Module'1 Combined

Lecture 1
INTRODUCTION TO HYDRAULICS AND PNEUMATICS
Learning Objectives
Upon completion of this chapter, the student should be able to:
Explain the meaning of fluid power.

List the various applications of fluid power.
Differentiate between fluid power and transport systems.
List the advantages and disadvantages of fluid power.
Explain the industrial applications of fluid power.
List the basic components of the fluid power.
List the basic components of the pneumatic systems.
Differentiate between electrical, pneumatic and fluid power systems.
Appreciate the future of fluid power in India.
1.1 Introduction
In the industry we use three methods for transmitting power from one point to another.
Mechanical transmission is through shafts, gears, chains, belts, etc. Electrical transmission is
through wires, transformers, etc. Fluid power is through liquids or gas in a confined space. In
this chapter, we shall discuss a structure of hydraulic systems and pneumatic systems. We
will also discuss the advantages and disadvantages and compare hydraulic, pneumatic,
electrical and mechanical systems.
1.2 Fluid Power and Its Scope
Fluid power is the technology that deals with the generation, control and transmission of
forces and movement of mechanical element or system with the use of pressurized fluids in a
confined system. Both liquids and gases are considered fluids. Fluid power system includes a
hydraulic system (hydra meaning water in Greek) and a pneumatic system (pneuma meaning
air in Greek). Oil hydraulic employs pressurized liquid petroleum oils and synthetic oils, and
pneumatic employs compressed air that is released to the atmosphere after performing the
work.
Perhaps it would be in order that we clarify our thinking on one point. By the term “fluid”
we refer to air or oil, for it has been shown that water has certain drawbacks in the
transmission of hydraulic power in machine operation and control. Commercially, pure water
contains various chemicals (some deliberately included) and also foreign matter, and unless
special precautions are taken when it is used, it is nearly impossible to maintain valves and
working surfaces in satisfactory condition. In the cases where the hydraulic system is closed
(i.e., the one with a self-contained unit that serves one machine or one small group of
machines), oil is commonly used, thus providing, in addition to power transmission, benefits of
lubrication not afforded by water as well as increased life and efficiency of packings and
valves. It should be mentioned that in some special cases, soluble oil diluted with water is
used for safety reasons. The application of fluid power is limited only by the ingenuity of the
designer, production engineer or plant engineer. If the application pertains to lifting, pushing,
pulling, clamping, tilting, forcing, pressing or any other straight line (and many rotary)
motions, it is possible that fluid power will meet the requirement.
Fluid power applications can be classified into two major segments:
Stationary hydraulics: Stationary hydraulic systems remain firmly fixed in one position.
The characteristic feature of stationary hydraulics is that valves are mainly solenoid operated.
The applications of stationary hydraulics are as follows:
Production and assembly of vehicles of all types.
Machine tools and transfer lines.

Lifting and conveying devices.
Metal-forming presses.
Plastic machinery such as injection-molding machines.
Rolling machines.
Lifts.
Food processing machinery.
Automatic handling equipment and robots.
Mobile hydraulics: Mobile hydraulic systems move on wheels or tracks such as a tower crane or
excavator truck to operate in many different locations or while moving. A characteristic feature of
mobile hydraulics is that the valves are frequently manually operated. The applications of
mobile hydraulics are as follows:
Automobiles, tractors, aeroplanes, missile, boats, etc.
Construction machinery.
Tippers, excavators and elevating platforms.
Lifting and conveying devices.
Agricultural machinery.
Hydraulics and pneumatics have almost unlimited application in the production of goods and
services in nearly all sectors of the country. Several industries are dependent on the
capabilities that fluid power affords. Table 1.1 summarizes few applications of fluid power.
Table 1.1 More applications of fluid power
Agriculture Tractors; farm equipment such as mowers, ploughs,

chemical and water sprayers, fertilizer spreaders, harvesters
Automation Automated transfer lines, robotics
Automobiles Power steering, power brakes, suspension systems,

hydrostatic transmission
Aviation Fluid power equipment such as landing wheels in aircraft.

Helicopters, aircraft trolleys, aircraft test beds, luggage
loading and unloading systems, ailerons, aircraft servicing,
flight simulators
Construction For metering and mixing of concrete rudders, excavators,

industry/equipment lifts, bucket loaders, crawlers, post-hole diggers, road
graders, road cleaners, road maintenance vehicles, tippers
Defense Missile-launching systems, navigation controls
Entertainment Amusement park entertainment rides such as roller coasters
Fabrication industry Hand tools such as pneumatic drills, grinders, borers,

riveting machines, nut runners
Food and beverage All types of food processing equipment, wrapping, bottling,
Foundry Full and semi-automatic molding machines, tilting of
furnaces, die-casting machines
Glass industry Vacuum suction cups for handling
Hazardous gaseous areas Hydraulic fracturing technologies: It involves pumping
large volumes of water and sand into a well at high pressure
to fracture shale and other tight formations, allowing
hazardous oil and gas to flow into the well. However,
hydraulic fracturing has serious environmental and water
pollution related issues.
Instrumentation Used to create/operate complex instruments in space

rockets, gas turbines, nuclear power plants, industrial labs
Jigs and fixtures Work holding devices, clamps, stoppers, indexers
Machine tools Automated machine tools, numerically controlled(NC)

machine tools
Materials handling Jacks, hoists, cranes, forklifts, conveyor systems
Medical Medical equipment such as breathing assistors, heart assist

devices, cardiac compression machines, dental drives and
human patient simulator
Movies Special-effect equipment use fluid power; movies such as
Jurassic park, Jaws, Anaconda, Titanic
Mining Rock drills, excavating equipment, ore conveyors, loaders
Newspapers and periodicals Edge trimming, stapling, pressing, bundle wrapping
Oil industry Off-shore oil rigs

Paper and packaging Process control systems, special-purpose machines for
rolling and packing
Pharmaceuticals Process control systems such as bottle filling, tablet
placement, packaging
Plastic industry Automatic injection molding machines, raw material
feeding, jaw closing, movement of slides of blow molder
Press tools Heavy duty presses for bulk metal formation such as sheet
metal, forging, bending, punching, etc.
Printing industry For paper feeding, packaging
Robots Fluid power operated robots, pneumatic systems
Ships Stabilizing systems, unloading and loading unit, gyroscopic

instruments, movement of flat forms, lifters, subsea
inspection equipment
Textiles Web tensioning devices, trolleys, process controllers
Transportation Hydraulic elevators, winches, overhead trams
Under sea Submarines, under sea research vehicles, marine drives and
control of ships
Wood working Tree shearers, handling huge logs, feeding clamping and
saw operations
The following are the two types of hydraulic systems:
1. Fluid transport systems: Their sole objective is the delivery of a fluid from one
location to another to accomplish some useful purpose. Examples include pumping
stations for pumping water to homes, cross-country gas lines, etc.
2. Fluid power systems: These are designed to perform work. In fluid power systems,
work is obtained by pressurized fluid acting directly on a fluid cylinder or a fluid
motor. A cylinder produces a force resulting in linear motion, whereas a fluid motor
produces a torque resulting in rotary motion.
1.3 Classification of Fluid Power Systems

The fluid power system can be categorized as follows:
1. Based on the control system
Open-loop system: There is no feedback in the open system and performance is

based on the characteristics of the individual components of the system. The open-
loop system is not accurate and error can be reduced by proper calibration and
control.
Closed-loop system: This system uses feedback. The output of the system is fed back
to a comparator by a measuring element. The comparator compares the actual output to
the desired output and gives an error signal to the control element. The error is used
to change the actual output and bring it closer to the desired value. A simple closed-
loop system uses servo valves and an advanced system uses digital electronics.
2. Based on the type of control
Fluid logic control: This type of system is controlled by hydraulic oil or air. The
system employs fluid logic devices such as AND, NAND, OR, NOR, etc. Two types
of fluid logic systems are available:
(a) Moving part logic (MPL): These devices are miniature fluid elements using
moving parts such as diaphragms, disks and poppets to implement various logic
gates.
(b) Fluidics: Fluid devices contain no moving parts and depend solely on interacting
fluid jets to implement various logic gates.
Electrical control: This type of system is controlled by electrical devices. Four basic
electrical devices are used for controlling the fluid power systems: switches, relays,
timers and solenoids. These devices help to control the starting, stopping, sequencing,
speed, positioning, timing and reversing of actuating cylinders and fluid motors.
Electrical control and fluid power work well together where remote control is
essential.
Electronic control: This type of system is controlled by microelectronic devices. The
electronic brain is used to control the fluid power muscles for doing work. This
system uses the most advanced type of electronic hardware including programmable
logic control (PLC) or microprocessor ( P). In the electrical control, a change in
system operation results in a cumbersome process of redoing hardware connections.
The difficulty is overcome by programmable electronic control. The program can be
modified or a new program can be fed to meet the change of operations. A number of
such programs can be stored in these devices, which makes the systems more flexible.
1.4 Hydrostatic and Hydrodynamic Systems
A hydrostatic system uses fluid pressure to transmit power. Hydrostatics deals with the
mechanics of still fluids and uses the theory of equilibrium conditions in fluid. The system
creates high pressure, and through a transmission line and a control element, this pressure
drives an actuator (linear or rotational). The pump used in hydrostatic systems is a positive
displacement pump. The relative spatial position of this pump is arbitrary but should not be
very large due to losses (must be less than 50 m). An example of pure hydrostatics is the
transfer of force in hydraulics.
Hydrodynamic systems use fluid motion to transmit power. Power is transmitted by the
kinetic energy of the fluid. Hydrodynamics deals with the mechanics of moving fluid and uses
flow theory. The pump used in hydrodynamic systems is a non-positive displacement pump.
The relative spatial position of the prime mover (e.g., turbine) is fixed. An example of pure
hydrodynamics is the conversion of flow energy in turbines in hydroelectric power plants.
In oil hydraulics, we deal mostly with the fluid working in a confined system, that is, a
hydrostatic system.
1.5 History of Fluid Power
Fluid power is as old as our civilization itself. Water was used for centuries to produce
power by means of water wheels and air was used to turn windmills and to propel ships.
Chinese used wooden valves to control water flow through bamboo pipes in 4000 BC.
Ancient Egyptians have built a masonry dam across Nile, 14 miles south to present Cairo, for
the control of irrigation water by canals, sluices, brick conduits and ceramic pipes. During the
Roman empire, extensive water systems using aqueducts, reservoirs and valves were
constructed to carry water to cities. However, these early uses of fluid power required the
movement of huge quantities of fluid because of the relatively low pressures provided by
nature.
Fluid power technology actually began in 1650 with the discovery of Pascal’s law. Simply
stated, this law says that pressure in a fluid at rest is transmitted undiminished equally in all
directions in a confined body of fluid. Pascal found that when he rammed a cork down into a
jug completely full of wine, the bottom of the jug broke and fell out. However, in order for
Pascal’s law to be made effective for practical use, it was necessary to make a piston that
would fit exactly. Not until over 100 years later was this accomplished. It was in 1795 that
Joseph Brahmah invented the cup packing that led to the development of a workable
hydraulic press. Brahmah’s hydraulic press consisted of a plunger pump piped to a large
cylinder and a ram. This new hydraulic press found wide use in England because it provided a
more effective and economical means of applying large force to industrial applications.
In 1750, Bernoulli developed his law of conservation of energy for a fluid flowing in a
pipeline. Both Pascal’s and Bernoulli’s laws operate at the heart of all fluid power
applications and are used for analytical purposes. However, it was not until the Industrial
Revolution of 1850 in Great Britain that these laws were actually applied to the industry.
The first use of a large hydraulic press for foregoing work was made in 1860 by Whitworth.
In the next 20 years, many attempts were made to reduce the waste and excessive
maintenance costs of the original type of accumulator. In 1872, Rigg patented a three-cylinder
hydraulic engine in which provision was made to change the stroke of plungers to vary its
displacement without a throttle valve. In 1873, the Brotherhood three-cylinder, constant-
stroke hydraulic engine was patented and was widely used for cranes, winches, etc. Both the
above-mentioned engines were driven by fluid from an accumulator.
Up to this time, electrical energy was not developed to power the machines of industry.
Instead, fluid power was being used to drive hydraulic equipment such as cranes, presses,
shearing machines, etc. With electricity emerging dominantly in the 19th century, it was soon
found superior to fluid power for transmitting power over great distances.
The modern era in fluid power began around the turn of the century. Fluid applications were
made to such installations as the main armament system of USS Virginia in 1906. In these
applications, a variable-speed hydrostatic transmission was installed to drive the main guns.
Since that time, marine industry has applied fluid power to cargo-handling systems,
controllable pitch controllers, submarine control system, aircraft elevators, aircraft- and
missile-launching system and radar/sonar-driven systems. In 1926, the United States
developed the first unitized, packaged hydraulic system consisting of a pump, controls and an
actuator.
Today fluid power is used extensively in practically every branch of industry. The
innovative use of modern technology such as electrohydraulic closed loops, microprocessors
and improved materials for component construction continues to advance the performance of
fluid power systems. The military requirements kept fluid power applications and
developments going at a good pace. Aviation and aerospace industry provided the impetus for
many advances in fluid power technology.
1.6 Advantages of a Fluid Power System
Oil hydraulics stands out as the prime moving force in machinery and equipment designed to
handle medium to heavy loads. In the early stages of industrial development, mechanical
linkages were used along with prime movers such as electrical motors and engines for
handling loads. But the mechanical efficiency of linkages was very low and the linkages often
failed under critical loading conditions. With the advent of fluid power technology and
associated electronics and control, it is used in every industry now.
The advantages of a fluid power system are as follows:
1. Fluid power systems are simple, easy to operate and can be controlled accurately:
Fluid power gives flexibility to equipment without requiring a complex mechanism.
Using fluid power, we can start, stop, accelerate, decelerate, reverse or position large
forces/components with great accuracy using simple levers and push buttons. For
example, in Earth-moving equipment, bucket carrying load can be raised or lowered by
an operator using a lever. The landing gear of an aircraft can be retrieved to home
position by the push button.
2. Multiplication and variation of forces: Linear or rotary force can be multiplied by a

fraction of a kilogram to several hundreds of tons.
3. Multifunction control: A single hydraulic pump or air compressor can provide power
and control for numerous machines using valve manifolds and distribution systems. The
fluid power controls can be placed at a central station so that the operator has, at all times, a
complete control of the entire production line, whether it be a multiple operation
machine or a group of machines. Such a setup is more or less standard in the steel mill
industry.
4. Low-speed torque: Unlike electric motors, air or hydraulic motors can produce a large
amount of torque while operating at low speeds. Some hydraulic and pneumatic motors
can even maintain torque at a very slow speed without overheating.
5. Constant force or torque: Fluid power systems can deliver constant torque or force
regardless of speed changes.
6. Economical: Not only reduction in required manpower but also the production or
elimination of operator fatigue, as a production factor, is an important element in the use
of fluid power.
7. Low weight to power ratio: The hydraulic system has a low weight to power ratio
compared to electromechanical systems. Fluid power systems are compact.
8. Fluid power systems can be used where safety is of vital importance: Safety is of
vital importance in air and space travel, in the production and operation of motor vehicles, in
mining and manufacture of delicate products. For example, hydraulic systems are
responsible for the safety of takeoff, landing and flight of aeroplanes and space craft.
Rapid advances in mining and tunneling are the results of the application of modern
hydraulic and pneumatic systems.
1.7 Basic Components of a Hydraulic System
Hydraulic systems are power-transmitting assemblies employing pressurized liquid as a fluid

