Geologic time scale

The geologic time scale (GTS) is a system of chronological dating that classifies geological
strata (stratigraphy) in time. It is used by geologists, paleontologists, and other Earth
scientists to describe the timing and relationships of events in geologic history. The time
scale was developed through the study and observation of layers of rock and relationships
as well as the times when different organisms appeared, evolved and became extinct
through the study of fossilized remains and imprints. The table of geologic time spans,
presented here, agrees with the nomenclature, dates and standard color codes set forth by
the International Commission on Stratigraphy (ICS).

Contents
Terminology
Era definitions
Period definitions
Principles
History and nomenclature of the time scale
Early history
Establishment of primary principles
Formulation of geologic time scale
This clock representation shows some of the major units of geological
Naming of geologic periods, eras and epochs
time and definitive events of Earth history. The Hadean eon
Dating of time scales represents the time before the fossil record of life on Earth; its upper
Correlation issues boundary is now regarded as 4.0 Ga (billion years ago).[1] Other
The Anthropocene subdivisions reflect the evolution of life; the Archean and Proterozoic
are both eons, the Palaeozoic, Mesozoic and Cenozoic are eras of
Notable period changes
the Phanerozoic eon. The three million year Quaternary period, the
Table of geologic time time of recognizable humans, is too small to be visible at this scale.
Proposed Precambrian timeline
See also
Notes
References
Further reading
External links

Terminology
The largest catalogued divisions of time are intervals called eons. The first eon was the Hadean, starting with the formation of the Earth and lasting about 540
million years until the Archean eon, which is when the Earth had cooled enough for continents and the earliest known life to emerge. After about 2.5 billion years,
oxygen generated by photosynthesizing single-celled organisms began to appear in the atmosphere marking the beginning of the Proterozoic. Finally, the
Phanerozoic eon encompasses 541 million years of diverse abundance of multicellular life starting with the appearance of hard animal shells in the fossil record
and continuing to the present. The first three eons (i.e. every eon but the Phanerozoic) can be referred to collectively as the Precambrian supereon. This is because
of the significance of the Cambrian Explosion, a massive diversification of multi-cellular life forms that took place in the Cambrian period at the start of the
Phanerozoic. Eons are divided into eras,[2] which are in turn divided into periods,[3] epochs and ages. A polarity chron or just "chron" can be used as a
subdivision of an age, though this is not included in the ICS system.
 Extent, Million Duration, Millions
Eon Era Period
Years Ago of Years
Quaternary (Pleistocene/Holocene) 2.588–0 2.588+
Cenozoic Neogene (Miocene/Pliocene) 23.03–2.588 20.4
Paleogene (Paleocene/Eocene/Oligocene) 66.0–23.03 42.9
Cretaceous 145.5–66.0 79.5
Mesozoic Jurassic 201.3–145.0 56.3
Triassic 252.17–201.3 50.9
Phanerozoic
Permian 298.9–252.17 46.7
Carboniferous (Mississippian/Pennsylvanian) 358.9–298.9 60
Devonian 419.2–358.9 60.3
Paleozoic
Silurian 443.4–419.2 24.2
Ordovician 485.4–443.4 42
Cambrian 541.0–485.4 55.6
Ediacaran 635.0–541.0 94
Neoproterozoic Cryogenian 720–635 85
Tonian 1000–720 280
Stenian 1200–1000 200
Mesoproterozoic Ectasian 1400–1200 200
Proterozoic
Calymmian 1600–1400 200
Statherian 1800–1600 200
Orosirian 2050–1800 250
Paleoproterozoic
Rhyacian 2300–2050 250
Siderian 2500–2300 200
Neoarchean 2,800 to 2,500 million years ago
Mesoarchean 3,200 to 2,800 million years ago
Archean not officially divided into periods
Paleoarchean 3,600 to 3,200 million years ago
Eoarchean 4,000 to 3,600 million years ago
Hadean not officially divided into eras not officially divided into periods Formation of Earth to 4,000 million years ago

Units in geochronology and stratigraphy[4]

Segments of rock Notes to

Time spans in
(strata) in geochronological
geochronology
chronostratigraphy units
4 total, half a
Eonothem Eon billion years or
more
10 defined,
Erathem Era several hundred
million years
22 defined, tens to
System Period ~one hundred
million years
34 defined, tens of
Series Epoch
millions of years
99 defined,
Stage Age
millions of years
subdivision of an
Chronozone Chron age, not used by
the ICS timescale

Visual timelines including ages

The following five timelines show the geologic time scale. The first shows the entire time from the formation of the Earth to the present, but this
space for the most recent eon. Therefore, the second timeline shows an expanded view of the most recent eon. In a similar way, the most re
expanded in the third timeline, the most recent period is expanded in the fourth timeline, and the most recent epoch is expanded in the fifth timelin
 Millions of Years (1st, 2nd, 3rd, and 4th)
Thousands of years (5th)

Corresponding to eons, eras, periods, epochs and ages, the terms "eonothem", "erathem", "system", "series", "stage" are used to refer to the layers of rock that
belong to these stretches of geologic time in Earth's history.

Geologists qualify these units as "early", "mid", and "late" when referring to time, and "lower", "middle", and "upper" when referring to the corresponding rocks.
For example, the Lower Jurassic Series in chronostratigraphy corresponds to the Early Jurassic Epoch in geochronology.[5] The adjectives are capitalized when the
subdivision is formally recognized, and lower case when not; thus "early Miocene" but "Early Jurassic."

Era definitions

The Phanerozoic Eon is divided into three eras: the Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic (meaning "old life", "middle life" and "recent life") that represent the
major stages in the macroscopic fossil record. These eras are separated by catastrophic extinction boundaries: the P-T boundary between the Paleozoic and the
Mesozoic, and the K-Pg boundary between the Mesozoic and the Cenozoic.[6] There is evidence that the P-T boundary was caused by the eruption of the Siberian
Traps, and the K-Pg boundary was caused by the meteorite impact that created the Chicxulub crater.

The Hadean, Archean and Proterozoic eons were as a whole formerly called the Precambrian. This covered the four billion years of Earth history prior to the
appearance of hard-shelled animals. More recently, however, the Archean and Proterozoic eons have been subdivided into eras of their own.

