GEOLOGICAL TIME SCALE, PRECAMBRIAN, PALEOZOIC,

MESOZOIC & CENOZOIC ERA

BIOLOGY II
STEM 12 | 1st SEM - 2ND GRADING

 "Age of Mammals" (65 million years

GEOLOGICAL TIME ago – Today)
SCALE
 A record of the life forms and PERIOD
geological events in Earth’s history.  Based on types of life existing at the
 Scientists developed the time scale by time.
studying rock layers and fossils Paleozoic Era (Ancient Life)
worldwide.  Cambrian Period
 Radioactive dating helped determine  Ordovician Period
the absolute divisions in the time  Silurian Period
scale.  Devonian Period
 To make geologic time easier to  Carboniferous Period
comprehend, geologists divided the 4.6  Pennsylvanian Subperiod
billion years of Earth’s history into units  Mississippian Subperiod
of time called eons.  Permian Period
 Then they further divided the eons into Mesozoic Era (Middle Life)
two or more eras, eras into two or more Triassic Period
periods, periods into two or more  Jurassic Period
epochs, and epochs into two or more  Cretaceous Period
ages. Cenozoic Era (Recent Life)
These units are called geochronologic  Paleogene Period
units, (geo = geology + chronologic =  Neogene Period
arranged in order from the earliest to the  Quaternary Period
most recent).
EPOCH
The Geologic Time Scale is divided by  Shortest subdivision.
the following divisions:  Marked by differences in life forms
and can vary from continent to
EONS continent.
 Longest subdivision. Cenozoic Era (Recent Life)
 Based on the abundance of certain 1. Paleogene Period
fossils, - Paleocene
 The earliest time of the Earth is called - Eocene
the Hadean and refers to a period of - Oligocene
time for which we have no rock record 2. Neogene Period
 The Archean followed, which - Miocene
corresponds to the ages of the oldest - Polocine
known rocks on earth. 3. Quaternary Period
 Haden, Archean and Proterozoic Eon - Pleistocene
are called the Precambrian Eon. - Holocene
 The remainder of geologic time,
including present day, belongs to the Today we are in the Holocene Epoch of the
Phanerozoic Eon. Quaternary Period of the Cenozoic Era
ERAS
 Next to longest subdivision.
 Marked by major changes in the fossil
record.
Paleozoic Era (Ancient Life)
 "Age of Invertebrates" (540-290
million years ago)
Mesozoic Era (Middle Life)
 "Age of Reptiles" (248-144 million
years ago)
Cenozoic Era (Recent Life)

