Dist.
RMN-GP ©  Artists Rights Society (ARS), New York / ADAGP, Paris; and (b) V. Kandinsky, Moderation, (Sept. ),
oil and enamel on canvas; . × . cm, Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum, New York (.). ©  Artists Rights
Society (ARS), New York / ADAGP, Paris.

Valentine paints sampled by the authors were still
liquid even in cans that had been previously opened
and were over  years old.
. ARTWORKS AND PAINT SAMPLES
The five paintings at the center of this study are listed
in table . The earliest one, Leichtes, in the collection of
the Musée National d’Art Moderne (MNAM), Centre
Georges Pompidou in Paris (fig. a), measures  ×
 cm and is described in collections catalogs mostly
as “oil” or sometimes as “oil and enamel” on cardboard.
Leichtes was painted in , approximately a year
before Kandinsky started to note media and supports
for his works in Handlist IV, thus the entry for this
painting bears no technical details, but information in
the files of the Conservation department at the Pompi-
dou suggested the possibility that this work may
contain Ripolin.
The other four paintings are part of the collection of
the Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum in New York
(Rudenstine ; Kandinsky ). Executed on
canvas between  and , they are generally
larger, ranging from . × . cm for Moderation
(fig. b) to . ×  cm for Around the Circle
(fig. a), both dated . The other two are Yellow
Painting,  (fig. a) (. × . cm) and
Various Actions,  (fig. a)(. × . cm). It
is important to note here that the Handlist entries for
all the Guggenheim pictures examined in this study
bear the notation “huile + rip.” in Kandinsky’s hand-
writing, which is the reason they were selected for
study.
A total of six microscopic samples were taken from
the edges of these works, following non-invasive exam-
ination with x-ray fluorescence (XRF) spectroscopy as
described below. Two samples were removed from
Leichtes in areas of slight accumulation of color
caused by minimal dripping of the paint and one
sample was taken of the background colors at the
edge for each of the Guggenheim paintings.
. ANALYTICAL TECHNIQUES
The analytical protocol started with a thorough non-
invasive investigation with XRF to identify promising
areas for further analysis according to the known
characteristics of Ripolin paints (Gautier et al. ).
Subsequently, the six samples as well as samples of
reference historic paints (described in . and .)
were analyzed with micro-FTIR spectroscopy. All six
painting samples were also mounted as cross sections
in polyester resin, imaged, and analyzed with
SEM/energy dispersive x-ray spectroscopy (EDX).
Polarized light microscopy was also used to more
fully characterize of all the pigments present. Details
on the specific instrumental parameters used are
included in Appendix .

Journal of the American Institute for Conservation , Vol.  No. , –
 GILLIAN MCMILLAN ET AL.

FIG. . FTIR spectra of enamel paints from Kandinsky’s studio in Neuilly (images of the actual historical cans are illustrated at
right): (a) Ripolin Blanc Ivoire ; (b) Valentine Rapide Blanc.

FIG. . Detail of the bottom left edge of the painting Leichtes () showing minimal drips and accumulation of paints, which
is consistent with application of the fluid background color with the support lying flat.

FIG. . Detail from the upper right quadrant of Leichtes (), illustrating the sequence of paint application. Because the fluid
light blue paint in the background occasionally overlaps with the slightly textured paint application in the reddish-orange circle it
is inferred that the background color was applied last. Courtesy of S. Lepigeon.

Journal of the American Institute for Conservation , Vol.  No. , –
 INVESTIGATION INTO KANDINSKY’S USE OF RIPOLIN IN HIS PAINTINGS 

TABLE . SUMMARY OF PAINTING MATERIALS CHARACTERIZED IN THE FIVE PAINTINGS ANALYZED FOR THIS STUDY

Painting Grounda Pigments inferred from XRF analysis Paint materials identified in samples of
of the geometrical forms (number of background color (number of samples
spots tested) analyzed)b
Leichtes () None Zinc white (possibly leaded) Zinc white
Lead white Prussian blue
Barium sulfate Viridian
Prussian blue Cadmium yellow
Chrome yellow Lead driers
Zinc yellow Barium sulfate (trace)
Iron oxide yellow Drying oil
Viridian Natural resin
Organic red lakec Metal carboxylatesd
Iron oxide red ( samples)
Red lead
( spots tested)
Yellow Painting Chalk Zinc white Zinc white
() Barium sulfate Organic yellow
Calcium compounds Barium sulfate
Organic yellowc Titanium dioxide (minor)
Cadmium yellow Lithopone (minor)
Ultramarine bluee Manganese driers
Cobalt blue Drying oil
Emerald green Natural resin
Viridian Metal carboxylatesd
Vermilion ( sample)
Red lakec
Cobalt violet (cobalt phosphate or
cobalt ammonium phosphate)f
Ivory blackg
Mars black
( spots tested)
Around the Chalk Zinc white Zinc white
Circle () Barium Lead white Cadmium yellow
sulfate Titanium white Prussian blue
(minor) Barium sulfate Burnt umber
Cadmium yellow Red pigment (either vermilion or
Prussian blue cadmium red and/or iron oxide red)
Cobalt violet (cobalt phosphate or A few carbon-based black particles
colbalt ammonium phosphate)f Titanium white
Emerald green Lithopone (minor)
Vermilion Barium sulfate
Mars black Alumino-silicates
Ivory blackg Manganese- and lead-based driers
( spots tested) Drying oil
Natural resin
Metal carboxylatesd
( sample)
Continued

Journal of the American Institute for Conservation , Vol.  No. , –
 GILLIAN MCMILLAN ET AL.