Period definitions

The twelve currently recognised periods of the present eon – the Phanerozoic – are defined by the International Commission on Stratigraphy (ICS) by reference to
the stratigraphy at particular locations around the world.[7] In 2004 the Ediacaran Period of the latest Precambrian was defined in similar fashion, and was the first
such newly designated period in 130 years.[8]

A consequence of this approach to the Phanerozoic periods is that the ages of their beginnings and ends can change from time to time as the absolute age of the
chosen rock sequences, which define them, is more precisely determined.[9]

The set of rocks (sedimentary, igneous or metamorphic) formed during a period belong to a chronostratigraphic unit called a system.[10] For example, the "Jurassic
System" of rocks was formed during the "Jurassic Period" (between 201 and 145 million years ago).[10]

Principles
Evidence from radiometric dating indicates that Earth is about 4.54 billion years old.[11][12] The geology or deep time of Earth's past has been organized into
various units according to events that are thought to have taken place. Different spans of time on the GTS are usually marked by corresponding changes in the
composition of strata which indicate major geological or paleontological events, such as mass extinctions. For example, the boundary between the Cretaceous
period and the Paleogene period is defined by the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event, which marked the demise of the non-avian dinosaurs as well as many
other groups of life. Older time spans, which predate the reliable fossil record (before the Proterozoic eon), are defined by their absolute age.

Geologic units from the same time but different parts of the world often are not similar and contain different fossils, so the same time-span was historically given
different names in different locales. For example, in North America, the Lower Cambrian is called the Waucoban series that is then subdivided into zones based on
the succession of trilobites. In East Asia and Siberia, the same unit is split into Alexian, Atdabanian, and Botomian stages. A key aspect of the work of the
International Commission on Stratigraphy is to reconcile this conflicting terminology and define universal horizons that can be used around the world.[13]

Some other planets and moons in the Solar System have sufficiently rigid structures to have preserved records of their own histories, for example, Venus, Mars and
the Earth's Moon. Dominantly fluid planets, such as the gas giants, do not comparably preserve their history. Apart from the Late Heavy Bombardment, events on
other planets probably had little direct influence on the Earth, and events on Earth had correspondingly little effect on those planets. Construction of a time scale
that links the planets is, therefore, of only limited relevance to the Earth's time scale, except in a Solar System context. The existence, timing, and terrestrial effects
of the Late Heavy Bombardment are still a matter of debate.[a]

History and nomenclature of the time scale

Early history Life timeline

Quaternary ice age*
0 —P Flowers Birds Primates ← Earliest apes / humans
 P Flowers Birds Primates Earliest apes / humans
In Ancient Greece, Aristotle (384–322 BCE) observed that fossils of seashells in –h Mammals
a Dinosaurs
rocks resembled those found on beaches – he inferred that the fossils in rocks were —n
e P ← Karoo ice age*
formed by organisms, and he reasoned that the positions of land and sea had –r l Arthropods Molluscs ← Earliest tetrapods
changed over long periods of time. Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519) concurred o a ← Andean glaciation*
−500 — z n ← Cambrian explosion
with Aristotle's interpretation that fossils represented the remains of ancient life.[14] t
– oi s ← Ediacaran biota
← Cryogenian ice age*
The 11th-century Persian polymath Avicenna (Ibn Sina, died 1037) and the 13th- —c ← Earliest animals
century Dominican bishop Albertus Magnus (died 1280) extended Aristotle's – ← Earliest plants
explanation into a theory of a petrifying fluid.[15] Avicenna also first proposed one −1000 —
of the principles underlying geologic time scales, the law of superposition of strata, Multicellular life
–
while discussing the origins of mountains in The Book of Healing (1027).[16] The —
Chinese naturalist Shen Kuo (1031–1095) also recognized the concept of "deep P
–r
time".[17]
−1500 — ot ← Earliest fungi
– er ← Earliest multicellular life
Establishment of primary principles —o
z
–o Eukaryotes
In the late 17th century Nicholas Steno (1638–1686) pronounced the principles i
−2000 — c ← Sexual reproduction
underlying geologic (geological) time scales. Steno argued that rock layers (or
strata) were laid down in succession and that each represents a "slice" of time. He –
also formulated the law of superposition, which states that any given stratum is — ← Huronian glaciation*
← Atmospheric oxygen
probably older than those above it and younger than those below it. While Steno's –
principles were simple, applying them proved challenging. Steno's ideas also lead −2500 —
to other important concepts geologists use today, such as relative dating. Over the –
course of the 18th-century geologists realized that:
—
Photosynthesis ← Pongola glaciation*
1. Sequences of strata often become eroded, distorted, tilted, or even –
inverted after deposition −3000 —
A
2. Strata laid down at the same time in different areas could have entirely –r
different appearances —hc
3. The strata of any given area represented only part of Earth's long –ae
history −3500 — n ← Earliest oxygen
–
The Neptunist theories popular at this time (expounded by Abraham Werner
(1749–1817) in the late 18th century) proposed that all rocks had precipitated out — Single-celled life
of a single enormous flood. A major shift in thinking came when James Hutton – ← LHB meteorites
presented his Theory of the Earth; or, an Investigation of the Laws Observable in −4000 — ← Earliest life
the Composition, Dissolution, and Restoration of Land Upon the Globe[18] before –Ha
the Royal Society of Edinburgh in March and April 1785. John McPhee asserts Water
—d e
that "as things appear from the perspective of the 20th century, James Hutton in a
–n ← Earliest water
those readings became the founder of modern geology".[19]: 95–100 Hutton
← Earth
−4500 — formed
proposed that the interior of Earth was hot and that this heat was the engine which (4540 mya)
drove the creation of new rock: land was eroded by air and water and deposited as (million years ago) *Ice Ages
layers in the sea; heat then consolidated the sediment into stone and uplifted it into
new lands. This theory, known as "Plutonism", stood in contrast to the "Neptunist" flood-oriented theory.