SHANE OCERA || GRADE 12 - LYRA

 GEOLOGICAL TIME SCALE, PRECAMBRIAN, PALEOZOIC,
MESOZOIC & CENOZOIC ERA
BIOLOGY II
STEM 12 | 1st SEM - 2ND GRADING
PRECAMBRIAN ERA
 4.6 billion years ago to the beginning of
the Cambrian period around 541 million
years ago.
 The Precambrian accounts for over
80% of geologic time. It saw the origin
of life, the emergence of
photosynthesis, and major changes to
Earth's atmosphere and climate.
It is divided into three eons: the Hadean,
Archean, and Proterozoic.
HADEAN EON
 The Earth first formed as a molten
ball.
 The moon formed soon after, probably
from debris of a giant impact with
Earth.
 The atmosphere consisted of volcanic
gases.
 Oceans began to form.
 Late in this eon saw the emergence of
proto-continents.
ARCHEAN EON
 Oldest recognized rocks and minerals
date to this eon.
 Early life likely emerged, consisting of
archaea and bacteria living in seas
and oceans.
 Photosynthesis emerged, oxidizing
the atmosphere.
 Continents continued to grow.
 First supercontinents may have
formed.
 Climate may have been relatively
warm.
PROTEROZOIC EON
 Significant oxygenation of the
atmosphere and oceans, allowing for
diversification and expansion of
eukaryotic life.
 Series of supercontinents formed
and broke up repeatedly over this
long eon, including Rodinia and
Pannotia.
 First multicellular life evolved by the
end of the era.
 Several global glaciation (Snowball
Earth) events occurred.
MAJOR EVENTS
 GREAT OXYGENATION EVENT (GOE) -
around 2.4 billion years ago marked a
major transition in Earth’s early history.
For the first two billion years, the oceans
and atmosphere were anoxic, lacking
oxygen entirely. However, cyanobacteria
evolved the ability to photosynthesize,
producing oxygen as a waste product.
The accumulating oxygen began to oxygenate
the atmosphere and oceans. The GOE
dramatically changed Earth’s geochemistry.
 SNOWBAL EARTH - Extreme glaciation
events. occurred during the Cryogenian
period between 850-635 million years ago.
As the supercontinent Rodinia broke apart,
environmental conditions enabled a
runaway advance of polar ice caps towards
the equator, entombing the planet in ice up
to 2 km thick. Various mechanisms like
reduced solar radiation or volcanic CO2
drawdown may have tipped Earth into an
icehouse state.
 EDIACARAN BIOTA - consist of some of
the oldest large, complex multicellular
organisms, first appearing around 635
million years ago. These strange soft-
bodied lifeforms, some up to meters long,
display an odd fractal-like morphology
unlike modern plants or animals. They
preceded the Cambrian explosion, going
extinct as Cambrian organisms diversified.
TRANSITION TO CAMBRIAN PERIOD
In the tens of millions of years before 541 million
years ago as the Precambrian Eon drew to a
close, several factors aligned to enable the
dramatic Cambrian explosion of animal life.
Environmental changes included high and rising
oxygen levels, increased ecological complexity
and interactions among organisms, the
development of shells and exoskeletons, and
expansive shallower continental seas as
glacial cycles ended.
This unique confluence of evolutionary and
ecological changes set the stage for the rapid
diversification of complex animals such as
trilobites during the early Cambrian geological
period.
SHANE OCERA || GRADE 12 - LYRA
 GEOLOGICAL TIME SCALE, PRECAMBRIAN, PALEOZOIC,
MESOZOIC & CENOZOIC ERA
BIOLOGY II
STEM 12 | 1st SEM - 2ND GRADING
PALEOZOIC ERA
Was an incredibly long period in Earth's history,
lasting from about 541 million years ago to 252
million years ago. It's nicknamed the "ancient
life" era. This era saw the rise of complex life
on Earth, including the first animals with hard
shells and backbones.
During the Paleozoic Era, fish underwent a
remarkable diversification, with various forms
adapting to diverse aquatic environments.
Marine organisms flourished abundantly,
contributing to the rich biodiversity of Paleozoic
seas.
HALLMARKS OF PALEOZOIC ERA
 EXPLOSION OF LIFE - The Paleozoic Era
saw the emergence and diversification of
numerous life forms, including early fish,
insects, amphibians, reptiles, and plants.
 FORMATION OF PANGEA - During the
late Paleozoic, the supercontinent Pangaea