TABLE . CONTINUED
a
Painting Ground Pigments inferred from XRF analysis Paint materials identified in samples of
of the geometrical forms (number of background color (number of samples
spots tested) analyzed)b
Moderation Chalk Zinc white Zinc white
() Titanium white Cadmium yellow (minor)
Lead white Iron oxide yellow/red
Barium sulfate Titanium white (minor)
Calcium-based compounds Lithopone (minor)
Mars black Barium sulfate
Ivory blackg Manganese-based driers
Cobalt blue Drying oil
Cobalt violet (cobalt arsenate) Natural resin
Emerald green Metal carboxylatesd
Viridian Zinc oxalates
Vermilion ( sample)
( spots tested)
Various Actions Chalk Zinc white Zinc white
() Titanium white Viridian
Calcium compounds Cerulean blue
Barium sulfate Barium sulfate
Prussian blue Titanium white (minor)
Ultramarine bluee Lithopone (trace)
Viridian Prussian blue (trace)
Emerald green Carbon black
Vermilion Alumino-silicates
Cobalt violet (cobalt phosphate or Cobalt-based driers
colbalt ammonium phosphate)f Drying oil
Cadmium yellow Natural resin
Organic yellowc Metal carboxylatesd
( spots tested) Zinc oxalates
( sample)
a
The composition of the ground was firstly inferred with non-invasive XRF analysis, then confirmed with SEM/EDX, PLM, and
FTIR analysis of the four samples of background colors from the four Guggenheim paintings, each containing all the paint layers
as well as the ground.
b
All six samples of background color for the five paintings discussed here were systematically analyzed with SEM/EDX, PLM,
and FTIR. Results from the individual techniques have been critically evaluated and combined to arrive at the final material
identification listed in the table.
c
The presence of an organic colorant or lake pigment is suggested when XRF analysis of a bright yellow or red area in the
painting failed to identify any inorganic element that could be responsible for such intense colors.
d
Broad spectral features for metal carboxylates or specific signatures of stearates or oxalates as detected by FTIR analysis are
listed here because they may be relevant for future consideration on treatment or condition of the studied paintings. At the
present state of knowledge, it is not possible to say whether those metal carboxylates were added intentionally or are the product
of reaction of some of the inorganic components of the paint with the binding medium.
e
The presence of ultramarine blue is inferred from XRF analysis when no Co or Fe is detected in areas of deep blue color. The
experimental conditions used did not allow detection of Na, Al, or Si; therefore, such interpretation should be confirmed with a
complementary type of analysis.
f
The presence of cobalt phosphates is inferred by the lack of detection of As in purple areas showing high levels of Co.
g
Ivory black is inferred from XRF analysis when higher levels of Ca (related to calcium phosphate) are detected in black areas of
paint.

Journal of the American Institute for Conservation , Vol.  No. , –
 INVESTIGATION INTO KANDINSKY’S USE OF RIPOLIN IN HIS PAINTINGS
. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
. REFERENCE ENAMEL PAINT CANS FROM KANDINSKY’S
STUDIO
The XRF spectra of the three samples of white paint
from the Valentine Rapide cans yielded consistent
results and revealed that they all contained high
amounts of titanium with some lead, and minor
amounts of zinc and zirconium. It is likely that lead
and zirconium were added as driers (Van Gorkum
and Bouwman ). The FTIR analysis showed the
medium to be composed of drying oils with a small
amount of natural resin, tinted mostly with titanium
white, as confirmed by the broad band extending
between  and  cm−, with an onset around
 cm− visible in figure .
XRF analysis of the sample from the Ripolin can of
Blanc Ivoire  highlighted the presence of a very
large amount of zinc with minor Cr and extremely
low levels of lead and cobalt, the latter two likely
used as driers. The FTIR spectrum showed a prominent
signature for metal carboxylates, characterized by two
large envelopes centered at  and  cm− and
spectral features characteristic of drying oils with a
small amount of natural resin. The spectrum also
confirmed the presence of zinc white, with the charac-
teristic broad band between  and  cm− with
an onset at approximately  cm− (fig. ). The data
on Ripolin white paint from Kandinsky’s studio
described above correlates well with previous extensive
analysis of Ripolin reference paints pre-dating 
(Gautier et al. ). These results demonstrate the
possibility of distinguishing oil-based white enamel
paints produced by two major French brands: Ripolin
and Valentine, on the basis of their marked compo-
sitional differences.
. A  PAINTING ON CARDBOARD
Leichtes () is thinly painted on a cardboard
support with no preparatory layers. The background
colors display a smooth enameled surface that does
not retain the marks of the brush and occasionally
incorporates chips of dry paint and bristles from the
paintbrush. The absence of significant drips at the
edges encourages the speculation that the background
colors were applied with the painting lying flat
(fig. ), a practice that would have also allowed the
artist to carefully control the directional movement of
the fluid paint to create swirls and tide-like lines in
areas where the paint is slightly thicker. Because of
the overall application of a rather thin coat of color,
no wrinkling is apparent in the background, as is typi-
cally observed with thicker application of enamel
paints. Close examination reveals that the geometric
design was laid in first after being outlined with a
Journal of the American Institute for Conservation , Vol.  No. , –