Formulation of geologic time scale

The first serious attempts to formulate a geologic time scale that could be applied anywhere on Earth were made in the late
18th century. The most influential of those early attempts (championed by Werner, among others) divided the rocks of
Earth's crust into four types: Primary, Secondary, Tertiary, and Quaternary. Each type of rock, according to the theory,
formed during a specific period in Earth history. It was thus possible to speak of a "Tertiary Period" as well as of "Tertiary
Rocks." Indeed, "Tertiary" (now Paleogene and Neogene) remained in use as the name of a geological period well into
the 20th century and "Quaternary" remains in formal use as the name of the current period.
Graphical representation of Earth's
The identification of strata by the fossils they contained, pioneered by William Smith, Georges Cuvier, Jean d'Omalius history as a spiral
d'Halloy, and Alexandre Brongniart in the early 19th century, enabled geologists to divide Earth history more precisely. It
also enabled them to correlate strata across national (or even continental) boundaries. If two strata (however distant in
space or different in composition) contained the same fossils, chances were good that they had been laid down at the same time. Detailed studies between 1820
and 1850 of the strata and fossils of Europe produced the sequence of geologic periods still used today.

Naming of geologic periods, eras and epochs

Early work on developing the geologic time scale was dominated by British geologists, and the names of the geologic periods reflect that dominance. The
"Cambrian", (the classical name for Wales) and the "Ordovician" and "Silurian", named after ancient Welsh tribes, were periods defined using stratigraphic
sequences from Wales.[19]: 113–114 The "Devonian" was named for the English county of Devon, and the name "Carboniferous" was an adaptation of "the Coal
Measures", the old British geologists' term for the same set of strata. The "Permian" was named after the region of Perm in Russia, because it was defined using
strata in that region by Scottish geologist Roderick Murchison. However, some periods were defined by geologists from other countries. The "Triassic" was named
in 1834 by a German geologist Friedrich Von Alberti from the three distinct layers (Latin trias meaning triad) – red beds, capped by chalk, followed by black
shales – that are found throughout Germany and Northwest Europe, called the ‘Trias’. The "Jurassic" was named by a French geologist Alexandre Brongniart for
the extensive marine limestone exposures of the Jura Mountains. The "Cretaceous" (from Latin creta meaning ‘chalk’) as a separate period was first defined by
Belgian geologist Jean d'Omalius d'Halloy in 1822, using strata in the Paris basin[20] and named for the extensive beds of chalk (calcium carbonate deposited by
the shells of marine invertebrates) found in Western Europe.

British geologists were also responsible for the grouping of periods into eras and the subdivision of the Tertiary and Quaternary periods into epochs. In 1841 John
Phillips published the first global geologic time scale based on the types of fossils found in each era. Phillips' scale helped standardize the use of terms like
Paleozoic ("old life"), which he extended to cover a larger period than it had in previous usage, and Mesozoic ("middle life"), which he invented.[21]
Dating of time scales

When William Smith and Sir Charles Lyell first recognized that rock strata represented successive time periods, time scales could be estimated only very
imprecisely since estimates of rates of change were uncertain. While creationists had been proposing dates of around six or seven thousand years for the age of
Earth based on the Bible, early geologists were suggesting millions of years for geologic periods, and some were even suggesting a virtually infinite age for Earth.
Geologists and paleontologists constructed the geologic table based on the relative positions of different strata and fossils, and estimated the time scales based on
studying rates of various kinds of weathering, erosion, sedimentation, and lithification. Until the discovery of radioactivity in 1896 and the development of its
geological applications through radiometric dating during the first half of the 20th century, the ages of various rock strata and the age of Earth were the subject of
considerable debate.

The first geologic time scale that included absolute dates was published in 1913 by the British geologist Arthur Holmes.[22] He greatly furthered the newly created
discipline of geochronology and published the world-renowned book The Age of the Earth in which he estimated Earth's age to be at least 1.6 billion years.[23]

In a steady effort ongoing since 1974, the International Commission on Stratigraphy has been working to correlate the world's local stratigraphic record into one
uniform planet-wide benchmarked system.[24]

In 1977, the Global Commission on Stratigraphy (now the International Commission on Stratigraphy) began to define global references known as GSSP (Global
Boundary Stratotype Sections and Points) for geologic periods and faunal stages. The commission's work is described in the 2012 geologic time scale of Gradstein
et al.[9] A UML model for how the timescale is structured, relating it to the GSSP, is also available.[25]

Correlation issues

American geologists have long considered the Mississippian and Pennsylvanian to be periods in their own right though the ICS now recognises them both as
"subperiods" of the Carboniferous Period recognised by European geologists.[26] Cases like this in China, Russia and even New Zealand with other geological
eras has slowed the uniform organization of the stratigraphic record.[27]

The Anthropocene

Popular culture and a growing number of scientists use the term "Anthropocene" informally to label the current epoch in which we are living.[28] The term was
coined by Paul Crutzen and Eugene Stoermer in 2000 to describe the current time in which humans have had an enormous impact on the environment. It has
evolved to describe an "epoch" starting some time in the past and on the whole defined by anthropogenic carbon emissions and production and consumption of
plastic goods that are left in the ground.[29]

Critics of this term say that the term should not be used because it is difficult, if not nearly impossible, to define a specific time when humans started influencing the
rock strata – defining the start of an epoch.[30] Others say that humans have not even started to leave their biggest impact on Earth, and therefore the Anthropocene
has not even started yet.

The ICS has not officially approved the term as of September 2015.[31] The Anthropocene Working Group met in Oslo in April 2016 to consolidate evidence
supporting the argument for the Anthropocene as a true geologic epoch.[31] Evidence was evaluated and the group voted to recommend "Anthropocene" as the
new geological age in August 2016.[32] Should the International Commission on Stratigraphy approve the recommendation, the proposal to adopt the term will
have to be ratified by the International Union of Geological Sciences before its formal adoption as part of the geologic time scale.[33]

Notable period changes

Changes in recent years have included the abandonment of the former Tertiary Period in favour of the Paleogene and succeeding Neogene
periods. This remains controversial.[34]
The abandonment of the Quaternary period was also considered but it has been retained for continuity reasons.[35]
Even earlier in the history of the science, the Tertiary was considered to be an "era" and its subdivisions (Paleocene, Eocene, Oligocene,
Miocene and Pliocene) were themselves referred to as "periods"[36] but they now enjoy the status of "epochs" within the more recently
delineated Paleogene and Neogene periods.[7]

Table of geologic time

The following table summarizes the major events and characteristics of the periods of time making up the geologic time scale. This table is arranged with the most
recent geologic periods at the top, and the oldest at the bottom. The height of each table entry does not correspond to the duration of each subdivision of time.