began to form as the Earth's landmasses
converged, leading to significant changes in
global climate and ocean
 MASS EXTINCTION OF EVENTS - The
Paleozoic Era witnessed several mass
extinction events, notably the end-
Ordovician, Late Devonian, and Permian-
Triassic extinctions. The Permian-Triassic
extinction, also known as the "Great Dying,"
was the most severe extinction event in
Earth's history, resulting in the loss of over
90% of marine species and around 70% of
terrestrial vertebrate species.
 FIRST LAND PLANTS - Early terrestrial
plants, such as mosses and ferns, began to
colonize the land during the Paleozoic Era,
leading to the development of complex
ecosystems outside of the oceans.
 EVOLUTION OF VERTEBRATES - Fish
evolved into more diverse forms, including
the first jawed fish and eventually early
tetrapods, which were the ancestors of all
land vertebrates, including amphibians,
reptiles, birds, and mammals.
PALEOZOIC PERIODS
CAMBRIAN PERIOD (541 million years ago -
485.4 million years ago)
 The Cambrian Period is the earliest period
of the Paleozoic Era.
 It's famous for the "Cambrian Explosion," a
relatively short time when most major
animal groups we recognize today first
appeared in the fossil record
 Life during this period was mostly aquatic.
Invertebrates with hard shells, like trilobites
and brachiopods, were especially common.
ORDOVIVIAN PERIOD (485.4 million years
ago - 443.8 million years ago)
 The Ordovician Period is named after a
tribe in Wales where rocks from this period
were first studied.
 During this period, marine life continued to
diversify. Early vertebrates with no jaws,
like ostracoderms, appeared.
 The first land plants also emerged during
the Ordovician Period. These were simple,
non-vascular plants like bryophytes.
SILURIAN PERIOD (443.8 million years ago -
419.2 million years ago)
 The Silurian Period is named after a tribe in
Wales.
 Reefs became widespread during the
Silurian Period, teeming with marine life.
 The first jawed fish also appeared during
this period.
 On land, plants continued to evolve, with
the first vascular plants appearing. These
plants had a more complex internal
structure that allowed them to grow taller.
DEVONIAN PERIOD (419.2 million years ago -
358.9 million years ago)
 The Devonian Period is nicknamed the
"Age of Fishes" because this is when bony
fish and cartilaginous fish (like sharks)
diversified greatly.
 Land plants continued to diversify
throughout the Devonian Period. By the end
of the period, there were even tall trees and
the first seed plants. These advancements
helped pave the way for the development of
forests.
CARBONIFEROUS PERIOD (358.9 million
years ago - 298.6 million years ago)
 The Carboniferous Period is named for the
vast coal deposits formed during this time.
These coal deposits are made up of the
remains of giant swamp forests.
 During the Carboniferous Period, insects
with wings began to take flight, and the first
reptiles also appeared.
PERMIAN PERIOD (298.6 million years ago -
252 million years ago)
 It ended with the largest extinction event in
Earth's history, the Permian extinction. This
extinction event wiped out about 96% of
marine species and 70% of land
vertebrates.
 The Permian Period is known for its giant
insects, like dragonfly ancestors with
wingspans of up to three feet!
SHANE OCERA || GRADE 12 - LYRA
 GEOLOGICAL TIME SCALE, PRECAMBRIAN, PALEOZOIC,
MESOZOIC & CENOZOIC ERA
BIOLOGY II
STEM 12 | 1st SEM - 2ND GRADING
MESOZOIC ERA
The Mesozoic Era (251.9 to 66.0 million years
ago) was the "Age of Reptiles." During the
Mesozoic, Pangaea began separating into the
modern continents, and the modern Rocky
Mountains rose. Dinosaurs, crocodiles, and
pterosaurs ruled the land and air.
Pangea was covered in desert and arid
environments, with a belt of tropical rainforests in
the regions surrounding the equator. Divided into
two distinctive contenents: Gondwana and
Laurasia
 During the Triassic period, the climate was
arid and dry, but this began to shift as the
era neared the Jurassic period, during
which oceans rose and exposed land
flooded. This resulted in an increasingly
humid climate that lasted well into the
Cretaceous period.
 The Mesozoic Era experienced a dramatic