black fluid medium, as demonstrated by the occasional
presence of exposed cardboard support around the
edges of the forms, or instances where the fluid light
blue paint goes over the painted geometric shapes
(fig. ). The contrast between the flat appearance of
the background paints and the paint handling in the
geometrical forms is locally enhanced by textural appli-
cation with directional brushstrokes or carefully con-
trolled stippling.
Non-invasive XRF analysis was used to probe the
palette of the entire work and revealed that areas of
the geometric design contain a combination of fine
artist’s pigments and whites that seemed to point
towards the use of tube paints (table ). Specifically,
the geometric forms were mostly painted with whites
containing lead and zinc, suggesting the use of lead
white and zinc white, or possibly leaded zinc oxide (a
type of zinc oxide pigment of German production that
could contain up to % lead white) (Leaded zinc
oxide ). As previously mentioned, significant
amounts of lead have not been found in Ripolin
paints. Furthermore, the pigments cadmium yellow,
red lead, and viridian in combination with high levels
of barium sulfate extenders were also found in the geo-
metric forms of Leichtes. None of these components
were typical of Ripolin paints (Gautier et al. ).
On the other hand, XRF analysis of the white swirl of
paint in the lower left quadrant of the background
FIG. . Visible light micrographs of (a) cross section of the
light blue background paint of Leichtes (); (b) a swatch
of Bleu Azur Foncé of a pre- Ripolin paint sample card
(at right) and a cross section derived from it (at left). Note
how only a few small particles of Prussian blue are evident
in the white paint matrix.
 GILLIAN MCMILLAN ET AL.
FIG. . High magnification Backscattered (a) and (b) and
Secondary (c) Electron images of cross sections of: (a) refer-
ence sample of a Ripolin can of Blanc de Neige (AIC ref:
HPA); (b) a sample of the light blue paint of Leichtes
() (c) reference sample of the artist’s tube paint Lefranc
Blanc de zinc (AIC ref. .). Of note in this cross
section are the many elongated, acicular particles, which are
particularly evident at center and on the bottom left quadrant
of the image.
highlighted the presence of zinc white with small
amounts of lead and cobalt driers, which correlated
well with examples of Ripolin Blanc de Neige in the
reference collection of the AIC. Although the possible
use of zinc white paint from a tube could not be comple-
tely excluded, the visual appearance of the paint,
together with its pure zinc white composition, without
extenders, provided convincing indication of the poss-
ible use of Ripolin. Unfortunately, no sampling was
Journal of the American Institute for Conservation , Vol.  No. , –
possible from this rather central area of the painting,
precluding further investigation. The middle blue
tones of the background showed an elemental compo-
sition suggesting high amounts of zinc white mixed
with a little Prussian blue, with trace amounts of
barium sulfate and a small amount of lead (and possibly
cobalt) driers. The FTIR analysis of a sample of this
paint confirmed the XRF data, unambiguously ident-
ified Prussian blue, and provided results that matched
very well with a paint swatch of Bleu Azur Foncé of a
pre- Ripolin paint sample card. Comparison of
visible light images of a cross section of the Leichtes
sample and of a Ripolin Bleu Azure Foncé paint
swatch brought to light additional morphological simi-
larities: both samples showed the same characteristic
matrix of prevalently zinc white composition, with
sparsely dispersed grains of Prussian blue of very
small particle size (fig. ). High magnification images
of the cross sections further highlight correlations
between the morphology of individual zinc white par-
ticles in the light blue Kandinsky paint (fig. b) and
reference samples of Ripolin paints (fig. a). Specifi-
cally, backscattered electron (BSE) images uncovered
a predominance of irregularly shaped but generally
rounded or squarish pigment grains with small, often
sub-micrometer particle size. For comparison, a
sample of Lefranc Blanc de zinc artist’s tube paint
(AIC .) was also studied. The artist’s paint con-
tained zinc white without significant extenders in an oil-
based medium with lead driers, a composition that is
very similar to that of white Ripolin. However, BSE
images of the artist’s tube paint showed a higher
FIG. . Visible light micrographs of (a) a cross section of a
reference paint swatch of Ripolin Bleu Turquoise Clair (illus-
trated in b); (c) cross section of a sample of the light green
paint of Leichtes (), showing large particles of viridian
and cadmium yellow.
 INVESTIGATION INTO KANDINSKY’S USE OF RIPOLIN IN HIS PAINTINGS
FIG. . Images of a cross section of light green paint from
the background of Leichtes () (a) under UV illumination;
(b) under visible light illumination; (c) BSE image; and SEM/
EDX elemental maps illustrating the distribution of (d) chro-
mium; (e) cadmium; (f) barium.
proportion of larger particle sizes for the zinc white
pigment and a higher statistical presence of elongated
acicular zinc white crystals (fig. c). Because a fine
grinding process was crucial to the manufacturing of
a smooth, glossy enamel paint, larger particles of zinc
oxide, as well as elongated acicular particles were
much less represented in the Ripolin paints. Therefore,
analysis uncovered not only high similarity in
chemical composition, but also in particle size and
morphology between the light blue tone in the
Kandinsky painting and corresponding Ripolin Bleu
Azure Foncé paint, providing a strong indication of
the use of Ripolin paint in the background of Leichtes.
The hue of the Ripolin paint swatch also matched quite
well with the color observed in the background of
Leichtes.
The light green tones in the background of the paint-
ing were more complex. These colors shared similar
visual characteristics and surface finish with the light
blue paints in the background, and they were shown
to contain high amounts of zinc without any detectable
lead with XRF. Significant peaks for cadmium and
chromium were detected in these areas with XRF, indi-
cating the likely presence of cadmium yellow and viri-
dian, two pigments that were not represented in
Ripolin green paints. Specifically, cadmium yellow
Journal of the American Institute for Conservation , Vol.  No. , –