for transmitting energy from an energy-generating source to an energy-using point to
accomplish useful work. Figure 1.1 shows a simple circuit of a hydraulic system with basic
components.
Load
Motor 1 – Off 2 – Forward 3– Return
1
3 2
Pressure
Filter regulator
Pump
Direction
control
valve
Actuator
Oil tank
Figure 1.1 Components of a hydraulic system
Functions of the components shown in Fig. 1.1 are as follows:
1. The hydraulic actuator is a device used to convert the fluid power into mechanical
power to do useful work. The actuator may be of the linear type (e.g., hydraulic
cylinder) or rotary type(e.g., hydraulic motor) to provide linear or rotary motion,
respectively.
2. The hydraulic pump is used to force the fluid from the reservoir to rest of the
hydraulic circuit by converting mechanical energy into hydraulic energy.
3. Valves are used to control the direction, pressure and flow rate of a fluid flowing
through the circuit.
4. External power supply (motor) is required to drive the pump.
5. Reservoir is used to hold the hydraulic liquid, usually hydraulic oil.
6. Piping system carries the hydraulic oil from one place to another.
7. Filters are used to remove any foreign particles so as keep the fluid system clean and
efficient, as well as avoid damage to the actuator and valves.
8. Pressure regulator regulates (i.e., maintains) the required level of pressure in the
hydraulic fluid.
The piping shown in Fig. 1.1 is of closed-loop type with fluid transferred from the storage
tank to one side of the piston and returned back from the other side of the piston to the tank.
Fluid is drawn from the tank by a pump that produces fluid flow at the required level of
pressure. If the fluid pressure exceeds the required level, then the excess fluid returns back to
the reservoir and remains there until the pressure acquires the required level.
Cylinder movement is controlled by a three-position change over a control valve.
1. When the piston of the valve is changed to upper position, the pipe pressure line is
connected to port A and thus the load is raised.
2. When the position of the valve is changed to lower position, the pipe pressure line is
connected to port B and thus the load is lowered.
3. When the valve is at center position, it locks the fluid into the cylinder(thereby holding it in
position) and dead-ends the fluid line (causing all the pump output fluid to return to tank via
the pressure relief).
In industry, a machine designer conveys the design of hydraulic systems using a circuit
diagram. Figure 1.2 shows the components of the hydraulic system using symbols. The
working fluid, which is the hydraulic oil, is stored in a reservoir. When the electric motor is
switched ON, it runs a positive displacement pump that draws hydraulic oil through a filter
and delivers at high pressure. The pressurized oil passes through the regulating valve and does
work on actuator. Oil from the other end of the actuator goes back to the tank via return
line. To and fro motion of the cylinder is controlled using directional control valve.
Cylinder
Extended
Retract
Motor Directional control valve
Pump
Pressure regulator
Filter
Breather
Reservoir
Figure 1.2 Components of a hydraulic system (shown using symbols).
The hydraulic system discussed above can be broken down into four main divisions that are
analogous to the four main divisions in an electrical system.
1. The power device parallels the electrical generating station.
2. The control valves parallel the switches, resistors, timers, pressure switches, relays, etc.
3. The lines in which the fluid power flows parallel the electrical lines.
4. The fluid power motor (whether it is a rotating or a non rotating cylinder or a fluid power
motor) parallels the solenoids and electrical motors.
1.8 Basic Components of a Pneumatic System
A pneumatic system carries power by employing compressed gas, generally air, as a fluid
for transmitting energy from an energy-generating source to an energy-using point to
accomplish useful work. Figure 1.3 shows a simple circuit of a pneumatic system with basic
components.
Power Opens when set
supply pressure is reached
Load
Pressure 1 – Off 2 – Forward 3- Return

switch 1
Motor 3 2
Storage
Air cooler reservoir
Air filter
Air compressor
Direction
control
Air from
valve
atmosphere
Air actuator
Air to atmosphere
Figure 1.3 Components of a pneumatic system.
The functions of various components shown in Fig. 1.3 are as follows:
1. The pneumatic actuator converts the fluid power into mechanical power to perform
useful work.
2. The compressor is used to compress the fresh air drawn from the atmosphere.
3. The storage reservoir is used to store a given volume of compressed air.
4. The valves are used to control the direction, flow rate and pressure of compressed air.
5. External power supply (motor) is used to drive the compressor.
6. The piping system carries the pressurized air from one location to another.
Air is drawn from the atmosphere through an air filter and raised to required pressure by an air
compressor. As the pressure rises, the temperature also rises; hence, an air cooler is
provided to cool the air with some preliminary treatment to remove the moisture. The treated
pressurized air then needs to get stored to maintain the pressure. With the storage reservoir, a
pressure switch is fitted to start and stop the electric motor when pressure falls and reaches
the required level, respectively.
The three-position change over the valve delivering air to the cylinder operates in a way
similar to its hydraulic circuit.
1.9 Comparison between Hydraulic and Pneumatic Systems
Usually hydraulic and pneumatic systems and equipment do not compete. They are so dissimilar
that there are few problems in selecting any of them that cannot be readily resolved.
Certainly, availability is one of the important factors of selection but this may be outweighed
by other factors. In numerous instances, for example, air is preferred to meet certain
unalterable conditions, that is, in“hot spots” where there is an open furnace or other potential
ignition hazard or in operations where motion is required at extremely high speeds. It is often
found more efficient to use a combined circuit in which oil is used in one part and air in
another on the same machine or process. Table 1.2 shows a brief comparison of hydraulic and
pneumatic systems.
Table 1.2 Comparison between a hydraulic and a pneumatic system</table>
S. No. Hydraulic System Pneumatic System
It employs a pressurized liquid It employs a compressed gas, usually

1. air, as a fluid
as a fluid
2. An oil hydraulic system operates at A pneumatic system usually operates

pressures up to 700 bar at 5–10 bar
3. Generally designed as closed system Usually designed as open system
The system slows down when leakage Leakage does not affect the system
4.
occurs much
5. Valve operations are difficult Valve operations are easy
6. Heavier in weight Lighter in weight
Pumps are used to provide Compressors are used to provide

7. compressed gases
pressurized liquids
8. The system is unsafe to fire hazards The system is free from fire hazards
Automatic lubrication is provided Special arrangements for lubrication

9.
are needed
1.10 Comparison of Different Power Systems
There are three basic methods of transmitting power: electrical, mechanical and fluid
power. Most applications actually use a combination of the three methods to obtain the most
efficient overall system. To properly determine which method to use, it is important to
know the salient features of each type. For example, fluid systems can transmit power
more economically over greater distances than mechanical types. However, fluid
systems are restricted to shorter distances compared to electrical systems. Table 1.3
lists the salient features of each type.
Table 1.3 Comparison of different power systems</table>
Property Mechanical Electrical Pneumatic Hydraulic
Input energy I C engines I C engines I C engines I C engines

source
Electric motor Water/gas turbines Pressure tank Electric motor
Air turbine
Energy transfer Levers, gears, Electrical cables Pipes and hoses Pipes and hoses
element shafts and magnetic field
Energy carrier Rigid and elastic Flow of Air Hydraulic
objects electrons liquids
Power-to-weight Poor Fair Best Best
ratio
Torque/inertia Poor Fair Good Best
Stiffness Good Poor Fair Best
Response speed Fair Best Fair Good
Dirt sensitivity Best Best Fair Fair
Relative cost Best Best Good Fair
Control Fair Best Good Good
Motion type Mainly rotary Mainly rotary Linear or rotary Linear or rotary
1.11 Future of Fluid Power Industry in India
The automation market in India is estimated to be 1/10ththat of China. If India has to

become one of the leading economies in the world, based on manufacturing, it will have to
attain higher technological standards and higher level of automation in manufacturing.
In the past 30 years, fluid power technology rose as an important industry. With increasing
emphasis on automation, quality control, safety and more efficient and green energy systems,
fluid power technology should continue to expand in India.
Fluid power industry is gaining a lot of importance in Indian industry. According to a recent
survey, it has shown a growth of 20% over the last 10 years and the size of market is
estimated to be close to 5000 crores per annum. This makes it a sizable industry segment in
India. The growth rate of this industry in India is typically about twice the growth of
economy.
The reasons for this are three-fold:
1. As the economy grows, this industry grows.
2. There is a lot of automation and conversion into more sophisticated manufacturing methods
which increases the rate.
3. One of the interesting things happening in this industry is that India is becoming an
attractive destination for manufacturing and outsourcing of some of the products.
So these three aspects together create a situation where the growth of this industry is twice the
growth of GDP in India.
The fluid power sector in India consists of many sophisticated Indian industries and
partnership with number of global fluid power technology leaders that include Festo,
Rexroth, Vickers, Eaton, Parker Hannifin, Norgen, , Saucer Donfos, Yuken, Siemens,
Shamban, Pall and Gates, , Rotex, , Janatics, Maxwell, Wipro Dynamatic Technologies and
many more.
One of the major segments for hydraulic industry in India is mobile hydraulics. Because of
massive programs on road construction, there is a major expansion of construction machinery
industry as well. In addition to this, a trend toward the usage of more sophisticated hydraulics in
tractors and farm equipment is witnessed. The manufacturing industry in India is working
toward higher automation and quality of output. As Indian industry moves toward
modernization to meet the productivity and to compete in the global market, an excellent
potential for the pneumatic industry is expected in India.
Another area of interest for fluid power industry would be the opportunities in defense
equipment. Defense is a major market segment in Indian fluid power industry and contributes to
over 40% of the market demand. There is also a move toward products with miniature
pneumatics, process valves, servo drives, hydraulic power steering with new controls and
sophisticated PLC, microprocessor controls.
However, the key input required for the effective utilization of fluid power is education and
training of users. So there is a big need for education and training in design application and
maintenance of fluid power systems. Rexroth recently opened many competence centers in
India to train the manpower and to create awareness about the use of fluid power in Indian
industry.
Objective Type Questions
Fill in the Blanks
1. Fluid power is the technology that deals with the generation, and transmission of
forces and movement of mechanical elements or systems.
2. The main objective of fluid transport systems is to deliver a fluid from one location to
another, whereas fluid power systems are designed to perform .
3. There are three basic methods of transmitting power: Electrical, mechanical and .
4. Only are capable of providing constant force or torque regardless of speed

changes.
5. The weight-to-power ratio of a hydraulic system is comparatively than that of an

electromechanical system.
State True or False
1. Hydraulic lines can burst and pose serious problems.
2. Power losses and leakages are less in pneumatic systems.
3. Pneumatic system is not free from fire hazards.
4. Hydraulic power is especially useful when performing heavy work.
5. Water is a good functional hydraulic fluid.

Review Questions
1. Define the term fluid power.
2. Differentiate between fluid transport and fluid power systems.
3. Differentiate between hydraulics and pneumatics.
4. List the six basic components used in a hydraulic system.
5. List the six basic components used in a pneumatic system.
6. List 10 applications of fluid power in the automotive industry.
7. Name 10 hydraulic applications and 10 pneumatic applications.
8. List five advantages and five disadvantages of hydraulics.
9. List five advantages and five disadvantages of pneumatics.
10. List the main components of a fluid power system and their functions.
11. Discuss in detail the future of fluid power industry in India.
12. Compare different power systems used in industries.
13. What is the main difference between an open-loop and a closed-loop fluid power
system?
14. List five major manufactures of fluid power equipment and systems in India.
15. List five major manufactures of fluid power equipment and systems in the world.
16. Visit any industry nearby and list the hydraulic/pneumatic parts or systems used and
their purposes.
17. Why is the hydraulic power especially useful when performing heavy work?
18. Differentiate between oil hydraulics and pneumatics.
19. List any five applications of fluid power systems.
20 List the main components of a fluid power system and their functions.
Answers
Fill in the Blanks
1. Control
2. Work
3. Fluid power
4. Fluid power systems
5. Less
State True or False
1. True
2. True
3. False
4. True
5. False
Fluid Power Symbols
FLUID POWER GRAPHIC SYMBOLS
ANSI Y32.10 GRAPHIC SYMBOLS
1. Introduction 1.2 Scope and Purpose

1.1 General 1.2.1 Scope – This standard presents a system of
Fluid power systems are those that transmit and control graphic symbols for fluid power diagrams.
power through use of a pressurized fluid (liquid or gas)
within an enclosed circuit.
Types of symbols commonly used in drawing circuit
1.2.1.1 Elementary forms of symbols are:
diagrams for fluid power systems are Pictorial, Cutaway,
and Graphic. These symbols are fully explained in the Circles Rectangles Arcs Dots
USA Standard Drafting Manual (Ref. 2).
Squares Triangles Arrows Crosses
1.1.1Pictorial symbols are very useful for showing the
Symbols using words or their abbreviations are avoided.
interconnection of components. They are difficult to
Symbols capable of crossing language barriers are
standardize from a functional basis.
presented herein.
1.1.2 Cutaway symbols emphasize construction. These
Component function rather than construction is
symbols are complex to draw and the functions are not
emphasized by the symbol.
readily apparent.
1.2.1.4 The means of operating fluid power components
1.1.3 Graphic symbols emphasize the function and
are shown as part of the symbol (where applicable).
methods of operation of components. These symbols are
simple to draw. Component functions and methods of 1.2.1.5 This standard shows the basic symbols, describes
operation are obvious. Graphic symbols are capable of the principles on which the symbols are based, and
crossing language barriers, and can promote a universal illustrates some representative composite symbols.
understanding of fluid power systems. Composite symbols can be devised for any fluid power
component by combining basic symbols.
Graphic symbols for fluid power systems should be used
in conjunction with the graphic symbols for other systems Simplified symbols are shown for commonly used
published by the USA Standards Institute (Ref. 37 components.
inclusive). 1.2.1.6 This standard provides basic symbols, which
1.1.3.1 Complete graphic symbols are those, which give differentiate between hydraulic and pneumatic fluid power
symbolic representation of the component and all of its media.
features pertinent to the circuit diagram. 1.2.2 Purpose
1.1.3.2 Simplified graphic symbols are stylized versions 1.2.2.1 The purpose of this standard is to provide a
of the complete symbols. system of fluid power graphic symbols for industrial and
1.1.1.3 Composite graphic symbols are an organization educational purposes.
of simplified or complete symbols. Composite symbols 1.2.2.2 The purpose of this standard is to simplify
usually represent a complex component.
Page 1 of 24
Fluid Power Symbols
design, fabrication, analysis, and service of fluid power

circuits.
1.2.2.3 The purpose of this standard is to provide fluid
power graphic symbols, which are internationally
recognized.
1.2.2.4 The purpose of this standard is to promote
universal understanding of fluid power systems.
Page 2 of 24
Fluid Power Symbols
2. Symbol Rules 2.5.1 Circle and SemiCircle

2.1 Symbols show connections, flow paths, and
functions of components represented. They can indicate
conditions occurring during transition from on flow path
arrangement to another. Symbols do not indicate
construction, nor do they indicate values, such as pressure,
flow rate, and other component settings. 2.5.1.1 Large and small circles may be used to signify
that one component is the “main” and the other
2.2 Symbols do not indicate locations of ports,
the auxiliary.
direction of shifting spools, or positions of actuators on
actual components.
2.3 Symbols may be rotated or reversed without
altering their meaning except in the cases of: a.) Lines to 2.5.2 Triangle
Reservoir, 4.1.1; b.) Vented Manifold, 4.1.2.3; c.)
Accumulator, 4.2. 2.5.3 Arrow
2.4 Line Technique
2.5.4 Square
Keep line widths approximately equal. Line width does
not alter meaning of symbols.
2.4.1 Solid Line Main
2.4.2 Dash Line – Pilot
Rectangle
(Pilot line for control)
2.4.3 Dotted Line
(Exhaust or Drain Line)
2.4.4 Center Line 2.6 Letter combinations used as parts of graphic
symbols are not necessarily abbreviations.
(Enclosure Outline)
2.7 In multiple envelope symbols, the flow condition
2.4.5 Sensing Line – Same as line which it connects. shown nearest an actuator symbol takes place when that
control is caused or permitted to actuate.
2.4.6 Lines Crossing (The intersection is not
necessarily at a 90° angle.) 2.8 Each symbol is drawn to show normal, at rest, or
neutral condition of component unless multiple diagrams
are furnish shown various phases of circuit operation.
or Show an actuator symbol for each flow path condition
possessed by the component.
2.9 An arrow through a symbol at approximately 45
2.4.7 Lines Joining
degrees indicates that the component can be adjust or
varied.
or
2.5 Basic symbols. May be shown any suitable size.
Size may be varied for emphasis or clarity. Relative sizes
should be maintained. (As in the following example.)
Page 3 of 24
Fluid Power Symbols
2.10 An arrow parallel to the short side of a symbol,
within the symbol, indicates that the component is
pressure compensated. 3.6 Line, Pneumatic (Outlet to Atmosphere).
3.61.1 Plain orifice, unconnectable
3.6.2 Connectable orifice (e.g. Thread)
2.11 A line terminating in a dot to represent a
thermometer is the symbol for temperature cause or effect
3.7 Line with Fixed Restriction
See Temperature Controls 7.9. Temperature indicators and
Recorders 9.1.2 and Temperature Compensation 10.16.3
and 10.16.4.
2.12 External ports are located where flow lines
connect to basic symbol, except where component
enclosure symbol is used.
External ports are located at intersections of flow lines and 3.8 Line, Flexible
component enclosure symbol when enclosure is used, see
Section 11.
2.13 Rotating shafts are symbolized by an arrow which
indicates direction of rotation (assume arrow on near side
of shaft).
3.9 Station, Testing, measurement, or power takeoff.
3.9.1 Plugged port.
3. Conductor, Fluid
3.1 Line, Working (main)
3.2 Line, Pilot (for control)
3.9.2 Quick Disconnect
3.3 Line, Exhaust and Liquid Drain
3.9.3 Without Checks
3.4 Line, sensing, etc. such as gauge lines shall be