shift in life from that of the Paleozoic Era.
With a mass extinction event wiping out the
majority of land and marine life leading into
the Era, the earth was but a canvas ripe for
new evolutionary breakthroughs.
 Early Mesozoic life was slim, with the
remaining biota starting the long and
disorderly task of recovering and
diversifying, beginning the start of
ecosystems resembling those of modern-
day earth.
THREE PERIODS OF MESOZOIC ERA
- Triassic Period - 251.9 to 201.3 MYA
- Jurassic Period - 201.3 to 145.0 MYA
- Cretaceous Period - 145.0 to 66.0 MYA
Triassic Period
(252 - 201 million years ago)
The first period of the Mesozoic Era. This era is
popularly known as the “Age of Reptiles” and for
good reason: reptiles, and particularly dinosaurs,
were the dominant land-dwelling vertebrate
animals at the time. This period marked the
beginning of the recovery and subsequent
diversification of life on Earth.
During the Triassic, the first dinosaurs walked on
the land, the first pterosaurs sailed through the
skies, and the first ichthyosaurs and plesiosaurs
swam in the oceans.
Jurassic period (201.3 to 145.0 MYA)
The Jurassic Period is the second period of the
Mesozoic Era, following the Triassic Period. It is
perhaps best known as the "Age of the
Dinosaurs," during which these iconic creatures
dominated terrestrial ecosystems.
The Jurassic was a time of significant global
change in continental configurations,
oceanographic patterns, and biological systems.
During this period the supercontinent Pangea
split apart, allowing for the eventual development
of what are now the central Atlantic Ocean and
the Gulf of Mexico.
LATE JURASSIC PERIOD
Cretaceous period
(145.0 to 66.0 MYA)
The Cretaceous Period is the third and final
period of the Mesozoic Era, following the
Jurassic Period and preceding the Paleogene
Period of the Cenozoic Era. It is known for its
significant geological and biological changes,
including the continued dominance of dinosaurs
and the eventual mass extinction that marked the
end of the period.
MAJOR EVENTS in MESOZOIC ERA
- End-Permian Mass Extinction
(252 million years ago)
The Mesozoic Era began with the aftermath of
the Permian-Triassic mass extinction event,
which wiped out approximately 90% of marine
species and 70% of terrestrial species. This
event led to the rise of new groups of organisms
and marked the beginning of the Mesozoic Era.
- Triassic-Jurassic Extinction Event
(201 million years ago)
This extinction event, though not as severe as
the Permian-Triassic event, had a significant
impact on life on Earth. It resulted in the
extinction of numerous marine and terrestrial
species, paving the way for the dominance of
dinosaurs during the Jurassic Period.
- Dinosaurs Dominate (Jurassic Period)
(145.5 million years ago)
The Jurassic Period is often referred to as the
"Age of the Dinosaurs." Dinosaurs diversified and
became the dominant terrestrial vertebrates
during this time. Iconic dinosaurs such as
SHANE OCERA || GRADE 12 - LYRA
 GEOLOGICAL TIME SCALE, PRECAMBRIAN, PALEOZOIC,
MESOZOIC & CENOZOIC ERA
BIOLOGY II
STEM 12 | 1st SEM - 2ND GRADING
Stegosaurus, Brachiosaurus, Allosaurus, and
Diplodocus lived during the Jurassic.
- Breakup of Pangaea
(about 200 million years ago)
Throughout the Mesozoic Era, the
supercontinent Pangaea gradually broke apart,
leading to the formation of new continents and
ocean basins. This fragmentation influenced
global climate patterns, ocean circulation, and
the distribution of terrestrial and marine
ecosystems.
- Evolution of Flight
The Mesozoic Era saw the evolution of flight in
vertebrates. Pterosaurs, flying reptiles, emerged
during the Triassic Period and became
widespread during the Jurassic and Cretaceous
periods. Additionally, birds evolved from
theropod dinosaurs during the Jurassic Period.
- Evolution of Flowering Plants
(about 200 milion years ago)
Flowering plants (angiosperms) first appeared
during the Mesozoic Era. They underwent a rapid
diversification and spread across various
terrestrial ecosystems during the Jurassic and
Cretaceous periods. Angiosperms eventually
became dominant in many environments,
contributing to the greening of the landscape.
- Formation of Fossil Fuels