was never found in Ripolin colors. Viridian was only
present at low levels and with very small particle size
in turquoise blue hues (Ripolin’s Bleu Turquoise
Clair, for example) (figs. a, b). This was in contrast
with the large particles of viridian pigment evident in
the cross section of a sample of green paint taken at
the edge of Leichtes (fig. c). The FTIR analysis
confirmed the presence of viridian, but otherwise the
spectrum obtained was very consistent with references
of Ripolin Blanc de Neige. Subsequent analysis was
therefore aimed at answering the question whether
this color might have been achieved with a mixture of
Ripolin white paint with cadmium yellow and viridian
pigments. These pigments could have been incorpor-
ated into the fluid enamel paints either from artist’s
tube paints (a practice that Picasso is known to have
used) (McCully ) or as dry pigments. SEM/EDX
elemental maps of a cross section of green background
paint from Leichtes highlighted large to fairly large
sparsely distributed viridian particles that showed no
evidence of homogeneous mixing and had a tendency
to form localized clusters (figs. a-f). These obser-
vations suggested that viridian was mixed in as a pow-
dered pigment. The cadmium yellow particles were
more evenly distributed and the SEM/EDX maps gener-
ally showed a close proximity between cadmium
pigment grains and large crystals of natural barite as
well as acicular crystals of zinc oxide. These were
more frequently found in tube paint. In a paint tube
the pigment was already dispersed in an oil medium,
making it highly compatible with the oleoresinous
enamel paint. On the contrary the dry pigment would
be less miscible with enamel paint.
To summarize, analysis suggested that the light blue
tones of the background of Leichtes were likely
obtained with a single hue of oleoresinous enamel
paint (possibly Ripolin’s Bleu Azur Foncé). Tonal gra-
dation from a greenish blue to a darker blue was
likely obtained through controlled additions of either
Prussian blue and viridian as dry pigments or from
artist’s tubes to achieve a variety of different shades.
For the light green tones, it is proposed here that Kan-
dinsky may have mixed Ripolin white paint with
limited amounts of viridian, possibly added as a dry
pigment powder, and then adjusted the color slightly
with cadmium yellow from a tube to achieve the
exact tonality of color he desired.
. CANVAS PAINTINGS AFTER 
All of the Guggenheim paintings in this study were
executed on canvas and on similar grounds, composed
of lead white with calcium carbonate, as inferred from
SEM/EDX analysis of the sample taken at the edge of
each of the four paintings. The off-white ground
extends over the tacking margins in Various Actions,
 GILLIAN MCMILLAN ET AL.
FIG. . V. Kandinsky, Yellow Painting (July ), oil and enamel on canvas; . × . cm, Solomon R. Guggenheim
Museum, New York (.): (a) Overall image ©  Artists Rights Society (ARS), New York / ADAGP, Paris; (b) detail
from upper left quadrant.
suggesting a prepared canvas, a likely case for the other
pictures as well. A little barium sulfate extender was
detected with SEM/EDX only in the ground of
Around the Circle ().
For all four of these brightly colored paintings XRF
analysis of the paints in the geometric forms provided
indications of the presence of many pigments, such as
viridian, emerald green, cobalt violets, cobalt blue, cer-
ulean blue, cadmium yellow, and lead white, which
were not part of the Ripolin range (table ). The pig-
ments vermilion and red lead, inferred from XRF analy-
sis of the geometric forms, were also more likely
associated with the use of artist’s paint tubes. The
appearance of these paints, their surface qualities
occasionally enhanced by carefully interwoven brush-
strokes applied with a small, squarish brush to confer
a delicate texture to the surface, also did not conform
to the visual appearance of enamel paints. Even for
the whites, used alone or mixed in with the paints in
the colorful biomorphic shapes, a wide range of pig-
ments was found. In fact, while zinc white dominated
in Yellow Painting and Various Actions, XRF analysis
provided indications of the presence of zinc white,
lead white, and possibly also leaded zinc oxide in
Around the Circle. Moderation had zinc white, lead
white, possibly leaded zinc whites, and titanium
whites with barium sulfate as well as lithopone. All of
the above mentioned evidence combined to support
the hypothesis that most of the colored organic forms
tested were painted with traditional tubes of artist’s
oil colors. Because analysis was conducted only non-
invasively with XRF, and not every colored form was
tested, it is possible that localized passages of enamel
Journal of the American Institute for Conservation , Vol.  No. , –
paint were used for the geometric shapes; however,
these would represent a small minority.
If the organically-shaped colored forms were painted
predominantly with tube colors, and given Kandinsky’s
own notes in the Handlists, then it is a viable hypothesis
to look for “rip” in the background colors. In this case
the visual appearance of the paints (smooth, level, and
glossy), as well as the artist’s notations become
additional—if somehow more subjective—evidence
used to direct and corroborate the scientific analysis.
In the following, results for the four specific paintings
are described.
The technique used for Yellow Painting ()
(fig. a) is rather simple and direct. The design was
laid in with what appears to be graphite pencil. The
yellow background was applied after the drawing,
possibly in two layers. The texture of the background
paint is suggestive of a less liquid paint than the other
three paintings and bears more resemblance visually
to oil paint. Minute gaps in the background paint appli-
cation reveal the off-white ground at the edge of the
forms, indicating that the areas of geometric design
were left in reserve after being outlined in pencil
(fig. b). This is also confirmed by the XRF analysis
because the presence of barium (likely indicating use
of barium sulfate extender) was detected only in the
yellow background paint and not in the colored geo-
metric forms. The paint layers are generally thinly
applied and the texture or stippling of the paintbrush
can be seen in many areas, most notably in the green
teardrop shape at center right. Only slight variability
in the surface gloss is visible, without noticeable areas
of high gloss, the background being a little glossier
 INVESTIGATION INTO KANDINSKY’S USE OF RIPOLIN IN HIS PAINTINGS 