CONNECTED DISCONNECTED
drawn the same as the line to which it connects.
3.5 Flow Direction of
3.9.4 With Two Checks
3.5.1 Pneumatic
3.5.2 Hydraulic
Page 4 of 24
Fluid Power Symbols
CONNECTED DISCONNECTED 4.1.2.1 Below Fluid Level
3.9.5 With One Check
4.1.2.2 Above Fluid Level
CONNECTED DISCONNECTED
3.11 Rotating Coupling (The return line is drawn to terminate at the upright legs of

the tank symbol.)
4.1.2.3 Vented Manifold
4. Energy Storage and Fluid Storage

4.1 Reservoir
VENTED PRESSURIZED
4.2 Accumulator
Note: Reservoirs are conventionally drawn in the

horizontal plane. All lines enter and leave from above.
4.1.1 Reservoir with Connecting Lines Above Fluid 4.2.1 Accumulator, Spring Loaded

Level
4.2.2 Accumulator, Gas Charged
Below Fluid Level
4.2.3 Accumulator, Weighted
Show line entering or leaving below reservoir only when
such bottom connection is essential to circuit function.
4.1.2 Simplified symbol
4.3 Receiver
The symbols are used as part of a complete circuit. They 4.4 Energy Source (Pump, Compressor, Accumulator,

are analogous to the ground symbol of electrical diagrams. etc.)
. Several such symbols may be used in one
This symbol may be used to represent a fluid power source
which may be a pump, compressor, or another associated
diagram to represent the same reservoir. system.
HYDRAULIC PNEUMATIC
Page 5 of 24
Fluid Power Symbols
Simplified Symbol
Example:
5. Fluid Conditioners
Devices, which control the physical characteristics of the
fluid.
Page 6 of 24
Fluid Power Symbols
5.1 Heat Exchanger
5.1.1 Heater 5.4 Filter – Separator
5.4.1 With Manual Drain
Inside triangles Outside triangles Outside triangles

indicate the show the heating show the heating 5.4.2 With Automatic Drain
introduction of heat. medium is liquid. medium is gaseous.
5.1.2 Cooler
5.5 Desiccator (Chemical Dryer)
or
Inside triangles indicate heat dissipation.
5.6 Lubricator
or 5.6.1 Less Drain
(Corners may be filled in to represent triangles.)
5.1.3 Temperature Controller (The temperature is to be
maintained between two predetermined limits.)
or
6. Linear Devices
6.1 Cylinders, Hydraulic and Pneumatic
6.1.1 Single Acting
5.2 Filter – Strainer
6.1.2 Double Acting
5.3 Separator
6.1.2.1 Single End Rod
5.3.2 With Automatic Drain
6.1.2.2 Double End Rod
Page 7 of 24
Fluid Power Symbols
6.1.2.3 Fixed Cushion, Advance and Retract
7.2.1 Push Button
6.1.2.4 Adjustable Cushion, Advance Only
7.2.2 Lever
6.1.2.5 Use these symbols when diameter of rod

compared to diameter of bore is significant to
circuit function.
7.2.3 Pedal or Treadle
NON CUSHION CUSHION, ADVANCE AND 7.3 Mechanical

RETRACT
6.2 Pressure Intensifier
7.4 Detent
6.3 Servo Positioner (Simplified)
(Show a notch for each detent in the actual component

being symbolized. A short line indicates which detent is
in use.) Detent may, for convenience, be positioned on
either end of symbol.
Hydraulic Pneumatic
7.5 Pressure Compensated
6.4 Discrete Positioner
Combine two or more basic cylinder symbols.
7.6 Electrical
7.6.1 Solenoid (Single Winding)
7. Actuators and Controls
7.1 Spring
7.6.2 Reversing Motor
7.2 Manual M
7.7 Pilot Pressure
(Use as general symbol without indication of specific 7.7.1 Remote Supply

type; i.e., foot, hand, leg, arm.)
Page 8 of 24
Fluid Power Symbols
Page 9 of 24
Fluid Power Symbols
7.7.2 Internal Supply
7.9 Thermal – A mechanical device responding to
thermal change.
7.9.1 Local Sensing
7.7.3 Actuation by Released Pressure
7.9.2 With Bulb for Remote Sensing
By Remote Exhaust By Internal Return
7.7.4 Pilot Controlled, Spring Centered
7.10 Servo
Simplified Symbol
(This symbol contains representation for energy input,

command input, and resultant output.)
Complete Symbol
7.11 Composite Actuators (and, or, and/or)
7.7.5 Pilot Differential
Basic . . One signal only causes the
device to operate
Simplified Symbol Complete Symbol
And . ; One signal and a second
7.8 Solenoid Pilot signal both cause the
7.8.1 Solenoid or Pilot device to operate.
External Pilot Supply
Or . . One signal or the other signal
causes the device to operate.
Internal Pilot Supply and Exhaust
And/Or . . The solenoid and the pilot
or the manual override alone
causes the device to operate.
7.8.2 Solenoid and Pilot
Page 10 of 24
Fluid Power Symbols
The solenoid and the pilot
or the manual override The solenoid and the pilot
and the pilot or a manual override and
the pilot or a manual
override alone.
Page 11 of 24
Fluid Power Symbols
8. Rotary Devices
8.1 Basic Symbol
8.2.3 Variable Displacement, Pressure Compensated
8.2.3.1 Unidirectional
8.1.1 With Ports
8.1.2 With Rotating Shaft, with control and with Drain
Simplified Complete
8.2.3.2 Bidirectional
8.2 Hydraulic Pump
8.2.1 Fixed Displacement
Simplified Complete
8.3 Hydraulic Motor
8.3.1 Fixed Displacement
8.2.2 Variable Displacement, Noncompensated
8.3.2 Variable Displacement
Simplified Complete
8.4 Pump – Motor, Hydraulic
8.4.1 Operating in one direction as a pump. Operating
Simplified Complete in the other direction as a motor.
Page 12 of 24
Fluid Power Symbols
8.4.1.1 Complete Symbol 8.6 Motor, Pneumatic

8.6.1 Unidirectional
8.4.1.2 Simplified Symbol
8.6.2 Bidirectional
8.4.2 Operating one direction of flow as either a pump
or as a motor.
8.7 Oscillator
8.4.2.1 Complete Symbol
8.7.1 Hydraulic
8.7.2 Pneumatic
8.8 Motors, Engines
8.8.1 Electric Motor
8.4.3 Operating in both directions of flow either as a
pump or as a motor. (Variable displacement, pressure IEC
compensated shown.)
8.8.2 Heat Engine (E.G. internal combustion engine.)
8.4.3.1 Complete Symbol
9. Instruments and Accessories

9.1 Indicating and Recording
9.1.1 Pressure
8.5 Pump Pneumatic
8.5.1 Compressor, Fixed Displacement 9.1.2 Temperature
8.5.2 Vacuum Pump, Fixed Displacement
9.1.3 Flow Meter
9.1.3.1 Flow Rate
Page 13 of 24
Fluid Power Symbols
9.1.3.2 Totalizing
Page 14 of 24
Fluid Power Symbols
9.2 Sensing 10.3 Multiple envelope valves capable of infinite

positioning between certain limits are symbolized as in
9.2.1 Venturi
10.2 above with the addition of horizontal bars, which are
drawn parallel to the envelope. The horizontal bars are the
clues to the infinite positioning function possessed by the
valve represented.
10.4 Envelopes
9.2.2 Orifice Plate
105 Ports
9.2.3 Pitot Tube
10.6 Ports, Internally Blocked
9.2.4 Nozzle
Hydraulic Pneumatic Symbol System 10.1 Symbol System 10.2
9.3 Accessories 10.7 Flow Paths, Internally Open (Symbol System 10.1

and 10.2)
9.3.1 Pressure Switch
9.3.2 Muffler
Symbol Symbol
System System
10.1 10.2
10. Valves
10.8 Flow Paths, Internally Open (Symbol System 10.3)
A basic valve symbol is composed of one or more
envelopes with lines inside the envelope to represent flow
paths and flow conditioners between ports. Three symbol
systems are used to represent valve types: single envelope,
both finite and infinite position; multiple envelope, finite 10.9 TwoWay Valves (2 Ported Valves)
position; and multiple envelope, infinite position.
10.9.1 OnOff (Manual Shut Off)
10.1 In infinite position single envelope valves, the
Simplified
envelope is imagined to move to illustrate how pressure or
flow conditions are controlled as the valve is actuated.
10.2 Multiple envelopes symbolize valves providing
more than one finite flow path option for the fluid. The
multiple envelope moves to represent how flow paths
change when the valving element within the component is Off
shifted to its finite positions.
Page 15 of 24
Fluid Power Symbols
Page 16 of 24
Fluid Power Symbols
On
10.10 ThreeWay Valves
10.10.1 Two Position
10.10.1.1 Normally Open
10.92 Check
Simplified
Composite Symbol. Flow to the right is blocked. Flow to 10.10.1.2 Normally Closed

the left is permitted.
10.10.1.3 (Distributor Pressure is distributed first to one

port, then the other).
10.93 Check, PilotOperated to Open
10.10.1.4 TwoPressure
10.94 Check, PilotOperated to Close
10.10.2 Double Check Valve – Double check valves can
10.9.5 TwoWay Valves be built with and without “cross bleed”. Such valves with
10.9.5.1 TwoPosition two poppets do not usually allow pressure to momentarily
“cross bleed” to return during transition. Valves with one
poppet may allow “cross bleed” as these symbols
illustrate.
10.10.2.1 Without Cross Bleed (One way flow).
Normally Closed Normally Open
10.9.5.2 Infinite Position
10.10.2.2 With Cross Bleed (Reverse flow permitted).
Page 17 of 24
Fluid Power Symbols
10.11 FourWay Valves
10.11.1 TwoPosition
Normal Typical Transition Symbol
Actuated
10.12 Infinite Positioning (between open and closed)
10.11.2 Three Position
10.12.1 Normally Closed
(a) Normal
(b) Actuated Left
10.12.2 Normally Open
(c) Actuated Right
10.13 Pressure Control Valves
10.13.1 Pressure Relief
10.11.3 Typical Flow Paths for Center Condition of

ThreePosition Valves
Simplified Symbol
Denotes
Normal Actuated
10.11.4 TwoPosition, Snap Action with Transition. (Relieving)
As the valve element shifts from one position to the other, 10.13.2 Sequence

it passes through an intermediate position. If it is essential
to circuit function to symbolize this “in transit” condition,
it can be shown in the center position, enclosed by dashed
lines.
Page 18 of 24
Fluid Power Symbols
10.13.3 Pressure Reducing
10.13.4 Pressure Reducing and Relieving
10.16.2 Adjustable with Bypass
Flow is controlled to
the right. Flow to the
10.13.5 Airline Pressure Regulator (Adjustable,
left bypasses control.
Relieving)
10.16.3 Adjustable and Pressure Compensated with
Bypass
10.14 Infinite Positioning ThreeWay Valves
10.16.4 Adjustable, Temperature and Pressure

Compensated
10.15 Infinite Positioning FourWay Valves
11. Representative Composite Symbols

11.1 Component Enclosure
Component enclosure may surround a complete symbol or
10.16 Flow Control Valves (See 3.7) a group of symbols to represent an assembly. It is used to
10.16.1 Adjustable, NonCompensated (Flow control in convey more information about component connections
each direction) and functions. Enclosure indicates extremity of
component or assembly. External ports are assumed to be
on enclosure line and indicate connections to component.
Flow lines shall cross enclosure line without loops or dots.
Page 19 of 24
Fluid Power Symbols
11.2 Airline Accessories (Filter, Regulator and

Lubricator)
Composite
Simplified
Page 20 of 24
Fluid Power Symbols
11.3 Pumps and Motors
11.3.1 Pumps 11.3.1.4 Variable Displacement with Integral
Replenishing Pump and Control Valves
11.3.1.1 Double, Fixed Displacement, One Inlet and Two
Outlets.
11.3.1.2 Double, with Integral Check Unloading and Two
Outlets
11.3.1.3 Integral Variable Flow Rate Control with

Overload Relief
Page 21 of 24
Fluid Power Symbols
11.4.6 TwoPositions, Four Connection Solenoid, and Pilot Actuated, with Manual Pilot Override.
Simplified Symbol
Complete Symbol
Page 22 of 24
Fluid Power Symbols
11.4 Valves
11.4.1 Relief, Balanced Type
11.4.4 Pressure Reducing with Integral Check.
11.4.5 Pilot Operated Check
11.4.5.1 Differential Pilot Opened.
11.4.2 Remote Operated Sequence with Integral Check
11.4.5.2
11.4.3 Remote and Direct Operated Sequence with

Differential areas and Integral Check.
Page 23 of 24
Fluid Power Symbols
11.4.7 TwoPosition, Five Connection, Solenoid Control Pilot Actuated with Detents and Throttle Exhaust.
Simplified Symbol
Complete Symbol
11.4.8 Variable Pressure Compensated Flow Control and Overload Relief.
Page 24 of 24
Pneumatic and Hydraulic
Dangers
The dangers of the use of compressed air include:
Air Embolism
Hose/Pipe Whipping
Noise
The dangers of working with high pressure oil can be
Crushing/Cutting infinitely more drastic:
High Pressure Oil Injection

Oil Burns
Crushing/Cutting
Carcinogens
This injury is a result of placing the hand in front

of a jet of leaking hydraulic fluid at around 180
Bar
Differences in Symbols
Symbols Reminder
Hydraulic Pump Compressor

Pumps and Motors
differ only by filling in
the direction arrow or
leaving it white.
Supply and Pilot

arrows are also filled
in or left white.
Hydraulically Actuated and Pneumatically Actuated

supplied 3/2 Pilot Spring and supplied 3/2 Pilot
Spring
Differences in Symbols
Hydraulic valves have a crossover to Tank.
Pneumatic valves tend to have two

Exhaust outlets to Atmosphere.
This circuit shows A pneumatic system
components that are used would not normally need
to control heavy loads in to control loads of this
the hydraulic system. The magnitude, therefore this
system is called a type of circuit would not
Counterbalance Circuit be seen in a pneumatic
because it hydraulically schematic.
counterbalances the load.
Counterbalance Valves
Electro-Pneumatic and Hydraulic
Systems
Control of Electro-Pneumatic and Hydraulic systems using Electrical control

systems is similar for both media types.
Both systems would use Solenoid actuated valves, either Directly
Actuated or Indirectly Actuated.
An Electronic system would commonly incorporate Push Button Switches
(for human input), Reed Switches (to detect cylinder position), Proximity
Sensors and Photocells (to detect machine/component position).
An Electronic system would also commonly incorporate Relays and
computer controlled systems such as Programmable Logic Controllers.
IFPSA_Wall_Chart_Final5_RGB.pdf 1 9/07/10 4:20 PM
The International Organisation THE INTERNATIONAL FLUID POWER

INTERNATIONAL for Fluid Power and Motion SOCIETY OF AUSTRALIA
SO Control Professionals INCORPORATED
CIETY
ISO/CETOP Fluid Power Symbols

Shaft, lever, rod, piston
Spring Single acting Restrictor, fixed Solenoid

Throttling, viscosity dependent
Cylinders
Restrictor, variable Mechanical
Restriction, not viscosity dependent
Flow Control
Double acting
0 1
Flow direction Restrictor, not viscosity dependent Roller

Differential cylinder
PR
Direct
Basic Symbols
Direction of rotation Throttle-check valve pressure

Cylinder with cushion Pressure
Variable setting
rise
3-way by-pass flow regulator
Working Lines -
Pressure & Return
Pilot Control Line - Check valve, not spring loaded
External/Internal drain line Flow divider
With transient intermediate position
Enclosure of two or more
functions contained in one unit Check valve, spring loaded
Configuration Examples
Flexible Line Connection B Mechanical feed back
Tube & Pipe Line Pilot controlled check valve Two - way
Connection
Check Valves
Hand operated
X A
Three - way
Line Crossing -
not connected X B Lever
Two - way with
Pilot controlled opening
cross over position
Hydraulic source of energy Pilot controlled closing Roller
L
Pneumatic source of energy A Without fixed position
2 - extreme position
Hydraulic operated pressure rise
A
Fixed capacity pump with 2 - extreme position
one direction of flow and between (OSP) Pneumatic operated
Direction Control
Example
B 2/2 - valve
Fixed capacity pump with Direct pressure
two directions of flow
A B 3/2 - valve Solenoid
Variable capacity pump with one
Pumps & Motors
direction of flow & undefined control Simplified

mechanism in open circuit 4/3 - valve Motor operated M
Variable capacity pump with two

Typical 4/3 valve Solenoid, hydraulic-operated
directions of flow & undefined control
crossover configuration
mechanism in closed circuit
B
Motion Controls
Typical valve PVEO

Fixed capacity motor with build arrangements
uni-directional output
Overcentre Valve 2 0 1 PVEM
X
Fixed capacity motor with

bi-directional output PVEH
A Typical valve centre
Variable capacity motor with configurations Pneumatic, hydraulic-operated
B M
uni-directional output & undefined
control mechanism
Mechanical detent
Check-Q-Meter X
Variable capacity motor with
bi-directional output & undefined
Spring return
control mechanism A
Normally closed Pressure limiting valve, pilot Z