The content of the table is based on the current official geologic time scale of the International Commission on Stratigraphy (ICS),[1] with the epoch names altered
to the early/late format from lower/upper as recommended by the ICS when dealing with chronostratigraphy.[5]

The ICS provides an online interactive version of this chart, https://stratigraphy.org/timescale/, based on a service delivering a machine-readable Resource
Description Framework/Web Ontology Language representation of the timescale, which is available through the Commission for the Management and Application
of Geoscience Information GeoSciML project as a service[37] and at a SPARQL end-point.[38][39]

This is not to scale, and even though the Phanerozoic eon looks longer than the rest, it merely spans 500 million years, whilst the previous three eons (or the
Precambrian supereon) collectively span over 3.5 billion years. This bias toward the most recent eon is due to the relative lack of information about events that
occurred during the first three eons (or supereon) compared to the current eon (the Phanerozoic).

The proposed Anthropocene epoch is not included.

 Start,
million
Supereon Eon Era Period[b] Epoch Age[c] Major events
years
ago[c]

n/a[d] Phanerozoic Cenozoic[e] 4.2 kiloyear event, Little Ice Age,

Meghalayan increasing industrial CO2. 0.0042*

8.2 kiloyear event, Holocene

Northgrippian 0.0082*
Holocene climatic optimum. Bronze Age.
Current interglacial begins. Sea
level flooding of Doggerland and
Greenlandian 0.0117*
Sundaland. Sahara desert forms.
Neolithic agriculture.
Eemian interglacial, Last glacial
Quaternary Late period, ending with Younger
0.129
('Tarantian') Dryas. Toba eruption. Megafauna
extinction.
High amplitude 100 ka glacial
Chibanian 0.774
Pleistocene cycles. Rise of Homo sapiens.
Further cooling of the climate.
Calabrian 1.8*
Spread of Homo erectus.
Start of Quaternary glaciations.
Gelasian Rise of the Pleistocene 2.58*
megafauna and Homo habilis.

Greenland ice sheet develops.[42]

Piacenzian Australopithecus common in 3.6*
East Africa.[43]
Pliocene
Zanclean flooding of the
Zanclean Mediterranean Basin. Cooling 5.333*
climate. Ardipithecus in Africa.[43]
Messinian Event with hypersaline
lakes in empty Mediterranean
Messinian Basin. Moderate Icehouse 7.246*
climate, punctuated by ice ages
and re-establishment of East
Antarctic Ice Sheet; Gradual
separation of human and
Tortonian chimpanzee ancestors. 11.63*
Sahelanthropus tchadensis in
Africa.
Neogene Serravallian Warmer during middle Miocene 13.82*
climate optimum.[44] Extinctions
Langhian in middle Miocene disruption. 15.97
Miocene Orogeny in Northern
Hemisphere. Start of Kaikoura
Orogeny forming Southern Alps
Burdigalian in New Zealand. Widespread 20.44
forests slowly draw in massive
amounts of CO2, gradually
lowering the level of atmospheric
CO2 from 650 ppmv down to
around 100 ppmv during the
Miocene.[45][f] Modern mammal
and bird families become
Aquitanian recognizable. Horses and 23.03*
mastodons diverse. Grasses
become ubiquitous. Ancestor of
apes, including humans.[46]
Paleogene Grande Coupure extinction. Start
Chattian of widespread Antarctic 28.1
glaciation.[47] Rapid evolution and
Oligocene diversification of fauna, especially
mammals. Major evolution and
Rupelian dispersal of modern types of 33.9*
flowering plants
Eocene Moderate, cooling climate.
Archaic mammals (e.g.
Priabonian Creodonts, "Condylarths", 37.8
Uintatheres, etc.) flourish and
continue to develop during the
epoch. Appearance of several
"modern" mammal families.
Primitive whales diversify.
Bartonian Reglaciation of Antarctica and 41.2
formation of its ice cap; End of
Laramide and Sevier Orogenies
 Lutetian of the Rocky Mountains in North 47.8*
America. Orogeny of the Alps in
Europe begins. Hellenic Orogeny
begins in Greece and Aegean
Sea.
Two transient events of global
warming (PETM and ETM-2) and
warming climate until the Eocene
Climatic Optimum. The Azolla
event decreased CO2 levels
Ypresian 56*
from 3500 ppm to 650 ppm,
setting the stage for a long period
of cooling.[45][f] Indian
subcontinent collides with Asia
and starts Himalayan Orogeny.
Starts with Chicxulub impact and
Thanetian the K-Pg extinction event. 59.2*
Climate tropical. Modern plants
appear; Mammals diversify into a
number of lineages following the
Paleocene Selandian 61.6*
extinction of the non-avian
dinosaurs. First large mammals
(up to bear or small hippo size).
Danian Alpine orogeny in Europe and 66*
Asia begins.
Mesozoic Maastrichtian Flowering plants proliferate, along 72.1 ± 0.2*
with new types of insects. More
Campanian modern teleost fish begin to 83.6 ± 0.2
appear. Ammonoidea,
Santonian belemnites, rudist bivalves, 86.3 ± 0.5*
Late echinoids and sponges all
Coniacian 89.8 ± 0.3
common. Many new types of
Turonian dinosaurs (e.g. Tyrannosaurs, 93.9*
Titanosaurs, Hadrosaurs, and
Cenomanian Ceratopsids) evolve on land, as 100.5*
do Eusuchia (modern
Cretaceous crocodilians); and mosasaurs
Albian ~113
and modern sharks appear in the
Aptian sea. Birds toothed and toothless ~125
coexist with pterosaurs.
Barremian Monotremes, marsupials and ~129.4
Early Hauterivian placental mammals appear. ~132.9
Break up of Gondwana.
Valanginian Beginning of Laramide and ~139.8
Sevier Orogenies of the Rocky
Mountains. Atmospheric CO2
Berriasian ~145
close to present-day levels.