than the details; it should be kept in mind, however, Ripolin (likely Ripolin Blanc de Neige, which contains
that the painting was lightly varnished with poly only zinc white) and mixed it with an artist’s tube of
(butyl methacrylate) in the s, which of course yellow paint containing barium sulfate, a little titanium
influences the appearance of the surface. white, and lithopone with an organic yellow.
The color of the background in Yellow Painting Around the Circle () (fig. a) shows a little
() visually resembles that of a swatch of Ripolin more complexity of paint layer application than
Jaune Soufre, the only yellow hue pigmented with an Yellow Painting. First Kandinsky laid in the design
organic pigment in the Ripolin range (specifically,
with Hansa yellow, PY). The FTIR analysis of a
sample of the yellow background revealed a paint com-
posed of siccative oil with natural resin, extensive
amounts of metal carboxylates, zinc white, a significant
amount of barium sulfate extender, and small peaks for
an organic, likely azo-yellow pigment. The identity of
the yellow pigment could not be confirmed with FTIR
analysis alone, but the spectral position of the observed
bands (, , , , , and  cm−)
did not correspond to those of the Hansa yellow
pigments PY or PY (fig. ). Furthermore,
SEM/EDX analysis of a cross section of this yellow
background paint revealed high amounts of zinc,
sulfur, and barium, often localized on the same particle,
some lead and titanium, as well as clusters of small par-
ticles rich in barium and sulfur. Therefore, it is clear
that despite its close chromatic and visual similarity to
Ripolin, Kandinsky‘s yellow paint did not come
straight out of a can of yellow Ripolin paint. Several
spots measured with XRF in the background color
showed the same components, but had varying
amounts of zinc and barium, which did not increase
or decrease proportionally, indicating that zinc white
was probably not part of the paint that contains
barium. One possible interpretation of this result is
that Kandinsky might have used a can of white

FIG. . (a) V. Kandinsky Around the Circle (May-August

FIG. . FTIR spectra of: (a) sample of the yellow
background paint of Yellow Painting (); (b) the paint
from a paint swatch of Ripolin Jaune Soufre (AIC reference
collection); (c) a reference powder sample of Hansa Yellow
pigment PY.
), oil and enamel on canvas, . ×  cm, Solomon
R. Guggenheim Museum, New York (.) © 
Artists Rights Society (ARS), New York/ADAGP; (b) detail
showing various applications of the green background
paint; (c) detail under UV light illumination.

Journal of the American Institute for Conservation , Vol.  No. , –
 GILLIAN MCMILLAN ET AL.

with thin glossy black lines and these can be seen knowledge, three scenarios may explain the compli-
around many of the forms. The wide black halos were cated mixture of painting materials revealed with scien-
then painted around the forms or groups of forms tific analysis. Firstly, Kandinsky himself might have
and over the thin glossy black lines. After the halos mixed Ripolin white paint with tube paints or dry pig-
were laid in, the first of the green background layers ments containing all the other components identified.
was painted (fig. b). The many smaller design Alternatively, he might have used a ready-made com-
areas, left in reserve, were then thinly painted in so mercial enamel formulation by a brand other than
that the canvas texture remains quite visible. It would Ripolin or Valentine. Lastly, Kandinsky might have
appear that Kandinsky was adjusting details of this manipulated tube paints with extra medium to effect
painting as he worked on it. In places he changed the a glossy finish.
color of some of the smaller forms, painting them The composition of Moderation () (fig. b) was
over later. In addition, some of the glossy black outlines first laid in with thin black lines directly on the off-white
and the halos were applied at a later stage, after the ground, followed by the application of the yellow back-
application of the color to the various smaller forms. ground color. The yellow paint has a “pooled” appear-
Finally Kandinsky applied a last layer of dark green ance at the outer edges and there are small skips in the
background color. UV examination of the painting paint that leave the ground uncovered, which suggests a
revealed differences in the several applications of the fluid but quick-drying paint (fig. b). In most places
green background color: a more prominent yellowish the areas of bright colors were then applied with a
fluorescence in some areas suggested different paint thin application of paint. Some areas show the textured
compositions for the layers (fig. c). Because this stippling of the brush rather typical of oil paint as Kan-
painting has no modern varnish to obscure the original dinsky graduated the tone of the color in some of the
surface, subtle variations in surface gloss and the larger forms. Kandinsky used a thin glossy black
artist’s intended appearance of different colors can be paint for the particularly decorative passages like the
better appreciated. Several areas on this painting
display a surface appearance that hints at some
manipulation of the paints or mixed media. For
example, the blacks have various levels of gloss, par-
ticularly the large black circle, which appears to have
been adjusted to give a higher gloss to this area of the
painting. The glossy black paint used to outline the
forms might possibly be Ripolin. The use of a quick
drying enamel paint to put down the design would
have enabled Kandinsky to continue work on the
colored forms without too much delay. Non-invasive
analysis alone, however, cannot positively identify
Ripolin, especially in the case of black paints, which
in Ripolin contained only carbon black and binding
medium, undetectable by XRF.
Analysis with XRF, SEM/EDX, and polarized light
microscopy (PLM) of a sample of the dark green of
the background in Around the Circle () revealed
that it contained mostly zinc white and a little titanium
white with a small amount of lithopone combined with
a very complex, heterogeneous mixture of cadmium
yellow, Prussian blue, burnt umber, a few carbon-based
black particles, some isolated particles of inorganic red
pigment (either vermilion or cadmium red or iron oxide
red: these were too small and too few to clearly identify
with SEM/EDX or PLM), manganese driers, and some
barium sulfate extender and alumino-silicates. The
composition of the dark green background did not
match any of the Ripolin paints. The binder, on the FIG. . V. Kandinsky Moderation (), Solomon
other hand, when analyzed with FTIR was identified R. Guggenheim Museum, New York (.): (a) detail
as being composed of drying oil, natural resin, and showing flaking of the black medium; (b) detail showing
metal carboxylates, a combination which was also likely scraping with the end of the brush and the fluid
typical of Ripolin paints. Given the present state of quality of the background yellow color.