Pressure Switch
controlled with internal drain line
L
B
Normally open
Pressure Controls
© Copyright 2010 The International Fluid Power Society of Australia (Inc)
Pressure reducing valve, pilot Z

Bladder Accumulator
A controlled with external drain line
Pressure limiting valve, fixed setting A L
A
B
A
Pilot operated normally closed

X
Pressure limiting valve, variable setting valve with external drain line
Legend
B A. B. Work Lines
B L
A
A P. Pump connection (pressure)
R. S. T. Return/Tank
Pressure limiting valve, pilot Z
controlled with external drain line Pilot operated normally open

valve with internal drain line X X. Y. Z. Pilot line
L. Drain line
B L
B
ABN: 72 357 507 451 Postal Address: 3 Cooper Street

Phone: 0417 949 269 Mullaloo
Email: exo@fluidpowersociety.com.au Western Australia 6027
Web: www.fluidpowersociety.com.au Australia
Pascal’s Law Problem
• For a hydraulic press the following data are
given
• A1 = 25 sq.cm A2 = 100 sq.cm
• F1 = 200 N
• S1 = 5 cm
Find
• F2
• S2
• F2 = A2/A1 * F1
= 100/25 * 200
= 800 N
• S2 = A1/A2 * S1
= 25 /100 * 5
= 1.25 cm
Air Compressors
COMPRESSOR – A device which takes a definite quantity of fluid ( usually gas, and
most often air ) and deliver it at a required pressure.
Air Compressor – 1) Takes in atmospheric air,
2) Compresses it, and
3) Delivers it to a storage vessel ( i.e. Reservoir ).
Compression requires Work to be done on the gas,
 Compressor must be driven by some sort of Prime Mover ( i.e. Engine )

How they are different from pumps?
•Major difference is that compressors handles the gases and pumps handles the
liquids.
•As gases are compressible, the compressor also reduces the volume of gas.
•Liquids are relatively incompressible; while some can be compressed

Applications
Compressors have many everyday uses, such as in :
•Air conditioners, (car, home)
•Pneumatic devices
•Home and industrial refrigeration
•Hydraulic compressors for industrial machines
•Air compressors for industrial manufacturing

Dynamic Compressors
The dynamic compressor is continuous flow compressor is characterized by rotating

impeller to add velocity and thus pressure to fluid.
It is widely used in chemical and petroleum refinery industry for specific services.
There are two types of dynamic compressors

Centrifugal Compressor
Axial Flow Compressor
Centrifugal Compressors
•Achieves compression by applying inertial forces to the gas by means of
rotating impellers.
•It is multiple stage ; each stage consists of an impeller as the rotating

element and the stationary element, i.e. diffuser
• Fluid flow enters the impeller axially and discharged radially
• The gas next flows through a circular chamber (diffuser), where it loses
velocity and increases pressure.
Axial Flow Compressor
•Working fluid principally flows parallel to the axis of rotation.
• The energy level of air or gas flowing through it is increased by the

action of the rotor blades which exert a torque on the fluid
•Have the benefits of high efficiency and large mass flow rate
•Require several rows of airfoils to achieve large pressure rises

making them complex and expensive
Positive displacement Compressor
Positive displacement compressors causes movement by trapping a fixed

amount of air then forcing (displacing) that trapped volume into the discharge
pipe.
It can be further classified according to the mechanism used to move air.

Rotary Compressor
Reciprocating compressor
Rotary Compressor
•The gas is compressed by the rotating action of a
roller inside a cylinder.
•The roller rotates off-centre around a shaft so

that part of the roller is always in contact with the
cylinder.
• Volume of the gas occupies is reduced and the

refrigerant is compressed.
•High efficient as sucking and compressing

refrigerant occur simultaneously.
Reciprocating Compressor
It is a positive-displacement compressor that
• Uses pistons driven by a crankshaft to deliver

gases at high pressure.
•The intake gas enters the suction manifold, then

flows into the compression cylinder
•It gets compressed by a piston driven in a

reciprocating motion via a crankshaft,
•Discharged at higher pressure

Reciprocating Compressor – Multistage
High Pressure required by Single – Stage :
 1. Requires heavy working parts.

2. Has to accommodate high pressure ratios.
3. Increased balancing problems.
4. High Torque fluctuations.
5. Requires heavy Flywheel installations.
This demands for MULTI – STAGING…!!

Why multistage compressor?
•High temp rise leads into limitation for the maximum achievable
pressure rise.
•Discharge temperature shall not exceed 150ºC and should not exceed
1350C for hydrogen rich services
•Amultistage compressor compresses air to the required pressure in

multiple stages.
•Intercoolers are used in between each stage to removes heat and

decrease the temperature of gas so that gas could be compressed to
higher pressure without much rise in temperature
Reciprocating Compressor – Multistage
Series arrangement of cylinders, in which the compressed air from earlier cylinder
(i.e. discharge) becomes the intake air for the next cylinder (i.e. inlet).
L.P. = Low Pressure
Intercooler I.P. = Intermediate

Air Delivery
Pressure
H.P. = High Pressure
L.P. I.P. H.P. Intercooler :

Cylinder Cylinder Cylinder
Compressed air is cooled
between cylinders.
Intercooler
Air Intake
STAGING
NUMBER OF STAGES PRESSURE CAPACITY
(PSI)
1 150
2 500
3 2500
4 5000
12/14/21
Table showing operating conditions of various compressors
Taken from
PIP REEC001
Compressor Selection Guidelines
Advantages and Disadvantages of Dynamic compressors
Advantages Disadvantages
Dynamic
Compressors
Centrifugal •Wide operating range •Instability at reduced flow
•High reliability •Sensitive to gas composition
•Low Maintenance change
Axial •High Capacity for given •Low Compression ratios

size •Limited turndown
•High efficiency
•Heavy duty
•Low maintenance
Advantages and Disadvantages of Positive displacement
compressors
Advantages Disadvantages
Positive displacement
compressor
Reciprocating •Wide pressure ratios •Heavy foundation required
•High efficiency •Flow pulsation
•High maintenance
Diaphragm •Very high pressure •Limited capacity range

•Low flow •Periodic replacement of
•No moving seal diaphragm
Screw •Wide application •Expensive

•High efficiency •Unsuitable for corrosive or dirty
•High pressure ratio gases
Connecting to industry
Filters
Regulators
Lubricators
Pumps and Motors Problems
Efficiency
Pumps Motors
Volumetric QA *100 /QT QT*100/QA
efficiency
Mechanical TT*100/TA Ta*100/TT
efficiency
Problem 1
• A pump has a displacement volume of
100cm3. It delivers 0.0015 m 3/s at 1000 rpm
and 70 bars. If the prime mover input torque
is 120N-m.
– What is the overall efficiency of pump?
SOLUTION
• Volumetric displacement
VD = 100 cm3 / rev * (1 m/1000 cm 3)
= 0.000100 m3/rev
QT = VDN
= (0.000100 m3/rev)(1000/60 rev/s)
= 0.00167 m3/s
Volumetric efficiency
Ƞv = QA/QT = 0.0015/0.00167 = 0.898 = 89.8%
SOLUTION
• Mechanical Efficiency
• Ƞm = pQT / TA
= (70 x 105 N /m2) (0.00167 m3/s) /
(120 N.m) (1000 x 2
= 11690 N.m/s / 12570 N.m/s
= 0.930 = 93%
Overall efficiency ƞo = ƞvƞm
= 0.898 x 0.93
= 83.5 %
Problem 2
• A hydraulic motor has a 82 cm3 (0.082 L)
volumetric displacement. If it has a pressure
ra ng of 70 bars and it receives oil from a
0.0006 m3/s (0.060 Lps or 36.0 Lpm)
theore cal flow-rate pump, find the motor
• a speed
• b Theore cal torque
• c Theore cal power
a MOTOR SPEED
• N = Q T / VD
= 0.0006 m3/s / 0.000082 m3/rev
= 7.32 rev/s
= 439 rpm
b THORETICAL TORQUE
• TT = VD p / 2
= 0.000082 m3 (70 x 105 N/m2) / 2
= 91.4 N.m
c THEORETICAL POWER
• = TT N
• = (91.4 N.m) (7.32 x 2
Fluid Power
Hydraulic Cylinders
Function of Hydraulic
Cylinders
 The main function of a cylinder is to convert
hydraulic power into linear mechanical force.
 This force performs work or transmits power.
Overview
 Types of Cylinders
 Construction and Operation
 Cylinder Ratings
 Formulas for Application
 Cylinder Features
 Installation and Trouble Shooting
Types of Cylinders
 Ram
 Single Acting
 Telescopic
 Spring Return
 Double Acting
Ram Cylinders
 The simplest single acting cylinder

 One fluid chamber
 Exerts force in only one direction
 Mounted mostly vertically
 The cylinder retracts by the force
of the load due to gravity
Ram Cylinders
 Ram cylinders are most
commonly used in
elevators, jacks, and
automobile hoists.
 Can also be used on a
scissors lift like the one on
the loading dock of KL.
Single Acting Cylinders
 Acts much like a ram cylinder

 Main difference is that the single acting
cylinder uses a piston. The leakage flow that
goes past the piston is ported the tank.
Telescopic Cylinders
 Mostly a single acting cylinder
 Series of rod segments called sleeves, most
common to only have 4 or 5 sleeves in each
cylinder
 The sleeves work together to provide a longer
stroke
 The maximum force is at the collapsed position
 The speed will increase at each stage, but will not
allow as much force.
Telescopic Cylinders
•Most commonly seen in high reach Fork

Lifts
Spring Return Cylinders
 Considered a single acting cylinder

 Pressure applied to the cap end pushes the spring down as
the rod is extending
 When the pressure is removed the spring force allows the
cylinder to retract
 The drain is in the spring chamber and allows the leakage
flow past the piston seal
Double Acting Cylinders
Types
 Basic double acting (differential

cylinder)
 Double rod cylinder (nondifferential
cylinder)
 Tandem cylinder
 Most common type of cylinder

 Pressure is applied to both rod end and
cap end
 The majority of the cylinders are basic.
This means that there is unequal areas at
either end.
 Rod extension is slower because has a larger

area, but allows a greater force because of
the bigger area.
 Retract is faster because of the smaller area,
but the force allowed is smaller because of
the smaller area.
Basic Double Acting
Cylinder
Double Rod Cylinder
 Nondifferential type cylinder

 Same areas at both ends of the cylinder if the rods are the
same size
 Provides equal force, and equal speed in both directions
Tandem Cylinder
 Two pistons in line with a common rod
 This allows you to have a greater forces without increasing
the size of the cylinder bore
 Tandem cylinders are used in places where there is
insufficient space to increase the size of the cylinder bore.
Cylinder Construction
Cylinder Actuation
 Fluid routed to and from cylinder through

ports in each of the heads
 Cylinder retracts from pressure to rod end
port and the other port connected to tank
 Cylinder extends from pressure to cap end
port and rod end port connected to tank
Cylinder Mounting
 Main function to anchor the cylinder

 Mounting methods include tie rod, bolt
mount, flange, trunnion, side lug and side
tapped, and clevis
 Tie rod is most common
Cylinder Mounting
Cylinder Mounting
Cylinder Ratings
 Ratings include size specifications and pressure

capability
 Size specifications
- piston diameter (bore)
- rod diameter
- stroke length
 Pressure capability
- pressure rating established by manufacturer
- rating limits maximum force capability
Formulas For Applications
 V (in/min) = GPM x (231 / Area (in²))

 Q (flow) = Area (in²) x V (in/min) / 231
 F (lbs) = Pressure (psi) x Area (in²)
 P (psi) = Force (lbs) / Area (in²)
Effects of Cylinder Performance for
Changes of Flow, Size, and Pressure
Data for Different Cylinder
Sizes
Cylinder Features
 Basic size and pressure ratings are not the only things that define a
cylinder
 Features such as:
- seals
- cushions
- stop tubes
- rod spacers
- ports
- bleed ports
-limit switches
Seals
 Cast iron is most common piston seal

 Long service life is most important characteristic
 Rubber-like materials are the most common rod seal
 Rod wiper or scraper keeps foreign material from entering
the cylinder and the hydraulic system
Cylinder Cushions
 Used to slow down the piston at the end of its

stroke
 Basic elements include the plunger,
adjustable cushion orifice, and a check valve
Stop Tubes
 Metal collar that fits over piston rod next to piston

 Used primarily on long stroke cylinders
 Provides better cylinder rod support
 Majority of applications do not require a stop tube
Tie Rod Spacers
 Tie rod spacers and center supports improve rigidity of long

stroke tie rod cylinders
 Spacer keeps proper position and prevents excessive deflection
 Tie rod center support has side mounting lugs and serves as
additional mounting location
Ports
 Internal or external opening in a cylinder or a valve

 Designed to allow the passing of fluid into or out of
the component
 Wide variety of port type configurations
 Straight thread O-ring fittings are highly
recommended for leak-free connections
 Poor installation of tubing or hose to port causes
leakage
Bleed Ports
 Usually cylinders bleed air when ports are

vertical on top
 Bleed ports are necessary to remove trapped
air when the ports are installed on the bottom
of the cylinder
 Desirable on high speed, high performance,
heavy load applications
Limit Switches
 Signal rod position to a control circuit or a safety circuit to limit end of
travel
 Common types
-mechanical = mechanical actuation of electrical switch when switch is
activated by lead angle on a hardened cylinder cushion
- proximity = activated when metal cushion passes close to magnetic
pickup of the switch
* becoming increasingly popular due to simplicity
Cylinder Installation and
Troubleshooting
 Cylinder application design » hydraulic
engineers
 Installation » hydraulic technician
 Proper installation and maintenance is crucial
to all components to achieve max efficiency
 Recognizing and controlling potential
problems is purpose of troubleshooting
Chapter 11
Accumulators
Pressure, Flow, and
Shock Control Assistance
Objectives
 Explain the four basic functions of
accumulators in hydraulic systems.
 Describe the design of weight-, spring-, and
gas-loaded accumulators.
 Compare the basic operating principles of
weight-, spring-, and gas-loaded
accumulators.
 Compare the construction and performance
of piston-, diaphragm-, and bladder-type gas-
loaded accumulators.
© Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 3 Permission granted to reproduce for educational use only.
Objectives
 List and describe the typical uses of
accumulators in hydraulic systems.
 Select the proper type and size of an
accumulator for a circuit.
 List the safety factors that must be considered
when working with accumulators.
Basic Functions of an
Accumulator
 Accumulators allow a hydraulic system to use
the noncompressible nature of liquids while still
being able to absorb and store energy in the
system
 Accumulators are also used to absorb sudden
pressure increases in the system to prevent
damage to system components
Accumulator
 Accumulators installed on a machine
MTS Systems Corporation
Accumulator
 Energy is stored in an accumulator by:
– Lifting a weight
– Compressing a spring
– Compressing a gas
Accumulator
 Energy stored in an accumulator can be used to:
– Maintain system pressure
– Produce fluid flow to expand pump output
– Power the circuit when the pump is not operating
Accumulator Design
and Operation
 Weight-loaded accumulators are generally used
in large, stationary hydraulic systems
– Vertically mounted units with heavy weights
mounted on the cylinder rod
– Gravity acts on the weight to pressurize the
hydraulic system fluid, thus storing energy
– Seldom used in current hydraulic system designs
Accumulator Design
and Operation
 Conceptual weight-
loaded accumulator
Accumulator Design
and Operation
 Spring-loaded accumulators store energy by
compressing a spring
 Spring tension maintains pressure on system
fluid
– Allowing storing of energy
– Absorbs any sudden pressure increases in the fluid
Accumulator Design
and Operation
 Typical spring-loaded
accumulator
Accumulator Design
and Operation
 Gas-charged accumulators are the most
common type of accumulator
 They use a piston, bladder, or diaphragm to
separate the liquid and gas
 This separation prevents the gas from being
absorbed by the liquid or entering the system
liquid lines
Accumulator Design
and Operation
 Piston-type accumulators are basically a
cylinder with a free-sliding piston that
separates the cylinder into a gas chamber and
a liquid chamber
 These units are available in sizes from under
10 cubic inches to over 100 gallons
Accumulator Design
and Operation
 Piston-type accumulator
Accumulator Design
and Operation
 Bladder-type accumulators use a flexible
bladder fitted into a metal shell
 The gas is stored in the bladder, while the
hydraulic fluid is held in the space between the
shell and the bladder
 This accumulator design is available in sizes
ranging from a few cubic inches to a maximum
of approximately 40 gallons
Accumulator Design
and Operation
 Bladder-type accumulator
Accumulator Design
and Operation
 Poppet prevents
bladder from being
forced into the
system line
Accumulator Design
and Operation
 Diaphragm-type accumulators are constructed
of two metal hemispheres separated by a
flexible diaphragm
 Hydraulic fluid fills one of the hemispheres
while the second holds the gas
Accumulator Design
and Operation
 Diaphragm-type
accumulator
Accumulator Design
and Operation
 Gas valve is used to precharge the accumulator
to the proper pressure
Accumulator Design
and Operation
 During operation, pressurized hydraulic fluid
fills the liquid-side of the accumulator
– Creates force against one of the surfaces of the
piston, bladder, or diaphragm
– This force moves these parts, reducing the volume
of the gas chamber
– The gas is compressed, which stores energy
– When the hydraulic system pressure drops, the gas
expands to release energy
Accumulator Design
and Operation
 The gas in a gas-charged accumulator responds
to pressure, temperature, and volume changes
following the ideal gas laws
 A basic understanding of these laws is essential
to understanding the operation of an
accumulator
 The ideal gas laws are discussed in Chapter 3
Accumulator Design
and Operation
 Isothermal and adiabatic are terms that need to
be understood to fully explain the operation of
an accumulator
– An isothermal process is one in which temperature
remains constant
– An adiabatic process results in an increase or
decrease in temperature
– Gas accumulators typically perform between these
two operating conditions
Accumulator Design
and Operation
 Comparison of isothermal and adiabatic
Functions of
Accumulator Circuits
 The four basic functions of accumulators are
– Providing a means to store energy
– Controlling pressure and flow variations
– Maintaining system pressure
– Supplementing pump output flow
 Energy is being stored any time an accumulator
is being filled
Functions of
 Rapid pressure increases or fluctuations in flow
can cause hydraulic component damage
 Control of these problems requires careful
accumulator sizing, precharging, and placement
in a hydraulic circuit
Functions of
 Circuit that stores
energy when the
pump is not operating
Functions of
 Accumulators work well to hold system
pressure without continuous operation of the
power unit
 The power unit may be shut off or unloaded
while the accumulator holds the required
system pressure
Functions of
 Ambient temperature may effect system
pressure during a holding cycle.
 An accumulator can:
– Absorb the hydraulic fluid volume increase caused
by expansion due to temperature increase
– Resupply fluid when the volume decreases as the
temperature drops
Functions of
 Circuit that holds pressure
Functions of
 An accumulator may be used to supplement
pump output
– Used in circuits requiring high flow rates during a
small part of the system cycle
– A small pump fills the accumulator when little or no
flow is required
– Accumulator discharge combined with pump output
supplies fluid volume during the high-flow-rate
phase of operation
Functions of
 Circuit with an accumulator supplementing
pump output
Used with permission of CNH America LLC