The Mesozoic saw the accumulation of organic
material from the remains of plants and animals,
which eventually led to the formation of
significant fossil fuel deposits such as coal, oil,
and natural gas.
- Origin of Birds
Birds are believed to have evolved from small,
feathered theropod dinosaurs during the
Mesozoic. The earliest known bird,
Archaeopteryx, lived during the late Jurassic
period.
- Cretaceous-Paleogene (K-Pg) Extinction Event
(66 million years ago)
The Mesozoic Era ended with another mass
extinction event, known as the K-Pg extinction
event. This event resulted in the extinction of
approximately 75% of all species on Earth,
including the non-avian dinosaurs. It is widely
believed to have been caused by a combination
of factors, including a large asteroid impact and
volcanic activity.
The K-Pg extinction event was one of the most
devastating mass extinctions in Earth's history. It
is widely believed to have been triggered by a
combination of factors, including:
Asteroid Impact: The impact of a large asteroid
or comet at the Chicxulub crater in present-day
Mexico is considered a primary cause of the
extinction event. The impact would have
released massive amounts of energy, triggering
wildfires, tsunamis, and global climate disruption.
Volcanic Activity: Intense volcanic activity,
particularly the eruptions of the Deccan Traps in
present-day India, also likely contributed to
environmental changes leading up to the
extinction event. Volcanic gases and ash could
have caused further climate disruption and
habitat destruction
Climate Change: The combination of asteroid
impact and volcanic eruptions would have led to
significant climate change, including a sudden
cooling period followed by an extended period of
darkness due to debris blocking sunlight. These
environmental changes would have had
catastrophic effects on ecosystems worldwide.
Overall
Throughout the Mesozoic Era, there were
significant geological changes such as the
breakup of Pangea and the formation of Laurasia
and Gondwana. Additionally, the era saw the
evolution of marine reptiles, the diversification of
mammals, and the emergence of modern
ecosystems. Despite the demise of the
dinosaurs, the Mesozoic Era laid the groundwork
for the evolution and diversification of life that
followed in the subsequent Cenozoic Era.
The Cenozoic Era is the current geologic era,
spanning from about 66 million years ago to the
present. The Cenozoic is characterized by the
proliferation and diversification of mammals,
birds, and flowering plants, as well as significant
SHANE OCERA || GRADE 12 - LYRA
 GEOLOGICAL TIME SCALE, PRECAMBRIAN, PALEOZOIC,
MESOZOIC & CENOZOIC ERA
BIOLOGY II
STEM 12 | 1st SEM - 2ND GRADING
geological events such as the formation of
mountain ranges and the opening and closing of
ocean basins.
Key Developments in Human Evolution During
the Cenozoic Era:
Transition from bipedal apes to early hominins
The development of stone tool use
 The expansion of brain size
 The eventual emergence of Homo sapiens.
These evolutionary changes occurred
against the backdrop of shifting climates,
environmental changes, and the diversification of
mammalian life during the Cenozoic. Overall, the
Cenozoic Era provides the geological and
paleontological context for understanding the
evolutionary history of humans and our
ancestors.
Three Periods of Cenozoic Era:
Paleogene Period (66 - 23 million years ago)
-It is further subdivided into the Paleocene,
Eocene, and Oligocene epochs.
-During this period, mammals underwent
significant diversification and evolution, taking
advantage of the ecological niches left vacant by
the extinction of the dinosaurs at the end of the
Mesozoic Era.
-The climate was generally warmer than today,
and there were significant changes in vegetation
and ocean currents.
oPaleocene Epoch (66 - 56 million years ago)
- This epoch followed the mass extinction event
that marked the end of the Cretaceous Period.
- The first rodents, armadillos, primitive primates,
and ancestors to modern mammalian carnivores
appeared.
- During the Paleocene, the climate was
generally warmer and more uniform than today,
and mammals underwent significant
diversification.
- New plants quickly evolved, and the first pines,