Journal of the American Institute for Conservation , Vol.  No. , –
 INVESTIGATION INTO KANDINSKY’S USE OF RIPOLIN IN HIS PAINTINGS 

black square above and to the left of center. This black
is flaking rather severely in places, indicating poor
adhesion to the underlying layers (fig. a). There is a
thin, liquid, glossy off-white layer beneath the flaking
blacks (fig. a). The possibility that this off-white
paint or the black paint might be Ripolin was not
tested for this study. Kandinsky also used a scraping
technique (probably using the wooden end of his
brush) to create a decorative effect in one of these
black and white vignettes (fig. b). The light yellow
layer used as the background color in Moderation
() was shown with SEM/EDX to contain randomly
distributed particles of lithopone and titanium white,
with some barium sulfate, in addition to very few iso-
lated particles of cadmium yellow and iron oxide
yellow (fig. ). High-magnification SEM/EDX
images also showed a higher abundance of acicular
zinc white particles around cadmium particles, which
might be an indication of the use of a tube paint. The
FTIR analysis identified a drying oil possibly mixed
with resin, metal carboxylates, barium sulfate, and
zinc white. Zinc oxalates were also detected, which
are likely a degradation product of the zinc-rich
paints (Casadio and Gautier ). Thus the light
yellow coloration in this work might be the result of
an admixture of Ripolin white paint with a tube of
cadmium yellow, with lithopone and iron oxide
yellow added either by the manufacturer in the original
tube or by the artist as powder. This is a different
combination of pigments than that used to create the
yellow for Yellow Painting two years earlier. It is inter-
esting to note that, in the Kandinsky archives, amongst
six yellow tubes, three are cadmiums: Cadmium Lemon
Yellow (Mussini – Schmincke), Lemon Cadmium
(Handgeriebene Farben), and Cadmium Yellow Light
(Mussini – Schmincke) (Dagron ).
The background of Various Actions () is a
grayish-green color and has a vibrant, atmospheric
quality (fig. ). As if emerging from mist, the forms
appear to float in the picture plane. Detailed obser-
vation of the surface revealed that several applications
of lighter, then darker green/grays were used for the
background color (fig. b). Elements of the colorful
forms are outlined in a dark color with a fluid
medium, which, as noted for Around the Circle,
might also possibly be black enamel paint. Holes
made by the metal point of a compass could be seen
in the center of many of the circles. The first layer of
grayish-green background, which is fluid and smooth,
was applied after the black outlines of the design had
been laid in. Although in general the work is very
thinly painted, in some areas the gray/green back-
ground paint has pooled and has the characteristic
look of enamel paints (fig. c). The deep blue halo
which surrounds the large organic form in the upper
left was laid in after the background (this paint is
notably glossy, and contains only ultramarine blue
and zinc white, so it could also potentially be Ripolin

FIG. . Cross section from the light yellow background color of Moderation (): (a) under UV light illumination; (b) Back-
scattered Electron (BSE) image of the area of interest enclosed in the white borders in (a) showing both the paint layer and the
ground; (c) high magnification BSE image of the area of the paint layer enclosed in white borders in (b) showing the high inci-
dence of acicular zinc white particles in close proximity to the cadmium yellow pigment grains (two—but not all—are illustrated
in the image).

Journal of the American Institute for Conservation , Vol.  No. , –
 GILLIAN MCMILLAN ET AL.
FIG. . (a) V. Kandinsky, Various Actions (), oil and
enamel on canvas, . × . cm, Solomon R. Guggenheim
Museum, New York (.) ©  Artists Rights Society
(ARS), New York/ADAGP; (b) detail showing multiple appli-
cation of the background green/gray paint; (c) detail showing
pooling of the background green/gray paint.
paint), and then the many colors of the multitude of
forms were added. A second grayish-green background
was applied last (fig. b). Cross-sectional analysis with
SEM/EDX of a sample removed from the top edge (at
center) of Various Actions () revealed that the
greenish-gray background color was created with as
Journal of the American Institute for Conservation , Vol.  No. , –
many as three different layers of paint, each with differ-
ent mixtures (fig. ). The bottom layer, in contact with
the ground, contained viridian with some magnesium
containing cerulean blue in a matrix with zinc white,
barium sulfate, and possibly a little titanium white.
The intermediate layer had viridian and cerulean blue
(containing cobalt, tin, and magnesium) in a matrix of
zinc white with a small amount of lithopone. The
topmost layer had a trace of Prussian blue with
carbon black in a matrix of zinc white with a little
barium sulfate, some titanium white, and alumino-
silicates. As observed in previous examples, these
glossy, fluid layers could all have been obtained by
mixing Ripolin white paint with various combinations
of pigments from tube paints as well as, possibly,
with dry pigments.
. CONCLUSIONS
This preliminary scientific investigation into Kandins-
ky’s use of Ripolin paints in the last period of his
long and distinguished career has uncovered the com-
plexities of making such determinations scientifically
in the presence of mixed media (mixtures of enamel
paint and fine artist’s tube paints and pigments).
Ripolin was identified in areas of the background
paint in Leichtes () and, if one is to believe that
the artist’s notes in Handlist IV are accurate, then the
present study also provides preliminary indications
that the artist might have mixed tube paint with
Ripolin paint as well as some dry pigment to achieve
subtle tonal and textural variations in the background
of the Guggenheim paintings. The very complex
pigment mixtures highlighted especially in Various
Actions () and Around the Circle () render a
completely unambiguous determination elusive. Non-
invasive XRF compositional analysis carried out for
this work also cannot exclude that Ripolin paints may
have been used in selected areas of dark blue, black,
white, and yellow paint application in the organic and
geometrical forms of the Guggenheim paintings. On
the other hand, because no evidence of paints contain-
ing mostly titanium white were found in the works
examined, it can be assuredly concluded that these
paintings did not contain Valentine enamel paints,
even though several examples of such cans exist in the
Kandinsky archives.
Analysis of Leichtes () illustrates Kandinsky’s
early use of both white and colored Ripolin paints,
while analysis of the later Guggenheim paintings
seems to suggest that the artist may have used only
white enamel paint combined with increasingly
complex mixtures of fine artist’s paints. The modality
of application of the paint also changed, with the cre-
ation of swirls and tidelines in the early periods of his
experimentation with enamels, playfully exploiting
 INVESTIGATION INTO KANDINSKY’S USE OF RIPOLIN IN HIS PAINTINGS
FIG. . Cross section of a sample of background paint of
Various Actions (), imaged under: (a) visible light
illumination; (b) UV illumination; (c) Backscattered Electron
imaging. All images highlight the presence of three layers of
paint for the background gray/green color over a white
ground layer.
the fluidity of this medium, to a more controlled, thin
application of color in his later years. As a result, the
characteristic surface wrinkling of enamel paints
evident in paintings by other artists who have worked
with Ripolin (Picasso and Picabia, for example)
(McCully ) was not observed in the paintings dis-
cussed here.
While the work described in this paper begins to shed
some light on the artist’s use of Ripolin, much more
research is still needed to ultimately get to the bottom
of Ripolin’s place in Kandinsky’s oeuvre and artistic
practice.
Journal of the American Institute for Conservation , Vol.  No. , –