Selecting and Sizing
Accumulators
 Accumulators are available in capacities
ranging from under 10 cubic inches to 100
gallons or more
Accumulators
 Accumulators are available in a range of
pressure ratings
– Typically maximum pressure ratings are from
2000 psi to over 10,000 psi
– Models are generally available with maximum
pressure ratings of 2000, 2500, 3000, 5000, and
10,000 psi
Accumulators
 Accumulators are
available in a wide
range of sizes
HYDAC Technology Corporation

Accumulators
 Rated capacity of an accumulator is based on
the gas volume when all liquid has been
expelled
 Actual volume that can be stored is well below
the rated capacity
 Ratio of rated capacity to actual volume varies
somewhat between manufacturers
Accumulators
 Pressure rating is based on the maximum safe
operating pressure of the accumulator, as
determined by the manufacturer
– Pressure ratings range from 2000 psi to as high as
10,000 psi
– Rated pressures are maximum system operating
pressures, not accumulator precharge pressures
Accumulators
 Usable accumulator volume indicates the
amount of hydraulic fluid the unit can supply
in a specific system application
Accumulators
 Three pressures are involved in calculating the
usable operating volume of an accumulator
– Maximum operating pressure
– Minimum operating pressure
– Precharge pressure of the accumulator
Accumulators
 Precharge pressure is the pressure on the gas
side of the accumulator after the pressure on the
hydraulic fluid side has been reduced to 0 psi
Accumulators
 Precharge pressure varies with the application
of the accumulator in the circuit
 Common recommended precharge pressures
are:
– 100 psi below minimum operating pressure for
maintaining system pressure or supplementing
pump output
– 100 psi above relief valve setting for smoothing
flow pulsation or reducing effects of shock
pressures
Setup and Maintenance of
Accumulators
 Weight-loaded accumulators must be vertically
mounted
 Ideally, spring- and gas-loaded accumulators
should be mounted in a vertical orientation
– Horizontal installation is allowable
– May shorten the service life of accumulator
bladders and piston seals
– Debris may collect in the accumulator
Accumulators
 Vertically mounted
accumulators
MTS Systems Corporation
Accumulators
 Gas precharge pressure should be checked on
a regular basis
 Incorrect pressure can produce inefficient
system operation and may cause damage to
bladders, diaphragms, and piston seals
Accumulators
 Precharging/gauging equipment is available
from accumulator manufacturers
 Manufacturer-recommended procedures must
be closely followed when completing these
procedures
Accumulators
 Precharge equipment connects a nitrogen supply
to the gas valve
Accumulators
 Precharging equipment
HYDAC Technology Corporation
Accumulators
 Several critical safety rules and procedures
must be followed when working with
accumulators
 Specific training is required to assure personal
safety and safe system operation when working
with accumulators
Review Question
An accumulator permits _____ to be absorbed
and stored in a hydraulic system.
energy
Review Question
In bladder-type gas-charged accumulators, what
is the purpose of the poppet valve?
To prevent damage to the bladder, which

may occur if it is forced into the system
line through the system port.
Review Question
List the three designs of gas-charged
accumulators used in hydraulic systems.
A. Piston, B. bladder, and C. diaphragm.
Review Question
Air or _____ should never be used in gas-
charged accumulators.
pure oxygen
Review Question
Which accumulator design must be mounted in
a vertical position?
Weight-loaded accumulator.
Review Question
The volume of fluid available from an
accumulator is greatest if the unit is charged
and discharged as a(n) _____ process.
isothermal
Review Question
List three reasons why air cannot be used as a
precharge gas.
A. Risk of explosion as the oxygen it contains

is compressed; B. moisture in the air can
condense and rust system components and
reduce fluid life; and C. oxygen in the air
causes oxidation of the hydraulic fluid.
Review Question
List four safety factors that must be followed when
working with accumulators.
1. Special training is needed before working with accumulators
and accumulator circuits.
2. Use only inert gas as charging gas.
3. Never exceed recommended precharge pressure.
4. Always remove accumulator-related pressure from hydraulic
system oil before considering a system shut-down.
(Other answers are also suitable for discussion)
Directional valves
Classification schemes:
1. Spool valves or poppet valves

2. Switching or continuously adjustable valves
3. Number of ports and positions
4. The kind of governing and positioning unit
2005/2006 I. Hydraulic and Pneumatic Systems 1

Directional valves
1. Spool valves or poppet valves:
Spool valves Poppet valves
have always leakages can be totally sealed

need relatively large displacements need smaller displacements to let
because a positive overlap is needed for fluid through
sealing
preferred in all other cases because of preferred for large flow rates
their flexibility and lower price
need radial and axial

pressure relief,

Directional valves
2. Switching or continuously
adjustable valves:
Directional valves work either in certain switching positions or they are

continuously adjustable.
Latter by electrohydraulic or electric governing units.

Directional valves
3. Number of ports and positions:
Basic symbols
Two positions Three positions
4/3 valve with ports, operation

positions and governing elements

Directional valves
4. Kind of governing and positioning unit:
By hand, electrically or electrohydraulically
Cross-
section:
Symbol:

Electrically governed continuously adjustable valves
 Servo valves
 Proportional valves
Servo valves:
They are able to govern a very large output power with a very small input power.
Large masses have to be moved in a short time against varying forces to precise
positions.
These valves are very expensive because they have to be manufactured with very
high accuracy.
Because of this, their operation is also expensive, because the fluid has to be very
well filtered.
They have usually two (for very large flow rates three) amplifying stages.

Servo valves
Double nozzle – impinging plate (bridge circuit):
 
s0-s s0+s  
 1 1 
 s0  s  s0 p  p0   2
 2 
  s  s 
1  
  s  1   1  
 s  
1 
s   0   0  
Q1 Q2
QU QU p Linear part in
User p0 the middle
Q01 Q01
p1 p2
p0
0,8
-1
1 s
s0
-0,8
Servo valves
Operation:
If there is no current, there is no displacement, the valve body is kept in the middle.
If there is current, the iron core is displaced and the impinging plate that is rigidly
coupled with it is also displaced and a pressure drop is created.
Note that there is a small negative overlap, the manufacturing must be very good.
There must always be a flow.
Disadvantage: it is difficult to hold the zero position, because of dry friction or
contamination.
Solution:
There are also three-stage servo valves.

They are used for very large powers.

Continuously adjustable valves
Proportional valves:
Continuously adjustable proportional magnets are able
to adjust continuously and precisely the position of a
directional valve.
The magnetic force is proportional to the current and
nearly independent of the position.
The core reaches out far from the coil.
They might be connected with a position control, where
hysteresis effects are smaller.
They are often used for flow rate control
but all pressure valves can work with a proportional
magnet instead of a spring.
They are more precise.

Accessories
Liquid reservoir:
Tasks:  Storing of necessary liquid volume
 Conducting heat away from the system

 De-airing of the liquid (large surface, long stay of the liquid)
 Separation of condensed water
 Carrying element of other system components (pumps, valves, pipes,
etc.)
Pipes:
Steel of flexible hoses.
Key point: sealing

Accessories
Filter:
• Surface filter
• Volume filter – an order of magnitude
better but not cleanable
It can be before the pump, after the pump, before every sensitive elements or
in the back flow line.

System concepts
Delivering of liquid by:
 Flow sources
 Pressure sources
In case of flow sources normally for each actuator a separate source.

One pressure source can deliver several actuators parallel.
Pressure source should not be controlled by restriction valves because the losses
will be then too high. *
Better is to control by adjusting the displacement volume of the actuator.
It can happen with a hydromotor easily but for a hydraulic cylinder one needs a
hydraulic transformer.
This is called secondary control.
* → exp. on next slide

System concepts
Cont.
* Basically there are two main subgroups:
1. The pressure is always constant

In this case the main task is to find a control system to change the flow rate
for the oscillating flow rate needs of the actuators.
Various control mechanisms can be used here
2. The pressure is not constant

- Secondary control (see previous page)
- Load sensing control (much more complicated)

System concepts
Constant pressure sources:
- Pump with pressure relief valve: not very effective – lot of lost energy.
- The displacement volume or the rotational speed of a pump can be
controlled by measuring the pressure. In fact flow rate control but
indirectly pressure control.
Position drives:
VDr = Restriction valve
VW = direction valve
- All three versions have a 4/3 valve
- All three versions have two restriction valves, one constant and one
adjustable
The constant valve is for safety: it limits the maximum possible flow rate through
the system and prevents a breakdown of the pressure. These valves are all between
the actuator and the reservoir. This has the advantage that the actuator is between
two liquid columns that are both under pressure.
System concepts
Drives

Constant pressure sources
Position drives:
With the adjustable resistance the velocity can be
controlled:
a) Is a simple circuit. Problem is drifting in
the holding position since the spool valve
has a leakage.
b) Solves this problem by putting a 2/2 directional valve before the 4/3
valve. This seals perfectly. In addition, a double check valve prevents
the cylinder from moving.
c) Is even better. It allows a very accurate positioning. The directional
valve 1 has the job to switch between a creeping mode and a normal
speed mode. From the creeping mode it is easy to stop accurately.
Hold: 1
Normal speed: 2
Creeping speed: 0

Velocity drives:
VW = directional valve
EV = fast forward
ER = fast backward
Directional valve positions
AV = working forward
AR = working backward
VSZ = flow control valve
VDr = restriction valve Simpler circuits can be derived. If for example no
working backward mode is needed then VW4 and
VSZ1 can be omitted.
If the working velocity is so small that the flow rate is

around the leakage flow rate, large errors occur. In this case
spool valves may not be applied, instead pilot operated
check valves.
Force drives: Holding of work pieces, lifting of weights, forming of materials
a) b) c)
a) Simple circuit without adjustment of force. Why

is it a constant force drive? Because the pressure d)
pushes the cylinder as long to the right as there
is no equilibrium with the spring force.
b) Force adjustable with a pressure relief valve.
c) Large force. Force is adjustable in two stages. e)
d) Weight balancing, not adjustable.

e) Weight balancing with two-stage adjustability.
Big pictures
End of normal presentation
Beginning of big pictures

Directional valves
Spool valves – pressure relieves
1 – axial, 2 – axial

Directional valves
Spool valves - overlaps
O>0 O=0 O<0

Directional valves
Spool valves
With two switching positions and latch Spool types
Centred by springs
Pneumatically operated
Hydraulically operated

Directional valves
Spool valves
Electro-hydraulicaly
governed, centred by
spring
governed , centred by
pressure
Back
Directional valves
Spool valves

Directional valves
Spool valves

Directional valves
Spool valves

Directional valves
Spool
valves
-
spool
types

Directional valves
Spool
valves

Directional valves
Spool valves

Directional valves
Spool
valves

Directional valves
Spool valves

Directional valves
Poppet valves
Electrically governed 3/2 poppet valves
Ball Taper Plate
With one ball With two ball
1 - ball 2 - spring 3 - poppet

4 - housing 5 – lever ? 6 – operating pin ?
7 - ball 8 - poppet
Back
Directional valves
Poppet valves

Directional valves
Poppet valves

Directional valves
Poppet valves

Directional valves
Number of ports and positions:
a) 2/2
b) 3/3
c) 4/3
d) 5/3
e) 5/3
f) 4/3
g) 6/3

Directional valves
5/3 valves:

Directional valves

Directional valves

Directional valves
Kind of governing and positioning unit:

Directional valves

Directional valves

Directional valves

Directional valves

Directional valves

Directional valves

Directional valves

Construction
Servo valves
Torque motor
Permanent magnets
Iron core with coils tube
Bending tube
Double nozzle – impinging plate
Return springs
Spool valve
Constant restrictions
User

Servo valves
Positioning with
spring

Servo valves
Positioning
with spring

Servo valves
Positioning with
spring

Servo valves
Positioning with inductive device

Servo valves
Three
stage
servo
valve

Servo valves
Three stage servo valve

Proportional valves
Proportional directional valve

Proportional valves

Proportional valves
Proportional
directional valve

Proportional valves
Proportional flow rate
valve

Proportional valves
valve

Proportional valves
Proportional pressure valve

Proportional valves
Proportional
pressure
valve

Accessories
Filters

Accessories
Filters

Accessories
Filters

Accessories
Filters

Accessories
Filters

Accessories
Filters

Accessories
Filters

System concepts
Positioning drives
Against bumpers Drift-free holding of Positioning out of

the cylinder creeping motion
System concepts
Positioning drives
Against bumpers Drift-free holding of Positioning out of