Tithonian Gymnosperms (especially 152.1 ± 0.9

conifers, Bennettitales and
Late Kimmeridgian cycads) and ferns common. 157.3 ± 1.0
Many types of dinosaurs, such
Oxfordian as sauropods, carnosaurs, and 163.5 ± 1.0
stegosaurs. Mammals common
Callovian but small. First birds and lizards. 166.1 ± 1.2
Ichthyosaurs and plesiosaurs
Bathonian diverse. Bivalves, Ammonites 168.3 ± 1.3*
Middle and belemnites abundant. Sea
Bajocian urchins very common, along with 170.3 ± 1.4*
Jurassic crinoids, starfish, sponges, and
terebratulid and rhynchonellid
Aalenian 174.1 ± 1.0*
brachiopods. Breakup of
Pangaea into Gondwana and
Toarcian Laurasia. Nevadan orogeny in 182.7 ± 0.7*
North America. Rangitata and
Pliensbachian Cimmerian orogenies taper off. 190.8 ± 1.0*
Early Atmospheric CO2 levels 3–4
Sinemurian times the present day levels 199.3 ± 0.3*
(1200–1500 ppmv, compared to
Hettangian today's 400 ppmv[45][f]). 201.3 ± 0.2*

Triassic Archosaurs dominant on land as

Rhaetian ~208.5
dinosaurs and in the air as
pterosaurs. Ichthyosaurs and
Late Norian nothosaurs dominate large ~227
marine fauna. Cynodonts
become smaller and more
Carnian mammal-like, while first ~237*
mammals and crocodilia appear.
Dicroidiumflora common on land.
Ladinian Many large aquatic ~242*
temnospondyl amphibians.
Middle Ceratitic ammonoids extremely
Anisian common. Modern corals and 247.2
teleost fish appear, as do many
 Early Olenekian modern insect clades. Andean 251.2
Orogeny in South America.
Cimmerian Orogeny in Asia.
Rangitata Orogeny begins in
New Zealand. Hunter-Bowen 251.902
Induan Orogeny in Northern Australia, ± 0.06*
Queensland and New South
Wales ends, (c. 260–225 Ma)
Paleozoic Landmasses unite into
supercontinent Pangaea, creating 254.14
Changhsingian
the Appalachians. End of Permo- ± 0.07*
Lopingian Carboniferous glaciation.
Synapsids including
Wuchiapingian (pelycosaurs and therapsids) 259.1 ± 0.4*
become plentiful, while
parareptiles and temnospondyl
Capitanian amphibians remain common. In 265.1 ± 0.4*
the mid-Permian, coal-age flora
are replaced by cone-bearing
Wordian gymnosperms (the first true seed 268.8 ± 0.5*
Guadalupian
plants) and by the first true
mosses. Beetles and flies
evolve. Marine life flourishes in 272.95
Roadian
Permian warm shallow reefs; productid ± 0.5*
and spiriferid brachiopods,
bivalves, forams, and
Kungurian ammonoids all abundant. 283.5 ± 0.6
Permian-Triassic extinction event
occurs 251 Ma: 95% of life on
Earth becomes extinct, including 290.1
Artinskian
all trilobites, graptolites, and ± 0.26
blastoids. Ouachita and Innuitian
Cisuralian orogenies in North America.
Sakmarian Uralian orogeny in Europe/Asia 295 ± 0.18
tapers off. Altaid orogeny in Asia.
Hunter-Bowen Orogeny on
Australian continent begins (c. 298.9
Asselian 260–225 Ma), forming the ± 0.15*
MacDonnell Ranges.
Winged insects radiate suddenly;
Gzhelian some (esp. Protodonata and 303.7 ± 0.1
Palaeodictyoptera) are quite
large. Amphibians common and
diverse. First reptiles and coal
Kasimovian forests (scale trees, ferns, club 307 ± 0.1
trees, giant horsetails, Cordaites,
etc.). Highest-ever atmospheric
Pennsylvanian
oxygen levels. Goniatites,
Moscovian brachiopods, bryozoa, bivalves, 315.2 ± 0.2
and corals plentiful in the seas
and oceans. Testate forams
proliferate. Uralian orogeny in
Europe and Asia. Variscan
Bashkirian orogeny occurs towards middle 323.2 ± 0.4*
and late Mississippian Periods.
Carbon-
iferous[g] Serpukhovian Large primitive trees, first land 330.9 ± 0.2
vertebrates, and amphibious sea-
Viséan scorpions live amid coal-forming 346.7 ± 0.4*
coastal swamps. Lobe-finned
rhizodonts are dominant big
fresh-water predators. In the
oceans, early sharks are
common and quite diverse;
Mississippian echinoderms (especially crinoids
and blastoids) abundant. Corals,
Tournaisian bryozoa, goniatites and 358.9 ± 0.4*
brachiopods (Productida,
Spiriferida, etc.) very common,
but trilobites and nautiloids
decline. Glaciation in East
Gondwana. Tuhua Orogeny in
New Zealand tapers off.
Devonian First clubmosses, horsetails and
Famennian ferns appear, as do the first seed- 372.2 ± 1.6*
bearing plants
Late (progymnosperms), first trees
(the progymnosperm
Frasnian Archaeopteris), and first 382.7 ± 1.6*
(wingless) insects. Strophomenid
Middle and atrypid brachiopods, rugose
Givetian and tabulate corals, and crinoids 387.7 ± 0.8*
are all abundant in the oceans.
Goniatite ammonoids are
Eifelian plentiful, while squid-like coleoids 393.3 ± 1.2*
arise. Trilobites and armoured
 agnaths decline, while jawed
fishes (placoderms, lobe-finned
and ray-finned fish, and early
Emsian
sharks) rule the seas. First 407.6 ± 2.6*
tetrapods still aquatic. "Old Red
Continent" of Euramerica.
Early Pragian Beginning of Acadian Orogeny 410.8 ± 2.8*
for Anti-Atlas Mountains of North
Africa, and Appalachian
Mountains of North America, also
Lochkovian the Antler, Variscan, and Tuhua 419.2 ± 3.2*
Orogeny in New Zealand.
First vascular plants (the
Pridoli
rhyniophytes and their relatives), 423 ± 2.3*
first millipedes and arthropleurids
Ludfordian on land. First jawed fishes, as 425.6 ± 0.9*
well as many armoured jawless
Ludlow fish, populate the seas. Sea-
Gorstian scorpions reach large size. 427.4 ± 0.5*
Tabulate and rugose corals,
brachiopods (Pentamerida,
Homerian Rhynchonellida, etc.), and 430.5 ± 0.7*
crinoids all abundant. Trilobites
Silurian Wenlock
and mollusks diverse; graptolites
Sheinwoodian not as varied. Beginning of 433.4 ± 0.8*
Caledonian Orogeny for hills in
England, Ireland, Wales,
Telychian Scotland, and the Scandinavian 438.5 ± 1.1*
Mountains. Also continued into
Devonian period as the Acadian
Llandovery Aeronian Orogeny, above. Taconic 440.8 ± 1.2*
Orogeny tapers off. Lachlan
Orogeny on Australian continent
Rhuddanian 443.8 ± 1.5*
tapers off.