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Carol Stringari and Vivian Endicott-Barnett at the Guggen-
heim are thanked for their encouragement and helpful sugges-
tions during the course of this project. Brigitte Léal, Alfred
Pacquement, Sylvie Lepigeon, Jacques Hourriere, Géraldine-
Guillaume-Chavannes, and Ingrid Novion at the Pompidou
are also gratefully acknowledged. At the Art Institute of
Chicago, Kimberley Muir, Frank Zuccari, Jann Trujillo, and
Jack Brown are thanked. Benoit Dagron and Laure Necteaux
(PPG) are also acknowledged for their contributions to this
research. The Andrew W. Mellon Foundation, The Barker
Welfare Foundation, The Stockman Family Foundation,
Mrs. Eloise Martin, and The Grainger Foundation are
thanked for support of the Ripolin project and of scientific
research at the Art Institute of Chicago. SEM/EDX analysis
was made possible thanks to the EPIC facility of NUANCE
Center at Northwestern University. NUANCE is supported
by NSF-NSEC, NSF-MR-SEC, Keck Foundation, the State
of Illinois, and Northwestern University.
APPENDIX 
. EXPERIMENTAL TECHNIQUES
Micro-FTIR spectroscopy—A Bruker Tensor  FTIR spec-
trophotometer with mid-IR glowbar source and DTGS detec-
tor was used, coupled to Hyperion  Automated FTIR
microscope with liquid nitrogen-cooled mid-band and broad-
band MCT detectors (covering the range – and
,– cm− respectively). Samples were analyzed in
transmission through the microscope after compression in a
diamond microcompression cell, at a resolution of  cm−.
XRF—A Bruker/Keymaster TRACeR III-V™energy dis-
persive x-ray fluorescence analyzer was used, equipped with
Peltier cooled advanced high-resolution silver-free SiPIN
detector with a -μm Be window and resolution of approxi-
mately  eV for the full-width-at-half-maximum of the Mn
Kα line. The system has titanium and aluminum changeable
filters and is equipped with a rhodium (Rh) transmission
target with maximum voltage of  kV and tunable beam
current of – µA.
SEM/EDX—A variable-pressure SEM (Hitachi S-N-II
VP SEM) was used coupled with Oxford energy dispersive
x-ray spectroscopy and Hitachi solid state BSE, housed at
The Electron Probe Instrumentation Center (EPIC), part of
the Northwestern University Atomic and Nanoscale Charac-
terization (NUANCE) Center.
Cross section preparation and optical microscopy—Micro-
scopic paint samples were mounted in Bio-Plastic ® polyester
resin and ground and polished on silicon carbide grit papers
and Micromesh cloths. The sections were examined with a
Zeiss Axioplan Research Microscope equipped with
reflected light/UV fluorescence and documented with a Zeiss
AxioCam MRc digital camera.
Polarized Light Microscopy—Pigment samples were
removed with a scalpel and mounted in Aroclor  mount-
ing medium (refractive index: .). The pigments were ana-
lyzed using a Zeiss Universal Research Microscope using
transmitted light in bright field and crossed polarization
with a magnification range of × to ×.
 GILLIAN MCMILLAN ET AL.

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AUTHOR BIOGRAPHIES
GILLIAN MCMILLAN is the Associate Chief Conservator for the Collection at the Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum in New York
City where she has worked since . Before coming to the Guggenheim, Gillian was Paintings Restorer at The Art Gallery of
New South Wales in Sydney, Australia. She graduated with a Diploma in the Conservation of Easel Paintings from Gateshead
Technical College, England in  and was Andrew W. Mellon Intern at the Intermuseum Conservation Association, Oberlin,
Ohio. Address: Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum, Conservation Department,  Fifth Avenue, New York, NY , Email:
gmcmillan@guggenheim.org

FRANCESCA CASADIO joined the Art Institute of Chicago in July  as its first A.W. Mellon senior conservation scientist to estab-
lish and direct a state of the art conservation science laboratory. Casadio has also founded and co-directs the Northwestern Uni-
versity/ Art Institute of Chicago Center for Scientific Studies in the Arts (NU-ACCESS). Francesca Casadio received her PhD and
MS degrees in Chemistry from the University of Milan, Italy. Address: As for McMillan. Email: fcasadio@artic.edu