the cylinder creeping motion
Circuit plan
Velocity drives

Velocity drives
Directional valve positions

Velocity drives
Modification for
very low
working speeds

Force drives
Without adjustment of force

Force drives
Force adjustable with
pressure relief valve

Force drives
Force is adjustable in two
stages

Force drives
Weight balancing, not adjustable

Force drives
Weight balancing with two-stage adjustability

Hydraulic pressure control valves
Working principle Dir.Op.Pr.Rel.Vlv.
2
Dir.Op.Pr.Rel.Vlv. - DBD
3
Hi-Low Circuit valve type DU
4
Pr.Rel.Vlv.in operation
5
Working principle Pil.Op.Pr.Rel.Vlv.
6
Pilot operated Pr.Rel.Vlv. - DB
7
Pil.Op.Pr.Rel.Vlv.with direct unloading -
DBW
8
Pil.Op.Pr.Seq.Vlv. - DZ
9
Accumulator charging vlv. - DA
10
Principle 2-way pr.red.vlv.
11
Principle 3-way pr.red.vlv.
12
Dir.Op.Pr.Red.Vlv. - 01
13
Dir.Op.Pr.Red.Vlv. - 02
14
Pr.Red.Vlv. In operation
15
Pil.Op.Pr.Red.Vlv.
16
Working principle Direct Op. Pressure
Relief
17
Direct Op. Pressure Relief - DBD
18
Pressure Relief valve in operation
19
Working principle Pilot Op. Pressure
Relief
20
Pilot operated Pressure Relief - DB
21
Pilot Op. Pressure Relief with direct
unloading - DBW
22
Principle 2-way pressure reducing
valve.
23
Principle 3-way pressure reducing
valve.
24
Direct Op. Pressure Reducing Valve
25
Pressure Reducing Valve In operation
26
Pilot Op. Pressure Reducing Valve
27
Pressure Control Valves
Types
• Simple Pressure Relief Valve
• Compound Pressure Relief Valve
• Pressure Reducing Valve
• Unloading Valve
• Sequence Valve
• Counterbalance valve
Pressure Reducing valve
Two main types of pressure reducing valves
• Constant reduced – Set to reduce a certain amount below the operating
system pressure.
– Ex. 1, Set constant reduced pressure at 500 psi and the system pressure is
2000 pressure, the valve will keep the system pressure at 1500
– Ex. 2, Set at 500 psi and system pressure is 3000 pressure is reduced to 2500
– Ex. 3, set at 250 psi and system pressure is 3000, the pressure is reduced to
2750
– Also is ______ below the system pressure,
• Fixed amount pressure – Set to be one pressure no matter what the
system pressure is.
– Ex. 1, Fixed pressure is set for 1500 psi and the system pressure goes to 2000
psi the pressure in the circuit stays the same at 1500
– Ex. 2, using info from Ex. 1, if the pressure goes to 3000 the pressure stays the
same in the circuit at 1500 psi.
– 1500 no matter what (unless total system pressure drops below 1500)
Cracking and Full flow Pressure
Problem
• A pressure relief valve contains a puppet with a 4 sq.cm
area on which system pressure acts. During assembly a
spring with a spring constant of 3000 N/cm is installed
in the valve to hold the poppet against its seat. The
adjustment mechanism is then set so that the spring is
initially compressed 0.60 cm from its free-length
condition. In order to pass full pump flow through the
valve at the PRV pressure setting, the poppet must
move 0.40 cm from its fully closed position. Determine
the
• Cracking pressure
• Full pump flow pressure (PRV pressure setting)
Cracking Pressure
• Force F = K S
K Spring Constant = 3000 N/cm
S Spring deflection = 0.60 cm
Force = 3000 x 0.60
= 1800 N
Hydraulic force = Spring force
Pcracking x A = 1800 N
Pcracking = 1800/4 = 450 N/sq.cm
Full Pump flow pressure
• When the poppet moves 0.40 cm from its fully
closed position, the spring has compressed a total
of 1 cm(0.6 +0.4 cm) from its free-length
condition
S Spring deflection = 1 cm
Force = 3000 x 1
= 3000 N
Hydraulic force = Spring foce
Pfull pump flow x A = 3000 N
Pfull pump flow = 3000/4 = 750 N/sq.cm
SEQUENCING CIRCUIT
Hydraulic cylinder sequence circuit
SEQUENCING CIRCUIT
(A+B+B-A-)
• In this circuit if the DCV is shifted to the left, the left cylinder
extends completely and the right cylinder extend.
• If the DCV is shifted to its right, the right cylinder retracts
completely and then the left cylinder retract.
• If Cylinder on left is clamping cylinder and Cylinder on right is
drilling, it can be taken for a clamp and drill circuit.
• This procedure can be adopted to all the machining
operations.
1
3.1 Pressure relief valve

The pressure relief valves are used to protect the hydraulic components from excessive
pressure. This is one of the most important components of a hydraulic system and is essentially
required for safe operation of the system. Its primary function is to limit the system pressure
within a specified range. At no time should the relief valve be used to pass excess pressure
fluid to tank. When excess pump flow goes to tank, it generates heat. The relief valve in a well-
designed hydraulic circuit never relieves oil to tank, unless there is a circuit or control
malfunction.
Think of a relief valve in a hydraulic system as a fuse or circuit breaker in an electric circuit.
An electric circuit never blows a fuse unless it overloads. When an electric circuit overloads,
it is inoperable until reset. Usually the person responsible for resetting the fuse looks for the
reason it blew and fixes the problem before restarting the machine. Many hydraulic circuits
allow the relief valve to dump some or all pump flow to tank all or part of the time. The extra
power to produce that unused flow is expensive. Also, heat generation from excess flow
requires larger heat exchangers that are expensive to buy and operate.
3.1.1 Types of pressure relief valve

There are many types of pressure relief valve, the most commonly used are:
1. Direct pressure-relief valve
2. Pressure-reducing valve.
3. Unloading valve
4. Counterbalance valve.
5. Pressure-sequence valve.
6. Brake valve.
The details of each type will be described in next sections
1. Direct pressure-relief valve
(a) (b)
Figure 4.1: direct pressure relief valve (a) symbol (b) schematic
2
Schematic of direct pressure relief valve is shown in figure 4.1. It is normally a closed valve
whose function is to limit the pressure to a specified maximum value by diverting pump flow
back to the tank. This type of valves has two ports; one of which is connected to the pump and
another is connected to the tank. It consists of a spring chamber where poppet is placed with a
spring force. Generally, the spring is adjustable to set the maximum pressure limit of the
system. The poppet is held in position by combined effect of spring force and dead weight of
spool.
As the pressure exceeds this combined force, the poppet raises, and excess fluid bypassed to
the reservoir (tank). The poppet again reseats as the pressure drops below the pre-set value. A
drain is also provided in the control chamber. It sends the fluid collected due to small leakage
to the tank and thereby prevents the failure of the valve.
The main advantage of direct-acting relief valves over pilot-operated relief valves is that they respond
very rapidly to pressure build-up. Because there is only one moving part in a direct-acting relief valve,
it can open rapidly, thus minimizing pressure spikes.
Example 3.1
A pressure-relief valve contains a poppet with an area of 4.2 cm2 on which the system pressure
acts. During assembly, a spring with a spring constant of 3300 N/cm is installed in the valve to
hold the poppet against its seat. The adjustment mechanism is then set so that the spring is
initially compressed to 0.5 cm from its free-length condition. In order to pass full pump flow
through the valve at the pressure-relief valve pressure setting, the poppet must move 0.30 cm
from its fully closed position.
(a) Determine the cracking pressure.
(b) Determine the full pump flow pressure (pressure-relief valve pressure setting).
(c) What should be the initial compression of the spring in pressure-relief valve if the full pump
flow is to be 40% greater than the cracking pressure

3
Example 3.2
A pressure-relief valve contains a poppet with a 3.87 cm2 area on which the system pressure
acts. The poppet must move 0.381 cm from its fully closed position in order to pass pump flow
at the pressure-relief valve setting (full pump flow pressure). The pressure required to
overcome the external load is 68.95 bar. Assume that the pressure-relief valve setting is 50%
higher than the pressure required to overcome the external load. If the valve-cracking pressure
is 10% higher than the pressure required to overcome the external load, find the following:
(a) The required spring constant of the compression in the valve.
(b) The required initial compression of the spring from its free length condition as set by the
spring adjustment mechanism of the pressure-relief valve.
4
2. Pressure Reducing Valve

This valve is actuated by the downstream pressure and tends to close as the pressure reaches
the valve setting as in fig.4.2. When the downstream pressure is below the valve setting, fluid
will flow freely from the inlet to the outlet. Observe that there is an internal passage from the
outlet, which transmits the outlet pressure to the spool end opposite the spring. When the
downstream pressure increases beyond the value of the spring setting, the spool moves upward
to partially block the outlet port as shown in Figure
It can be seen from the figure 4.3 that if the spring force is more, the valve opens wider and if
the controlled pressure has greater force, the valves moves towards the spring and throttles the
flow.
Figure 4.2: symbol of pressure reducing valve

5
Figure 4.3:schematic of pressure reducing valve (left) fully opened (right) fully closed
A reducing valve is normally open. It reads the downstream pressure. It has an external drain.
This is represented by a line connected from the valve drain port to the tank. The symbol shows
that the spring cavity has a drain to the tank.
Application of pressure-reducing valve

Let us consider a hydraulic circuit where one cylinder is required to apply a lesser force than the other
as shown in Figure 4.4. Here cylinder B is required to apply a lesser force than cylinder A. This is
accomplished as follows.
Figure 4.4: Application of a pressure-reducing valve

6
A pressure-reducing valve is placed just before cylinder B in the hydraulic circuit as shown. This
arrangement allows flow to the cylinder, until the set pressure value on the valve is reached. At this
point where the set pressure is reached, the valve shuts off, thereby preventing any further build-up of
pressure. The fluid is bled to the tank through the drain valve passage resulting in the easing-off of the
pressure, as a result of which the valve opens again. Finally, a reduced modulated pressure equal to the
valve results.
3. Unloading Valve
Unloading valves are remotely piloted, normally closed pressure control valves, used to direct
flow to the tank when pressure at a particular location in a hydraulic circuit reaches a
predetermined value.
Construction of the unloading valve is shown in Figure 4.5. This valve consists of a control
chamber with an adjustable spring which pushes the spool down. The valve has two ports: one
is connected to the tank and another is connected to the pump. The valve is operated by
movement of the spool. Normally, the valve is closed, and the tank port is also closed. These
valves are used to permit a pump to operate at the minimum load. It works on the same principle
as direct control valve that the pump delivery is diverted to the tank when sufficient pilot
pressure is applied to move the spool. The pilot pressure maintains a static pressure to hold the
valve opened. The pilot pressure holds the valve until the pump delivery is needed in the
system. As the pressure is needed in the hydraulic circuit; the pilot pressure is relaxed, and the
spool moves down due to the self-weight and the spring force. Now, the flow is diverted to the
hydraulic circuit. The drain is provided to remove the leaked oil collected in the control
chamber to prevent the valve failure. The unloading valve reduces the heat build-up due to
fluid discharge at a pre-set pressure value.
(a) (b)
Figure 4.5: (a) schematic of unloading valve (b) symbol of unloading valve
7
Figure 4.6: Application of unloading valve
4. Sequence valve
In circuits with more than one actuator, it’s often necessary to drive the actuators, such as
cylinders, in a definite order or sequence. This can be done with limit switches, timers, or other
electrical control devices. Sequence valves are normally closed 2-way valves that regulate the
sequence in which various functions in a circuit occur, Figure 4.7 and 4.8. They resemble
direct-acting relief valves except that their spring chambers are generally drained externally to
tank, instead of internally to an outlet port.
Normally, a sequence valve routes pressurized fluid to a second function only after an earlier
function has been completed. When normally closed, a sequence valve allows fluid to flow
freely to the primary circuit to perform its first function until the valve’s pressure setting is
reached. When the priority function is satisfied, pressure in the primary circuit rises and is
sensed in pressure-sensing passage A. This pressurizes fluid acting on the spool and overcomes
the force exerted by the spring. The spring is compressed, the spool shifts, and fluid flows to
the secondary circuit.
8
Figure 4.7: schematic of sequence valve (left) open to primary circuit (right) open to
secondary circuit
Figure 4.8: symbol of sequence valve
Application of a Sequence Valve
In this circuit, two cylinders are connected in parallel. Without the sequence valve, these
cylinders would extend together as they are both unloaded as in fig.4.9. In order for this circuit
to function properly, the clamp cylinder must extend completely before the bending cylinder
begins to extend. The sequence valve accomplishes this by not allowing flow into the bending
cylinder branch of circuit until the clamp cylinder has reached the end of its stroke. When the
clamp cylinder extends completely, the pressure rises and opens the sequence valve, thus
allowing the bending cylinder to extend as in figures 4.10 and 4.11. The sequence valve must
be set high enough so that it opens only after the complete extension of the clamp cylinder.
During the retraction of cylinders, the check valve allows the sequence valve to be bypassed.
The sequence valve has no effect on the circuit in this situation. Both cylinders retract together
9
because both are unloaded and split the pump flow. In order to fix the workspace after bending
process, another sequence valve can be used as in figures 4.12 and 4.13.
Figure 4.9: clamping and bending cylinder extended together (without sequence valve)
(a)
10
(b)
Figure 4.10: clamping cylinder extended first and then bending cylinder (with one sequence
valve)
Figure 4.11: clamping cylinder and bending cylinder retract together in the same time (with
one sequence valve)
11
(a)
(b)
Figure 4.12: clamping cylinder extends first and then bending cylinder (with two sequence
valve)
12
Figure 4.13: bending cylinder retracts first and then bending cylinder (with two sequence
valve)
5. Counterbalance Valve
The schematic of counterbalance valve is shown in Figure 4.14. It is used to maintain the back
pressure and to prevent a load from failing. The counterbalance valves can be used as breaking
valves for decelerating heavy loads. These valves are used in vertical presses, lift trucks,
loaders and other machine tools where position or hold suspended loads are important.
Counterbalance valves work on the principle that the fluid is trapped under pressure until pilot
pressure overcomes the pre-set value of spring force. Fluid is then allowed to escape, letting
the load to descend under control. This valve is normally closed until it is acted upon by a
remote pilot pressure source. Therefore, a lower spring force is sufficient. It leads to the valve
13
operation at the lower pilot pressure and hence the power consumption reduces, pump life
increases and the fluid temperature decreases.
Figure 4.14: Counterbalance valve schematic and symbol
Application of a Counterbalance Valve
Counterbalance valves are commonly used to counterbalance a weight or external force or

counteract a weight such as a platen or a press and keep it from freefalling. Figure 4.15
illustrates the use of a counterbalance or back-pressure valve to keep a vertically mounted
cylinder in the upward position while the pump idles, that is, when the DCV is in its centre
position. During the downward movement of the cylinder, the counterbalance valve is set to
open at slightly above the pressure required to hold the piston up (a check valve does not permit
flow in this direction). The control signal for the counterbalance valve can be obtained from
the blank end or rod end of the cylinder.
14
Figure 4.15: Counterbalance valve application

When a counterbalance valve is used in large vertical presses, it may be important to analyze
the source of pilot operating pressure. Figure 4.16 shows a comparison between direct pilot
and remote pilot operation.
When there is no pressure applied to the full piston side of a cylinder (figure 4.16a), the valve
will maintain oil in the rod side. The two pilot lines shown act on different areas inside the
valve. The ratio of these areas is usually 3:1 or 4:1. For explanation we will use the 3:1 ratio.
The line connected between the valve and cylinder's rod side acts on a small piston area (1
square inch) inside the valve. To overcome a spring tension of 1,800 lbs, the pressure would
have to build to 1800 PSI.
Since the load in the example is exerting a force of only 1500 PSI, the valve will remain closed.
When necessary to lower the load, the full piston side of the cylinder is pressurized. The
"remote" pilot line will then be pressurized to open the valve. The remote pilot line acts on
three times the area (3 square inches) than the internal pilot line acts upon.
Actually, 1,500 lbs of force is already being exerted by the load on the spring. Therefore, the
remote pilot pressure only has to develop 300 lbs. of additional force. pressure only has to build
to 100 PSI on the 3-square inch surface area to equal 300 lbs. of force. (figure 4.16b).
15
(a)
(b)
Figure 4.16: Counterbalance valve application
Electrically governed continuously adjustable valves
 Servo valves
 Proportional valves
Servo valves:
They are able to govern a very large output power with a very small input power.
Large masses have to be moved in a short time against varying forces to precise
positions.
These valves are very expensive because they have to be manufactured with very
high accuracy.
Because of this, their operation is also expensive, because the fluid has to be very
well filtered.
They have usually two (for very large flow rates three) amplifying stages.

Servo valves
Double nozzle – impinging plate (bridge circuit):
 
s0-s s0+s  
 1 1 
 s0  s  s0 p  p0   2
 2 
  s  s 
1  
  s  1   1  
 s  
1 
s   0   0  
Q1 Q2
QU QU p Linear part in
User p0 the middle
Q01 Q01
p1 p2
p0
0,8
-1
1 s
s0
-0,8
Servo valves
Operation:
If there is no current, there is no displacement, the valve body is kept in the middle.
If there is current, the iron core is displaced and the impinging plate that is rigidly
coupled with it is also displaced and a pressure drop is created.
Note that there is a small negative overlap, the manufacturing must be very good.
There must always be a flow.
Disadvantage: it is difficult to hold the zero position, because of dry friction or
contamination.
Solution:
There are also three-stage servo valves.

They are used for very large powers.

Continuously adjustable valves
Proportional valves:
Continuously adjustable proportional magnets are able
to adjust continuously and precisely the position of a
directional valve.
The magnetic force is proportional to the current and
nearly independent of the position.
The core reaches out far from the coil.
They might be connected with a position control, where
hysteresis effects are smaller.
They are often used for flow rate control
but all pressure valves can work with a proportional
magnet instead of a spring.
They are more precise.

Accessories
Liquid reservoir:
Tasks:  Storing of necessary liquid volume
 Conducting heat away from the system

 De-airing of the liquid (large surface, long stay of the liquid)
 Separation of condensed water
 Carrying element of other system components (pumps, valves, pipes,
etc.)
Pipes:
Steel of flexible hoses.
Key point: sealing

Accessories
Filter:
• Surface filter
• Volume filter – an order of magnitude
better but not cleanable
It can be before the pump, after the pump, before every sensitive elements or
in the back flow line.