Hirnantian Invertebrates diversify into many 445.2 ± 1.4*

new types (e.g., long straight-
Late Katian shelled cephalopods). Early 453 ± 0.7*
corals, articulate brachiopods
Sandbian (Orthida, Strophomenida, etc.), 458.4 ± 0.9*
bivalves, nautiloids, trilobites,
Darriwilian ostracods, bryozoa, many types 467.3 ± 1.1*
Ordovician Middle
of echinoderms (crinoids,
Dapingian 470 ± 1.4*
cystoids, starfish, etc.), branched
Floian graptolites, and other taxa all
(formerly common. Conodonts (early 477.7 ± 1.4*
Early Arenig) planktonic vertebrates) appear.
First green plants and fungi on
Tremadocian land. Ice age at end of period. 485.4 ± 1.9*
Major diversification of life in the
Stage 10 Cambrian Explosion. Numerous ~489.5
fossils; most modern animal
phyla appear. First chordates
Furongian Jiangshanian appear, along with a number of ~494*
extinct, problematic phyla. Reef-
building Archaeocyatha
Paibian abundant; then vanish. Trilobites, ~497*
priapulid worms, sponges,
inarticulate brachiopods
Guzhangian (unhinged lampshells), and ~500.5*
numerous other animals.
Anomalocarids are giant
Miaolingian Drumian predators, while many Ediacaran ~504.5*
fauna die out. Prokaryotes,
Cambrian protists (e.g., forams), fungi and
Wuliuan algae continue to present day. ~509
Gondwana emerges. Petermann
Orogeny on the Australian
Stage 4 continent tapers off (550–535 ~514
Ma). Ross Orogeny in
Series 2 Antarctica. Delamerian Orogeny
Stage 3 (c. 514–490 Ma) and Lachlan ~521
Orogeny (c. 540–440 Ma) on
Australian continent.
Stage 2 Atmospheric CO2 content ~529
roughly 15 times present-day
Terreneuvian (Holocene) levels (6000 ppmv
Fortunian compared to today's 400 ~541 ± 1.0*
ppmv)[45][f]

Precambrian[h] Proterozoic[i] Neoproterozoic[i] Ediacaran Good fossils of the first multi-celled animals. Ediacaran biota flourish ~635*
worldwide in seas. Simple trace fossils of possible worm-like
Trichophycus, etc. First sponges and trilobitomorphs. Enigmatic
forms include many soft-jellied creatures shaped like bags, disks, or
quilts (like Dickinsonia). Taconic Orogeny in North America. Aravalli
Range orogeny in Indian subcontinent. Beginning of Petermann
 Orogeny on Australian continent. Beardmore Orogeny in Antarctica,
633–620 Ma.
Possible "Snowball Earth" period. Fossils still rare. Rodinia landmass
Cryogenian begins to break up. Late Ruker / Nimrod Orogeny in Antarctica tapers ~720[j]
off.
Rodinia supercontinent persists. Sveconorwegian orogeny ends.
Trace fossils of simple multi-celled eukaryotes. First radiation of
dinoflagellate-like acritarchs. Grenville Orogeny tapers off in North
America. Pan-African orogeny in Africa. Lake Ruker / Nimrod
Tonian 1000[j]
Orogeny in Antarctica, 1,000 ± 150 Ma. Edmundian Orogeny (c. 920
– 850 Ma), Gascoyne Complex, Western Australia. Deposition of
Adelaide Superbasin and Centralian Superbasin begins on Australian
continent.
Narrow highly metamorphic belts due to orogeny as Rodinia forms.
Sveconorwegian orogeny starts. Late Ruker / Nimrod Orogeny in
Stenian 1200[j]
Antarctica possibly begins. Musgrave Orogeny (c. 1,080 Ma),
Musgrave Block, Central Australia.

Mesoproterozoic[i] Platform covers continue to expand. Green algae colonies in the

Ectasian 1400[j]
seas. Grenville Orogeny in North America.
Platform covers expand. Barramundi Orogeny, McArthur Basin,
Calymmian Northern Australia, and Isan Orogeny, c. 1,600 Ma, Mount Isa Block, 1600[j]
Queensland
First complex single-celled life: protists with nuclei, Francevillian
biota. Columbia is the primordial supercontinent. Kimban Orogeny in
Australian continent ends. Yapungku Orogeny on Yilgarn craton, in
Statherian 1800[j]
Western Australia. Mangaroon Orogeny, 1,680–1,620 Ma, on the
Gascoyne Complex in Western Australia. Kararan Orogeny (1,650
Ma), Gawler Craton, South Australia.
The atmosphere becomes oxygenic. Vredefort and Sudbury Basin
asteroid impacts. Much orogeny. Penokean and Trans-Hudsonian
Paleoproterozoic[i]
Orogenies in North America. Early Ruker Orogeny in Antarctica,
Orosirian 2050[j]
2,000–1,700 Ma. Glenburgh Orogeny, Glenburgh Terrane, Australian
continent c. 2,005–1,920 Ma. Kimban Orogeny, Gawler craton in
Australian continent begins.