cacti, and palm trees appeared.
oEocene Epoch (56 – 34 million years ago)
-The increase in diversity of mammals that began
in the Paleocene continued in the Eocene.
- The first whales, bats, primitive elephants, and
hoofed animals appeared.
- Birds also continued to diversify with the
appearance of penguins, pelicans, ducks, and
gulls.
- The highly successful flowering plants
continued to diversify until they filled most
environments on the land.
oOligocene Epoch (34 – 23 million years ago)
- The Oligocene marks a transition towards
cooler, drier, and seasonal conditions.
- Ice caps and glaciers began to form in
Antarctica, leading to a gradual cooling trend,
which lowered sea level.
- During this epoch, grasslands continued to
expand, and many new mammal species
evolved.
- Early forms of monkeys, dogs, cats,
rhinoceroses, pigs, and camels were present.
- The cooler, drier, more seasonal climate of the
Oligocene was ideal for the evolution of
numerous species of grasses
Neogene Period (23 - 2.6 million years ago)
-It consists of two epochs: The Miocene and the
Pliocene.
-The Neogene is characterized by the continued
diversification of mammals, including the
evolution of early hominins.
-Major geological events during this period
include the uplift of mountain ranges such as the
Himalayas and the Andes, as well as the
formation of the Isthmus of Panama, which
connected North and South America.
oMiocene Epoch (23 – 5 million years ago)
- The Miocene is known for a significant
diversification of mammals and the expansion of
grasslands.
- The climate was generally warm in the first half
of the Miocene, but fluctuations occurred, leading
to the development of ice caps in Antarctica.
- There were great mammal migrations from
continent to continent over the land bridges.
- The most significant event for human beings,
however, was the appearance of the first
anthropoid ape
- The two major plant changes were the major
expansion of grasslands.
oPliocene Epoch (5 – 2.6 million years ago)
- By the beginning of the Pliocene, the continents
were in very similar positions to where we find
them today.
- The Pliocene saw further changes in climate,
with the planet transitioning toward the
Pleistocene Epoch and the onset of more
pronounced glaciation.
- The first members of the genus Homo,
including early humans, appeared.
- Grasslands and savannas expanded
significantly due to the cooler, drier climate.
- The vegetation species were very similar to
those of today.
Quaternary Period (2.6 million years ago to the
present)
-It includes the Pleistocene and the Holocene
epochs.
-The Quaternary is marked by dramatic climatic
fluctuations, including multiple glaciations and
interglacial periods.
-During the Pleistocene, large mammals such as
mammoths, mastodons, and saber-toothed cats
SHANE OCERA || GRADE 12 - LYRA
 GEOLOGICAL TIME SCALE, PRECAMBRIAN, PALEOZOIC,
MESOZOIC & CENOZOIC ERA
BIOLOGY II
STEM 12 | 1st SEM - 2ND GRADING

roamed the Earth, while early humans evolved

and spread across the globe.
-The Holocene epoch, which began around
11,700 years ago, encompasses the rise of
human civilization and the relatively stable
climate conditions that have prevailed since the
last glacial retreat.

oPleistocene Epoch (2.6 million years ago to

approximately 11,700 years ago)
- Marked by the presence of extensive ice sheets
and glaciers, leading to multiple glaciations
- Many large mammals, often referred to as
megafauna, roamed the Earth during this epoch
but few of them survived.
- Homo sapiens, the modern human species,
also emerged and evolved during the later
stages of the Pleistocene.

oHolocene Epoch (approximately 11,700 years

ago to the present)
- The Holocene represents the current epoch and
is characterized by a relatively stable and warm
climate compared to the preceding Pleistocene.
- It encompasses the time since the last major
glacial retreat, marking the beginning of the
current interglacial period.
- Human civilization, agriculture, and the
development of complex societies all occurred
during the Holocene.
- It includes all of recorded human history, from
the advent of agriculture to the present day.

SHANE OCERA || GRADE 12 - LYRA