System concepts
Delivering of liquid by:
 Flow sources
 Pressure sources
In case of flow sources normally for each actuator a separate source.

One pressure source can deliver several actuators parallel.
Pressure source should not be controlled by restriction valves because the losses
will be then too high. *
Better is to control by adjusting the displacement volume of the actuator.
It can happen with a hydromotor easily but for a hydraulic cylinder one needs a
hydraulic transformer.
This is called secondary control.
* → exp. on next slide

System concepts
Cont.
* Basically there are two main subgroups:
1. The pressure is always constant

In this case the main task is to find a control system to change the flow rate
for the oscillating flow rate needs of the actuators.
Various control mechanisms can be used here
2. The pressure is not constant

- Secondary control (see previous page)
- Load sensing control (much more complicated)

Directional valves
Spool valves
With two switching positions and latch Spool types
Centred by springs
Pneumatically operated
Hydraulically operated

Directional valves
Spool valves
governed, centred by
spring
governed , centred by
pressure
Back
Directional valves
Spool valves

Directional valves
Spool valves

Directional valves
Spool valves

Directional valves
Spool
valves
-
spool
types

Directional valves
Spool
valves

Directional valves
Spool valves

Directional valves
Spool
valves

Directional valves
Spool valves

Directional valves
Poppet valves
Electrically governed 3/2 poppet valves
Ball Taper Plate
With one ball With two ball
1 - ball 2 - spring 3 - poppet

4 - housing 5 – lever ? 6 – operating pin ?
7 - ball 8 - poppet
Back
Directional valves
Poppet valves

Directional valves
Poppet valves

Directional valves
Poppet valves

Directional valves
a) 2/2
b) 3/3
c) 4/3
d) 5/3
e) 5/3
f) 4/3
g) 6/3

Directional valves
5/3 valves:

Directional valves

Directional valves

Directional valves

Directional valves

Directional valves

Directional valves

Directional valves

Directional valves

Directional valves

Directional valves

Construction
Servo valves
Torque motor
Permanent magnets
Iron core with coils tube
Bending tube
Double nozzle – impinging plate
Return springs
Spool valve
Constant restrictions
User

Servo valves
Positioning with
spring

Servo valves
Positioning
with spring

Servo valves
Positioning with
spring

Servo valves
Positioning with inductive device

Servo valves
Three
stage
servo
valve

Servo valves
Three stage servo valve

Proportional valves

Proportional valves

Proportional valves
Proportional
directional valve

Proportional valves
valve

Proportional valves
valve

Proportional valves
Proportional pressure valve

Proportional valves
Proportional
pressure
valve

ELECTRO –
PROPORTIONAL
VALVES
1
HYDRAULIC CONTROL TECHNOLOGY
Servo valve New Series

Proportional valves
Closed Loop
Performance
Hybrid series Proportional

Increasing
Open Loop
Proportional Valves Proportional
Conventional
Valves
2
COMPARISON BETWEEN
CONVENTIONAL AND PROPORTIONAL VALVES
SL.
No. Description Conventional Proportional
1 Setting Mechanical Electrical
2 Stage Control Single Multiple
3 Slope Control In Steps Smooth Slope
4 Circuit Complex Simple
5 Size of Blocks, Pipes Large Small
6 Power Saving Circuit Complicated Simple
7 Feedback Not Available Available
3
DEVELOPMENT OF
ELECTRO - PROPORTIONAL VALVES
Year 1965 ~ 1970 1975 ~ 1980 1980 ~ 1985 1990 ~
Pressure Combination Power EH- Series

Control of Pressure Matching
Pressure &
& Systems.
& Flow ,
FlowControl
Directional & Directional &
Flow Valves
Flow Control Flow Control
Control
Valves Valves.
Valves
Power
Matching
Systems
4
SALIENT FEATURES OF
ELECTRO PROPORTIONAL VALVES
Basic Just Like
Conventional Simple High
Structure
Valve Reliability
Wet Longer Easy to Use

Solenoid Armature Service
Life Easy to
Type
Maintain
Directly High
Operated Powerful Resistance
Type Driving Against
Contamination
With Current
Amplifier Feedback Function, Stable Control
Dither
DEVICES FOR THE PROPORTIONAL CONTROL
Indication
Feedback signal in
Power Closed Loop Circuit
Setting Device Amplifier Prop. Valve Sensor
Manual DC input Pilot Relief Valve The Sensor

Dialing type Relief Valves detects the
Relieving & Controlled
DC input
Program Reducing valves Pressure,
with
Control Flow control Flow Rate
feedback
(& check) valves and Speed
Computer type
Throttle Valves etc., and
Control Slow up – Power Saving converts it
down. Valves to electric
Direction & Flow signal.
DC VOLTAGE DC CURRENT control Valves
6
SIGNAL SEQUENCE
Control Power Hydraulic

Supply Power Supply
Control Panel
0~10V
Command Amplifier Prop.
Actuator
Signal Valve
Sensor
7
PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION
Plunger Coil
Spring Force
Magnetic Force
D C Current
( Schematic Diagram of Solenoid )

8
PRINCIPLE OF SOLENOID OPERATION
ELECTRO MAGNET
PERMANENT MAGNET
9
PRINCIPLE OF BASIC SOLENOID OPERATION
NO ELECTRIC
CURRENT
PLUNGER
COIL
Magnetic Field created

ELECTRIC which must travel
CURRENT through air.
1.) Attracts Plunger to an

ELECTRIC equilibrium position.
CURRENT
2.) Creates an output force.
3.) so that magnetic field can
pass 100% through the iron.
10
COMPARISON : FORCE V/S STROKE
Force Conventional Proportional
Force
Stroke Stroke
100 % 100 %
70 % 70 %
Force
30 % 50 %
Force
30 %
Stroke Stroke
11
COMPARISON : FORCE V/S STROKE
Conventional Proportional
Spring Curve
Spring Curve
100 %
70 %
100 % 50 %
Force
Force
70 %
30 %
30 %
Stroke Stroke
12
COMPARISON OF SOLENOID CONSTRUCTION
Air Gap COIL
CONVENTIONAL
SOLENOID
ARMATURE
Air Gap COIL

PROPORTIONAL
SOLENOID
ARMATURE
1
3
CONSTRUCTION DETAILS OF PROP. SOLENOID
Manual Adj. Iron Core

Screw
Air Vent Coil Bearing
Spring
Air Gap
Plunger
14
PROPORTIONAL HYDRAULIC CONTROL - RANGE
Maximum Flow
Maximum
Operating
Valve Type Pressure
Kgf/Cm2 1 2 3 5 10 20 30 50 100 200 300 500
L /min
1000
Pilot Relief Valves 245

Relief Valves 245 03 06 10
EH Series
Reducing & Relieving Valves 245 06 10
Flow Control (& Check)Valves 245 03 06
Flow Control & Relief Valves 245 03 06 10
Directional & Flow Cont.Valves 245 01 03

High Response Type
Directional & Flow Cont.Valves 157 04 06
Pilot Relief Valves 245

Relief Valves 245 EBG 03 06 10
Reducing & Relieving Valves 245 06 10
206 W 02 03 06 10
E Series
Flow Control (& Check)Valves

245 W 03 06
W W 03 06 10
Flow Control & Relief Valves 245 W W 03 06 10
03 06
Directional & Flow Cont.Valves 245 03 04 06
16
STEP RESPONSE
STEP SIGNAL 0 ~ 100 %
Fig. Shows the Valve requires
100
80 ms to go from 0 to 100% Stroke and
70 ms to fully close.
STROKE %
50
i.e., 150 ms is required to complete one cycle.
150 ms - 1 Cycle
1000ms ( 1 Sec ) - ? Cycles
0 1000 X 1 = 6.6 Cycles / Sec ( Or 6.6 Hz )
80 0 70
TIME ( ms ) 150
STEP SIGNAL 25 ~ 100 % STEP SIGNAL 10 ~ 90 %
100
90
75
STROKE %
STROKE % 50
25
0
0 50 0 40 70 0 60
TIME ( ms ) TIME ( ms )
STEP RESPONSE : A RESPONSE MADE WHEN THE INPUT SIGNAL
SUDDENLY CHANGES FROM A GIVEN VALUE TO ANOTHER GIVEN VALUE
17
FREQUENCY RESPONSE
– Frequency
•Is the number of times any
action occurs in a given
measure of time.
Unit is Hz (Cycles per Second)
– Amplitude Response ( Gain )

•Is a ratio of output change to
input change.
Measured in dB (Decibels)
18
PHASE LAG
– The time required for the output to recreate
the input command. Measured in Degrees.
Cyclic Input
Cyclic Out put
Phase Lag in Time

Degrees
90° Phase Lag
90°
Phase Lag in Time

Degrees
19
PROPORTIONAL ELECTRO – HYDRAULIC
PILOT RELIEF VALVE
 FREQUENCY RESPONSE
Frequency ( Hz)
0.1 0.2 0.4 0.7 1 2 4 7 10 20 40 70
0
- 20 -10
- 40 -20
Gain
Phase ( deg.)
- 60 -30
- 80
-100
Gain ( dB)
-120
Phase
-140
-160
-180
Flow Rate : 2 L / min

Pressure : 80 ± 16 Kgf / Cm2
Trapped Oil Volume : 30 cm 3
Viscocity : 30 cSt
20
HYSTERESIS
Hysterisis Hysteresis
without Dither with Dither
200 200
180 180
160 160
Pressure Kgf / Cm2
Pressure Kgf / Cm2

140 140
120 120
100 100
80 80
60 60
40 40
20 20
0 200 400 600 800 0 200 400 600 800
Current ( mA ) Current ( mA )
Dead Band Dead Band
21
PILOT RELIEF VALVE
PLUNGER With
COIL Safety Valve
SPRING
PLUNGER POPPET
SEAT SPRING
AIR VENT
Pr. Adj.
MANUAL PR.
Screw for
ADJ. SCREW IRON CORE Safety valve
TANK PRESSURE
PORT PORT
Without
Safety Valve
22
PILOT RELIEF VALVE
 STEP RESPONSE
Kgf / Cm2 Trapped Oil : 40 cm3
90 Volume
Viscocity : 30 cSt
70
Pressure
50
0.2 Sec
30
Step Signal
10
Time
23
PILOT RELIEF VALVE
FLOW RATE VS PRESSURE
Viscosity : 30 cSt
A
250
235
220
B
160
Pressure Kgf / Cm2
145
130
C
70
55
40
0 1 2 L / min
Flow Rate
24
PILOT RELIEF VALVE
 FREQUENCY RESPONSE
Frequency ( Hz)
0.1 0.2 0.4 0.7 1 2 4 7 10 20 40 70
0
- 20 -10
- 40 -20
Gain
Phase ( deg.)
- 60 -30
- 80
-100
Gain ( dB)
-120
Phase
-140
-160
-180

Pressure : 80 ± 16 Kgf / Cm2
Trapped Oil Volume : 30 cm 3
Viscocity : 30 cSt
25
PILOT RELIEF VALVE
 CONTROL PRESSURE VS INPUT CURRENT
250
A
200
Pressure Kgf / Cm2
150
100 B
50
C
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000
Input Current mA
26
RELIEF VALVE
PROPORTIONAL
PILOT RELIEF
AIR VENT VALVE WITH
SAFETY VALVE
MANUAL PR. SLEEVE SEAT

ADJ. SCREW
SPRING
POPPET Graphic Symbol
VENT PORT PR. PORT TANK PORT

27
RELIEF VALVE
 STEP RESPONSE
Kgf/Cm2
200
Pressure 160
120 0.2s
80 Step Signal
40
Time
Flow Rate : 200 L / min )
Loading : 1 ltr.
Volume
Viscocity : 30 cSt
28
COMPARISON OF CONVENTIONAL &
PROPORTIONAL PRESSURE CIRCUIT
Conventional Circuit Proportional Circuit
Switch ON Sol. a – d to get Only One Valve is required
4 different pressures ., By changing the Input
Current, the Pressure can
be changed.
29
FLOW CONTROL VALVE
40W Series PR. COMPENSATOR PISTON
( Direct Type )
INLET PORT
DRAIN PORT
Graphic
Symbol
OUTLET PORT
O
M SPOOL ORIFICE SLEEVE
31
STEP RESPONSE
40 Ohm 10 Ohm
L / min L / min
140 125 L / min 150 125 L / min
120 125
100 100
60 L / min
Flow Rate
80 60 L / min
Flow Rate
75
60
50 0.2s
40 0.2s
25
20 Step Signal
Step Signal
0 0
Time Time
34
FREQUENCY RESPONSE
40 Ohm
Frequency ( Hz )
0.1 0.2 0.7 1 2 4 7 10 30
0 0
- 20 - 10
- 40 - 20
- 60 Gain
Phase (deg. )
Gain ( dB )
- 80
- 100 Phase
- 120
- 140
- 160
- 180
Input Current : 460 ± 70 mA
Pressure : 70 Kgf / Cm2
35
COMPARISON OF CONVENTIONAL &
PROPORTIONAL FLOW CIRCUITS
Forward Backward Forward Backward
Sol. 1 Sol. 2 Sol. 1 Sol. 2

Intermediate
Speed
EFG-* -
Signal
Sol. 3 Sol. 4
PUMP PUMP
Low High
Speed Speed
Conventional Proportional
37
LOAD SENSING -
COMPARISON OF HEAT GENERATION
HEAT GENERATED
= P x Q x 860 Kcal / Hr
612
= 40 x 40 x 860
612
= 2248 Kcal / Hr
38
LOAD SENSING -
VENT
LINE
Set
Increase pressure At
100
P Bar
REMOTE CONTROL
RELIEF VALVE
39
LOAD SENSING -
w Load Pr. + 5 Kgf/Cm2

(10 + 5 = 15 Kfg/Cm2 )
Load Pressure = 10 Kgf / Cm2
Flow Control
Valve Set
At
P 100
Bar
40
LOAD SENSING -
HEAT GENERATED
= P x Q x 860 Kcal / Hr
612
= 40 x 15 x 860
612
= 843 Kcal / Hr
41
CONVENTIONAL POWER SAVING VALVE
FLOW CONTROL
VALVE
RELIEF VALVE
TANK DRAIN
INLET PORT OUTLET PORT
PORT PORT
42
RELIEF & FLOW CONTROL VALVE
40W - 10W Series FLOW CONTROL
SOLENOID
PROPORTIONAL
PILOT RELIEF
VALVE WITH
SAFETY VALVE
TANK DRAIN
INLET PORT OUTLET PORT
PORT PORT
43
POWER SAVING CIRCUIT
Conventional Proportional Circuit
Circuit Energy Saving
Energy Saving Energy Saving
Q Q Q Q
Power
loss Power Power Power
loss loss loss
P P P P
• Flow Matching • Load Sensing

Circuit Circuit
45
DIRECTIONAL AND FLOW CONTROL VALVE
Max. Op. Pr. : 250 Kgf / Cm2

Max. Flow : 01  30 L/ min
03  60 L/ min
46
INPUT CURRENT V/S FLOW
L/ min
120
100 AB A B
80 P T P T
Flow Rate
60
40
20
0
1000 800 600 400 200 0 200 400 600 800 1000
Input Current mA
48
 PRESSURE DIFFERENCE V/S FLOW
L /min
140 A B
120 750 mA
P T
700 mA
Flow Rate
80
Valve Pres. Diff. 40

Kgf / Cm2 245 210 140 70 600 mA
70 140 210 245 Kgf / Cm2

600 mA
40 Valve Pres. Diff.
Flow Rate
80
A B
700 mA
120
P T 750 mA L / min
140
49
LINEAR VARIABLE DIFFERENTIAL TRANSFORMER
INPUT ( LVDT )
SECONDARY PRIMARY SECONDARY

COIL COIL COIL MOVEMENT
IRON CORE
OUTPUT
51
HYBRID SERIES PROPORTIONAL VALVES
24 V DC Power
Supply Pressure display panel (option)
Power Amplifier
Command
Signal
Voltage Pressure Sensor
Input Incorporated
Voltage
Output for
Pr. monitor
Alarm Signal
Output
Proportional Electro Hydraulic Relief Valve
52
INSTALLATION REQUIREMENT
Air Vent
Air Vent
GOOD EXAMPLE
SOL
Air Vent
SOL
SOL
Air Vent
SOL
BAD EXAMPLE
SOL
SOL
Air Vent Air Vent