Rhyacian Bushveld Igneous Complex forms. Huronian glaciation. 2300[j]

Oxygen catastrophe: banded iron formations forms. Sleaford
Siderian 2500[j]
Orogeny on Australian continent, Gawler Craton 2,440–2,420 Ma.
Stabilization of most modern cratons; possible mantle overturn event. Insell
Neoarchean[i] Orogeny, 2,650 ± 150 Ma. Abitibi greenstone belt in present-day Ontario and 2800[j]
Quebec begins to form, stabilizes by 2,600 Ma.
First stromatolites (probably colonial cyanobacteria). Oldest macrofossils. Humboldt
Mesoarchean[i] Orogeny in Antarctica. Blake River Megacaldera Complex begins to form in 3200[j]
present-day Ontario and Quebec, ends by roughly 2,696 Ma.
Archean[i] First known oxygen-producing bacteria. Oldest definitive microfossils. Oldest
Paleoarchean[i] cratons on Earth (such as the Canadian Shield and the Pilbara Craton) may have 3600[j]
formed during this period.[k] Rayner Orogeny in Antarctica.
Simple single-celled life (probably bacteria and archaea). Oldest probable
microfossils. The first life forms and self-replicating RNA molecules evolve around
Eoarchean[i] ~4000
4,000 Ma, after the Late Heavy Bombardment ends on Earth. Napier Orogeny in
Antarctica, 4,000 ± 200 Ma.
Indirect photosynthetic evidence (e.g., kerogen) of primordial life. This era overlaps
Early Imbrian the beginning of the Late Heavy Bombardment of the Inner Solar System, produced
(Neohadean) possibly by the planetary migration of Neptune into the Kuiper belt as a result of 4130[50]
(unofficial)[i][m] orbital resonances between Jupiter and Saturn. Oldest known rock (4,031 to 3,580
Ma).[49]

Nectarian Possible first appearance of plate tectonics. This unit gets its name from the lunar
geologic timescale when the Nectaris Basin and other greater lunar basins form by
(Mesohadean) 4280[50]
big impact events. Earliest evidence for life based on unusually high amounts of light
Hadean[i][l] (unofficial)[i][m]
isotopes of carbon, a common sign of life.
Basin Groups
End of the Early Bombardment Phase. Oldest known mineral (Zircon, 4,404 ± 8
(Paleohadean) 4533[50]
Ma).[51] Asteroids and comets bring water to Earth.[52]
(unofficial)[i][m]
Cryptic Formation of Moon (4,533 to 4,527 Ma), probably from giant impact, since the end of
(Eohadean) this era. Formation of Earth (4,570 to 4,567.17 Ma), Early Bombardment Phase 4600
(unofficial)[i][m] begins. Formation of Sun (4,680 to 4,630 Ma) .

Proposed Precambrian timeline

The ICS's Geologic Time Scale 2012 book which includes the new approved time scale also displays a proposal to substantially revise the Precambrian time scale
to reflect important events such as the formation of the Earth or the Great Oxidation Event, among others, while at the same time maintaining most of the previous
chronostratigraphic nomenclature for the pertinent time span.[53] (See also Period (geology)#Structure.)
 Hadean Eon – 4568–4030 Ma
Chaotian Era – 4568–4404 Ma – the name alluding both to the mythological Chaos and the chaotic phase of planet formation[53][50][54]
Jack Hillsian or Zirconian Era – 4404–4030 Ma – both names allude to the Jack Hills Greenstone Belt which provided the oldest mineral
grains on Earth, zircons[53][50]
Archean Eon – 4031–2420 Ma
Paleoarchean Era – 4031–3490 Ma
Acastan Period – 4031–3810 Ma – named after the Acasta Gneiss[53][50]
Isuan Period – 3810–3490 Ma – named after the Isua Greenstone Belt[53]
Mesoarchean Era – 3490–2780 Ma
Vaalbaran Period – 3490–3020 Ma – based on the names of the Kapvaal (Southern Africa) and Pilbara (Western Australia) cratons[53]
Pongolan Period – 3020–2780 Ma – named after the Pongola Supergroup[53]
Neoarchean Era – 2780–2420 Ma
Methanian Period – 2780–2630 Ma – named for the inferred predominance of methanotrophic prokaryotes[53]
Siderian Period – 2630–2420 Ma – named for the voluminous banded iron formations formed within its duration[53]
Proterozoic Eon – 2420–541 Ma
Paleoproterozoic Era – 2420–1780 Ma
Oxygenian Period – 2420–2250 Ma – named for displaying the first evidence for a global oxidizing atmosphere[53]
Jatulian or Eukaryian Period – 2250–2060 Ma – names are respectively for the Lomagundi–Jatuli δ13C isotopic excursion event
spanning its duration, and for the (proposed)[55][56] first fossil appearance of eukaryotes[53]
Columbian Period – 2060–1780 Ma – named after the supercontinent Columbia[53]
Mesoproterozoic Era – 1780–850 Ma
Rodinian Period – 1780–850 Ma – named after the supercontinent Rodinia, stable environment[53]
Neoproterozoic Era – 850–541 Ma
Cryogenian Period – 850–630 Ma – named for the occurrence of several glaciations[53]
Ediacaran Period – 630–541 Ma

Shown to scale:

Compare with the current official timeline, not shown to scale:

See also
Age of the Earth List of geochronologic names
Bubnoff unit Logarithmic timeline
Cosmic calendar Lunar geologic timescale
Deep time Martian geologic timescale
Evolutionary history of life Natural history
Geological history of Earth New Zealand geologic time scale
Geology of Mars/areology Prehistoric life
Geon Timeline of the Big Bang
Graphical timeline of the universe Timeline of evolution
History of the Earth Timeline of the geologic history of the United States
History of geology Timeline of human evolution
History of paleontology Timeline of natural history
List of fossil sites Timeline of paleontology