Journal of the American Institute for Conservation , Vol.  No. , –
 INVESTIGATION INTO KANDINSKY’S USE OF RIPOLIN IN HIS PAINTINGS 

INGE FIEDLER is an associate research microscopist in the conservation department at the Art Institute of Chicago. She began her
apprenticeship training in painting conservation and microanalytical techniques as applied to conservation in the conservation
department in . Her training was supplemented with specialized courses in optical microscopy and instrumental analysis
including FTIR and SEM/EDS. She received her MFA degree in studio art, with a concentration in photography in , and
a BFA degree in studio art in  both from the School of the Art Institute of Chicago. Address: As for McMillan. Email:
ifiedler@artic.edu

VERONIQUE SORANO-STEDMAN is the head of the Conservation department at the MNAM, Centre Georges Pompidou since .
She studied at the école du Louvre, has a “Maîtrise de Sciences et Techniques pour la Conservation des Biens Culturels” from the
University of Paris  and has received further advanced training at the Istituto Centrale del Restauro in Rome. After passing a
competitive selection exam with IFROA (Institut Français de Restauration des Œuvres d’Art), she has worked in private practice
for several decades on ancient and modern paintings. Address: Centre Pompidou,   Paris cedex , France. Email:
Veronique.sorano-stedman@centrepompidou.fr

RÉSUMÉ–Vasily Kandinsky a travaillé avec une variété de médias tout au long de sa longue carrière et il ressort, des
examens techniques et de ses écrits, qu’il a manipulé et expérimenté avec divers matériaux et techniques. Cet article
discute de l’étude scientifique de cinq peintures datant d’après ; quatre d’entre elles ont été décrites par l’artiste
comme contenant “huile+rip” (“rip” qu’on croit faire référence à la célèbre marque de peinture-émail oléorésineuse
Ripolin ou peut-être à une autre peinture de type émail similaire mélangée avec d’autres médias). Suite à un examen
non-invasif complet des peintures avec la spectroscopie de fluorescence X, des échantillons particuliers de peinture
ont été analysés par spectroscopie FTIR, par microscopie optique avec et sans lumière polarisée, et par spectrométrie
de rayons X à l’aide de microscope électronique à balayage Les résultats ont été comparés à une vaste base de
données de référence de peinture-émail et de peinture en tubes de la même époque, ainsi qu’avec des peintures lais-
sées par l’artiste dans son atelier. Cette étude met l’attention sur l’utilisation complexe par l’artiste de médias mixtes.
Si on se base sur les écrits de l’artiste, ceci pourrait bien inclure sur le même tableau des mélanges de peinture-émail
oléorésineuses et de peintures pour artiste en tubes, parfois complétés par des pigments secs, et utilisés conjointe-
ment avec les peintures à l’huile.

RESUMEN—Vasily Kandinsky trabajó con una variedad de medios a través de su larga carrera, y después de hacer
una revisión de sus escritos y de exámenes técnicos, parece que él manipuló y experimentó con sus materiales y con
sus técnicas. Este artículo describe la investigación científica de cinco de sus pinturas con fecha posterior a ,
cuatro de las cuales tienen anotaciones del artista donde dice que contienen “huile+rip” (“rip” se cree que es una
referencia a la renombrada marca de pintura de esmalte oleoresinosa Ripolin o tal vez otro tipo de pintura de
esmalte similar mezclada con otro medio). Luego de hacer una investigación exhaustiva no invasiva de las pinturas
con fluorescencia de rayos X (XRF), algunas muestras seleccionadas de pintura fueron analizadas con espectrosco-
pia infrarroja de transformada de Fourier (FTIR), con microscopía óptica y de luz polarizada, y con microscopía
electrónica de barrido (SEM) usando espectroscopia de rayos x de energía dispersiva. Los resultados fueron com-
parados con una extensa base de datos de referencia de esmaltes y tubos de pintura de artista de la misma época, así
como con pinturas utilizadas por el propio artista encontradas en su estudio. Este estudio resalta el complejo uso de
la técnica mixta, la cual, si las anotaciones del artista son certeras, muy bien pudiera haber incluido mezclas de pin-
turas de esmalte oleoresinosas y pinturas en tubo para artistas, ocasionalmente suplementadas con pigmentos secos,
usados junto con pinturas al óleo para artistas en el mismo cuadro.

RESUMO—Vasily Kandinsky trabalhou com uma variedade de mídias ao longo da sua longa carreira e, a partir
dos exames técnicos e seus escritos, parece que manipulou e fez experiências com seus materiais e técnicas. Esse
artigo descreve a pesquisa científica realizada em cinco pinturas posteriores a , quatro delas registradas pelo
artista como contendo “huile+rip” (“rip” que se pensa referir à renomada marca de tinta esmalte oleoresinosa
Ripolin ou talvez a outro tipo de tinta esmalte misturada com outro meio). Após um exame não invasivo completo
das pinturas usando XRF, amostras de tintas selecionadas foram analisadas com espectroscopia de FTIR, micro-
scópio ótico e com luz polarizada; e SEM com espectroscopia de raios X por dispersão em energia. Os resultados
foram comparados com uma extensa base de dados de esmaltes de referência e tintas artísticas de bisnaga da mesma
época juntamente com as próprias tintas deixadas pelo artista em seu estúdio. Esse estudo chama atenção para o uso
complexo de mídias mistas pelo artista, e sendo as declarações dele precisas, pode ter incluído misturas de tintas
esmaltes oleoresinosas e tintas em bisnaga de boa qualidade, algumas vezes acrescidas de pigmentos secos,
usados em conjunto com tintas a óleo na mesma pintura.

Journal of the American Institute for Conservation , Vol.  No. , –