Notes
a. Not enough is known about extra-solar planets for worthwhile b. Paleontologists often refer to faunal stages rather than geologic
speculation. (geological) periods. The stage nomenclature is quite complex. For
a time-ordered list of faunal stages, see.[40]
 c. Dates are slightly uncertain with differences of a few percent
between various sources being common. This is largely due to
uncertainties in radiometric dating and the problem that deposits
suitable for radiometric dating seldom occur exactly at the places in
the geologic column where they would be most useful. The dates
and errors quoted above are according to the International
Commission on Stratigraphy 2015 time scale except the Hadean
eon. Where errors are not quoted, errors are less than the precision
of the age given.
* indicates boundaries where a Global Boundary Stratotype Section
and Point has been internationally agreed upon.
d. References to the "Post-Cambrian Supereon" are not universally
accepted, and therefore must be considered unofficial.
e. Historically, the Cenozoic has been divided up into the Quaternary
and Tertiary sub-eras, as well as the Neogene and Paleogene
periods. The 2009 version of the ICS time chart[41] recognizes a
slightly extended Quaternary as well as the Paleogene and a
truncated Neogene, the Tertiary having been demoted to informal
status.
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Further reading
Aubry, Marie-Pierre; Van Couvering, John A.; Christie-Blick, Nicholas; Landing, Ed; Pratt, Brian R.; Owen, Donald E.; Ferrusquia-Villafranca,
Ismael (2009). "Terminology of geological time: Establishment of a community standard". Stratigraphy. 6 (2): 100–105.
doi:10.7916/D8DR35JQ (https://doi.org/10.7916%2FD8DR35JQ).
Gradstein, F. M.; Ogg, J. G. (2004). "A Geologic Time scale 2004 – Why, How and Where Next!" (https://web.archive.org/web/2018041717363
9/http://eesc.columbia.edu/courses/w4937/Readings/Gradstein_Ogg_2004.pdf) (PDF). Lethaia. 37 (2): 175–181.
doi:10.1080/00241160410006483 (https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00241160410006483). Archived from the original (https://eesc.columbia.edu/co
urses/w4937/Readings/Gradstein_Ogg_2004.pdf) (PDF) on 17 April 2018. Retrieved 30 November 2018.
Gradstein, Felix M.; Ogg, James G.; Smith, Alan G. (2004). A Geologic Time Scale 2004 (https://books.google.com/books?id=rse4v1P-f9kC).
Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-78142-8. Retrieved 18 November 2011.
Gradstein, Felix M.; Ogg, James G.; Smith, Alan G.; Bleeker, Wouter; Laurens, Lucas, J. (June 2004). "A new Geologic Time Scale, with
special reference to Precambrian and Neogene" (https://web.archive.org/web/20120425232455/http://www.episodes.co.in/www/backissues/2
72/Time%20Scale.pdf) (PDF). Episodes. 27 (2): 83–100. doi:10.18814/epiiugs/2004/v27i2/002 (https://doi.org/10.18814%2Fepiiugs%2F200
4%2Fv27i2%2F002). Archived from the original (http://www.episodes.co.in/www/backissues/272/Time%20Scale.pdf) (PDF) on 25 April 2012.
Retrieved 18 November 2011.
Ialenti, Vincent. "Embracing 'Deep Time' Thinking" (https://www.npr.org/sections/13.7/2014/09/28/351692717/embracing-deep-time-thinking).
NPR Cosmos & Culture.
Ialenti, Vincent. "Pondering 'Deep Time' Could Inspire New Ways To View Climate Change" (https://www.npr.org/sections/13.7/2014/09/21/35
0344129/pondering-deep-time-could-inspire-new-ways-to-view-climate-change). NPR Cosmos & Culture.
Knoll, Andrew H.; Walter, Malcolm R.; Narbonne, Guy M.; Christie-Blick, Nicholas (30 July 2004). "A New Period for the Geologic Time Scale"
(http://www.ldeo.columbia.edu/~ncb/Selected_Articles_all_files/17_Science%20305.621.pdf) (PDF). Science. 305 (5684): 621–622.
doi:10.1126/science.1098803 (https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1098803). PMID 15286353 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15286353).
S2CID 32763298 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:32763298). Retrieved 18 November 2011.
Levin, Harold L. (2010). "Time and Geology" (https://books.google.com/books?id=D0yl7Cqsu78C&pg=PA29). The Earth Through Time (http
s://books.google.com/books?id=D0yl7Cqsu78C). Hoboken, New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-470-38774-0. Retrieved
18 November 2011.
Montenari, Michael (2016). Stratigraphy and Timescales (1st ed.). Amsterdam: Academic Press (Elsevier). ISBN 978-0-12-811549-7.

External links
International Chronostratigraphic Chart (interactive) (https://stratigraphy.org/timescale/)
International Chronostratigraphic Chart (v 2020/03) (https://stratigraphy.org/icschart/ChronostratChart2020-03.pdf)
Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Points (https://stratigraphy.org/gssps/)
NASA: Geologic Time (https://web.archive.org/web/20050418090602/http://rst.gsfc.nasa.gov/Sect2/Sect2_1b.html)
GSA: Geologic Time Scale (https://web.archive.org/web/20190120115100/https://www.geosociety.org/GSA/Education_Careers/Geologic_Tim
e_Scale/GSA/timescale/home.aspx)
British Geological Survey: Geological Timechart (http://www.bgs.ac.uk/discoveringGeology/time/timechart/home.html)
GeoWhen Database (https://web.archive.org/web/20040623025505/http://www.stratigraphy.org/geowhen/)
National Museum of Natural History – Geologic Time (https://web.archive.org/web/20051111150720/http://www.nmnh.si.edu/paleo/geotime/in
dex.htm)
SeeGrid: Geological Time Systems (https://www.seegrid.csiro.au/twiki/bin/view/CGIModel/GeologicTime) Information model for the geologic
time scale
Exploring Time (http://exploringtime.org/?page=segments) from Planck Time to the lifespan of the universe
Episodes (https://web.archive.org/web/20120425232455/http://www.episodes.co.in/www/backissues/272/Time%20Scale.pdf), Gradstein,
Felix M. et al. (2004) A new Geologic Time Scale, with special reference to Precambrian and Neogene, Episodes, Vol. 27, no. 2 June 2004
(pdf)
Lane, Alfred C, and Marble, John Putman 1937. Report of the Committee on the measurement of geologic time (https://books.google.com/boo
ks?id=ckIrAAAAYAAJ&printsec=toc#PPP1,M1)
Lessons for Children on Geologic Time (https://web.archive.org/web/20110714173934/http://www.newsciencelessons.com/geology_lesson_p
lans.html)
Deep Time – A History of the Earth : Interactive Infographic (http://deeptime.info)
Geology Buzz: Geologic Time Scale (https://geology.buzz/threads/geologic-time-scale.36/)

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