54
TYPICAL APPLICATIONS
ELEVATORS
ROLLING MILLS
PLANERS
INJECTION MOULDING MACHINES
PRESSES
SURFACE GRINDING MACHINES
55
Proportional Direction and Flow Control Valve
with LVDT
55
Hydraulic Valves
Objectives related to Valves
1. State the function of a valve.
2. Describe the three types of valves.
3. List the four uses of pressure control valves.
4. Describe two types of relief valves, and their uses.
5. State the difference in cracking pressure and full-flow pressure.
6. Describe the two main types of pressure reducing valves.
7. State the function of a pressure sequencing valve.
8. State the function of unload valves.
9. List and describe the five types of directional control valves.
10. Explain the difference in a valve stack and a unibody valve.
11. List and describe two types of volume control valves.
12. List and describe the types of flow control valves.
13. List and describe the types of flow divider valves
14. Describe the proper procedures to follow before and during valves disassembly.
15. Describe the proper procedures to follow in reassembly of valves.
16. List and describe three ways valves can be actuated/operated.
17. Identify six common valve symbols
Obj 1. Functions of a valve
• direct the flow of fluid
• regulate the pressure
• control volume
Obj. 2 Three types of valves
• Pressure – adjust psi for some purpose
• Directional -- route the fluid to the desired
actuator
• Volume Control or Flow Control -- control
the amount of flow
Obj 3 Uses of pressure control
valves
• Limit system pressure
• Reduce pressures
• Set pressure at which oil enters a circuit
• Unload a pump
Obj. 4 Types of relief valves, and
their uses
• Direct acting -- used with low volume and
infrequent use
• Pilot operated -- used with high volume
with little pressure difference
Obj 5. Difference in cracking
pressure and full-flow pressure
• cracking -- pressure at which valve begins
to open
• full-flow -- pressure at which valve is
allowing max flow
Obj 6. Two main types of pressure
reducing valves
• Constant reduced – Set to reduce a certain amount below the
operating system pressure.
– Ex. 1, Set constant reduced pressure at 500 psi and the system
pressure is 2000 pressure, the valve will keep the system pressure at
1500
– Ex. 2, Set at 500 psi and system pressure is 3000 pressure is reduced
to 2500
– Ex. 3, set at 250 psi and system pressure is 3000, the pressure is
reduced to 2750
– Also is ______ below the system pressure,
• Fixed amount pressure – Set to be one pressure no matter what
the system pressure is.
– Ex. 1, Fixed pressure is set for 1500 psi and the system pressure goes
to 2000 psi the pressure in the circuit stays the same at 1500
– Ex. 2, using info from Ex. 1, if the pressure goes to 3000 the pressure
stays the same in the circuit at 1500 psi.
– 1500 no matter what (unless total system pressure drops below 1500)
Obj 7. Function of a pressure
sequencing valve
• controls flow between branches/circuits
• first one then another branches/circuits
Obj 8. Function of unload valves
• Directs flow back to the reservoir
Obj 9. Five types of directional
control valves
1. Check valves
2. Rotary Valves
3. Pilot Operated Poppet Valves
4. Electro-hydraulic Valves
5. Spool Valves
1. Unibody
2. Stack
Obj 10. Difference in a valve stack
and a unibody valve
Obj 11 & 12 & 13 & 14. Types of
volume control valves
1. Flow control -- control amount of flow
1. Restrict flow -- Usually non-compensated--
Compensated valves do not adjust for
pressure changes
1. Needle (non-compensated)
2. Gate (non-compensated)
2. Divert flow -- usually compensated
2. Flow dividers – direct flow to two or more
circuits
Obj 12. Types of flow control valves
Obj 13. Types of flow divider valves
Obj 14. Proper procedures to follow
before & during valves disassembly
Obj 15. Proper procedures to follow
in reassembly of valves
Obj 16. Three ways valves can be
actuated/operated
• Operators for directional-control valves are
either;
– Mechanical or manual (many different ways to
manually operate a valve).
– Pilot – makes use of low volume system
pressure
– Electrical or Electronic
– A combination of the above
Obj 17. Common valve symbols
Unit Nine
Flow Control Valves
Needle Valve Symbol
Flow control, simply put, is the continuous regulation

of the movement of fluid to achieve optimum
machine performance. Thus, flow control is
important because flow controls machine speed.
Flow Control in General
It would be prudent at this point to mention the fact that

when discussing flow control two different meanings
exist. First, one has the “topic” of flow control involving
the various devices that perform this task. Second, there
is the industry tendency to refer to a particular device as
a “flow control.” The latter is a nickname for a control
valve that has, as a integral part of its design, a needle
valve and check valve together in the same body or as a
unit.
Control of Flow
You should identify the above circuit as “hydraulic.” The primary

influence for flow is the pump. With the relief valve set at 500psi
and no resisting load on the actuator, the rod extends at full speed.
Often in industrial fluid power systems we do not allow actuators to
extend at full speed because of the risk of damage to the machine,
work piece, or operator.
Control of Flow
With a needle valve placed in series between the directional control

valve and the actuator, fluid is resisted causing some of the pump
flow to go over the relief valve. The diversion of flow slows down the
actuator. Remember that fluids take the path of least resistance.
Orifice
An orifice is no more than a tiny opening, placed in the path of

fluid to restrict it. It could be a precision machined piece or simply
a pipe plug with a hole in it. Whatever it may be it is not
adjustable. The size of the opening, the pressure on the fluid in
front of the opening, and temperature, if its oil, all affect the flow
across the orifice.
Variable Orifice
The above term simply means that you can adjust the flow control
device. Technically, any of the devices above could be used as a flow
control but only one design is desirable because of its low restriction
and that would be the needle valve. Examine the needle valve
symbol back in the frame that showed the circuit. The addition of
the arrow determines it to be adjustable.
Orifice in a Circuit
In the circuit above, the orifice allows only 2gpm to pass

at 500psi. This in turn forces the other 3gpm to go back to
tank. Since actuator speed is controlled by flow, the speed
of the actuator is limited to the supplied 2gpm instead of
the full 5gpm. (See next slide for explanation.)
Calculating Cylinder Speed
In the previous example, the formula used to calculate

the speed of the cylinder was Rod Speed(feet per minute) =
GPM x 19.25/ Piston Area. If you do the math, it will NOT
come out correctly as there is a mistake in the text.
Your answer should have been 12.8fps. Try again but
this time use the following formula:
Rod Speed(in/min) = GPM x 231
Piston Area(in squared inches)
This time your answer should be 154 inches per
minute. Divide by 12 to get feet per minute. Sorry but
text books are like people, none are perfect.
Orifice Size Increased or Decreased
The rod speed formula illustrates mathematically the relationship

between flow and actuator speed. By adjusting the size of the
orifice speed can be altered. Increasing orifice size allows more
flow which increases speed. Decreasing orifice size decreases flow
which in turn decreases speed.
Pressure Differential affects Flow
If pressure on the fluid were to increase directly in front of the

orifice, fluid flow across the orifice would increase and so would
actuator speed. In fact, when ever fluid is moving across a
restriction of any type, there will be a difference of pressure.
Pressure Differential
Pressure differential is the difference in pressure between

any two points in a fluid power system. It is sometimes
referred to as “Delta P.”
Examples from Everyday Life
The illustrations compare two fluids. The toothpaste

represents a liquid and the air mattress a gas. In both cases
the fluid is aided in its movement when a force is applied
increasing the pressure within.
Needle Valves “Cause” Pressure Differential
In the text it refers to needle valves as being “affected” by pressure

differential when in fact it is the needle valve that causes the change
due to its resistance. The precise nature of adjustment allows us to
determine what that change will be under certain circumstances. As
for return oil, what ever does not go out into the system will have to
go back to tank.
Relief Valve Setting affects Flow across a Needle
Valve
This illustration demonstrates that if you increase pressure in

front of an orifice(needle valve), the flow through the orifice will
increase. Recall that one of the three things that affects flow
across any restriction is the pressure applied to it.
Affect of Work Load on Pressure.
Since the load is resistance it should follow that any increase in load
will likewise have an affect on pressure. Simply put, an increase in
load results in a proportional increase in pressure. Pressure
generated is always the amount required to overcome the load,
nothing more. In addition, if the load increases to a point above
relief valve setting, the actuator will stall out.
Pressure Compensated Flow Control Valve
To help neutralize the effects of upstream and downstream pressure

changes, a valve capable of changing its flow is used. Note the
addition of a straight arrow pointing up shown in the schematic
symbol as indicated by the red arrow.
Restrictor type P.C. Flow Control
The restrictor type P.C. Flow Control is the most type used in
industry. It has the addition of a spool valve which is spring
offset to the full flow position. As pressure builds from
resistance the spool moves against the spring and cuts down
flow based on the pressure differential across its ports. The
adjustment is the same as a non-compensated flow control.
P.C. Flow Control in a Circuit
The purpose of the P.C. flow control here is to keep the cylinder
moving at a constant rate of speed even if the load changes. Certain
operations can not tolerate uncontrolled movement. It should be
noted that P.C. flow controls are used only in hydraulics.
Increase of Work Load or Relief
Valve Pressure
The compensator spring has a value of 100psi in order to develop

flow. This should be considered if the load increases because you
must have at least a 100psi differential between the relief valve
setting and the work load in order to develop enough flow to move
the load.
Temperature Affects Flow
As a liquid takes on heat it gets thinner. The result of thinned oil

is lessened viscosity and this results in increased flow. As you
know, increased flow means increased actuator speed. So when
machines warm up, their operating characteristics will change.
Temperature Compensation
The idea behind the metal rod is that metal expands when heated.
When the rod expands it extends directly in the path of fluid flow,
reducing in direct proportion to temperature.
Sharp Edge Orifice
The operating principles of this device are not clearly

understood but its effect is very precise control of flow. This
design is very common although tricky to manufacture.
Temperature-Pressure Compensated
Flow Control Valve
A temperature-pressure compensated flow control

should be used wherever there exists extreme
temperature differentials between start up and operating
temperatures.
Meter-In Flow Control
In the circuit above, a positive load resting on the cylinder rod makes
meter-in an acceptable choice for flow control because nothing can
“pull” on the rod. Another example is the old style in-ground car
lifts that were used in garages years ago. The weight of the vehicle
was the positive load and gravity ensured that there would be no
“runaway.”
Meter-Out Flow Control
Where a load is pulling on a cylinder rod some means is needed to

prevent the piston from out running the oil supply as in the case of a
runaway load. The technique is simply to use the incompressible
nature of oil to hold back the rod at the rate of flow the needle valve
is set for. This type of metering is also common in pneumatic
systems.
Bleed-Off(by-pass) Flow Control
A bleed-off circuit simply works by allowing a portion of the pump’s

flow to go back to tank before it gets to the actuator. The general
idea is that “leaking” oil back to the tank is better than “forcing” it
over the relief valve and generating unnecessary heat. The bleed-off
circuit is only good on positive loads or one where precise speed
control is not very important.
Reverse Flow
As stated in an earlier unit, the primary use of a check valve is by-

pass. In the above circuit, the check valve allows the oil to go
around the flow control so that it only meters in one direction.
Check valves are also used on pressure controls.
Pneumatic Control of Flow
Although the pressure regulator is classified as a pressure control

valve, it also affects flow by throttling air movement. As pressure
builds at the outlet, the regulator begins to shut off until its setting
has been reached where it is closed. Between full open and full close
the regulator limits air movement based on its opening.
HYDRAULIC CIRCUITS
Analyzing of Designing
hydraulic circuits
• Safety of operation
• Performance of desired function
• Efficiency of operation
BASIC HYDRAULIC
COMPONENTS
• RESERVOIR
• PUMP + ELECTRIC MOTOR
• DIRECTION + PRESSURE + FLOW
CONTROL VALVES
• ACTUATORS
• PIPE LINES
HYDRAULIC CIRCUITS
• SINGLE ACTING • ACCUMULATOR
CYLINDER CIRCUIT CIRCUITS
• DOUBLE ACTING • SAFETY SIRCUITS
CYLINDER CIRCUIT • PUNCHING PRESS
• RECIPROCATING • DRILLING AND
CIRCUIT CLAMPING
• REGENERATIVE
CIRCUIT
• SEQUENCING CIRCUIT
• SYNCHRONISING
CIRCUIT
SINGLE ACTING CYLINDER
CIRCUIT
Control of a single acting

hydraulic cylinder
SINGLE ACTING CYLINDER
CIRCUIT
• It has a reservoir, pump, two position- three way manual operated
direction control valve, a pressure relief valve and a single acting
cylinder.
• In its normal position, the fluid is diverted back to the tank through
the pressure relief valve.
• When the direction control valve is manually pushed to left envelop,

flow enters the piston side of the single acting cylinder.
• At the end of extension stroke, DCV is pushed to right envelop

resulting in the pump flow diverted through the PRV to the tank.
• The fluid in the cylinder is pushed by the spring on the rod side to
retract and the flow goes to the tank
DOUBLE ACTING CYLINDER
CIRCUIT
Control of a double-acting hydraulic cylinder
F Load
A B
P T
CIRCUIT
• It has a reservoir, a pump, a pressure relief valve,
manual operated three position four way DCV (tandem
position), and a double acting cylinder
• In its spring centered position, the cylinders are

hydraulically locked and the flow without any increase in
pressure is diverted back to the tank (advantage of
tandem position)
• When shifted to left envelop position of the DCV, flow

enters the piston side of the cylinder and extension
stroke takes place against the load
CIRCUIT
• At the end of extension stroke, the DCV can be shifted to the right
envelop in which case the flow is directed to the rod side of the
actuator and retraction takes place.
• In the double acting cylinder both extension and retraction is by the

fluid.
• The extension of the cylinder is slow as they act against the load
but can carry large load as the area on the piston side is more
• The retraction in double acting cylinder is fast as the area on the rod
side is less and the same pump flow enters the side.
• At the end of extension and return strokes if the flow is not stopped
there is increase in pressure and flow is diverted through the PRV.
RECIPROCATING CIRCUIT
• This circuit has a reservoir, a pump, a pressure relief
valve, pilot operated spring centered four way three
position DCV, pair of Sequence Valves, a pair of check
valves, and a double acting cylinder.
• In its neutral position, the pump flow is diverted through

the PRV at high pressure.
• When the DCV is shifted to any position, the pump flow

is diverted either to rod side or piston side
• If flow enters the piston side, then extension takes place

and at the end of the stroke, the pressure is increased
and the flow is diverted through the sequence valve
which shift the DCV to its left envelop.
• In this position, the flow is diverted to the rod side of the

actuator and retraction occurs. At its end similarly the
increase in pressure is sensed by the sequence valve
and shifts the DCV to its right envelop
• Thus the continuous reciprocation takes place as long

the flow is stopped.
• The check valves and their corresponding
pilot line prevent shifting of the four way
valve until particular stroke is completed.
• The check valves are needed to allow pilot

oil to leave either end of the DCV while
pilot pressure is applied to the opposite
end which will permit the shifting of the
spool of the DCV
REGENERATIVE CIRCUIT
Regenerative circuit
F Load
Blocked
• This circuit is used to speed up the extending speed of
the double acting actuator.
• In this circuit the pipelines to the cylinder are connected

in parallel and one of the ports of the DCV is blocked.
• In the left envelop of the DCV, the flow from the pump
and the flow from the rod side (regeneration) joins and
this results in the increased speed of extension.
• When shifted to the right envelop of the DCV, the flow

bypasses the DCV and enters the rod side and the fluid
in the piston side drains through the DCV.
• Total flow to the piston side
QT=QP+QR
• Pump Flow QP=QT-QR
• Total flow rate AP X VP ext
i.e. (area of piston) X (speed of extension)
Regenerative flow rate = (AP – AR) X VPext
Therefore, QP= AP X VP ext- (AP – AR) X VPext
• VP ext = QP/ AR (this gives the large velocity of

extension)
• Ratio of Extending and Retracting Speeds
• Retracting Speed VP ret= QP/ AP-AR
• VP ext/ VP ret= (QP/ AR )/ QP/ AP-AR

= AP-AR/ AR
= AP/AR-1
When Piston area= 2 X Rod area
VP ext= VP ret
Drawback: Load carrying capacity during extension in a Regenerative

circuit is less than the regular double acting cylinder
APPLICATION OF
Drilling machine application
A B
P T
DRILLING MACHINE
• The increase in extension speed is
compensated by reduction in load bearing
capacity of the regenerative circuits.
• This is overcome by having a regenerated

connection in its central position of the
drilling circuit and the other positions (left,
right) act as a simple double acting
cylinder.
SYNCHRONISING CIRCUIT
• Synchronization is the technique of

operating two cylinders to do identical
strokes
• There are two ways to make the cylinders

operate in synchronization
i) Connecting the cylinders parallel
ii) Connecting the cylinders in series
Synchronization by connecting
cylinders in Parallel
Cylinders hooked in parallel will not operate in synchronization
F load
F load
cylinders in Parallel
• The piping to two cylinders are parallel
• The two cylinders cannot operate in

synchronization if connected in parallel because:
• Loads on cylinders are not identical

• No two cylinders are exactly identical
cylinders in Series
Cylinders hooked in series will operate in synchronization
CYLINDER 1 A-R1
P1 F1
A-P1
CYLINDER 2
P2 F2
A-P2 A-R2
cylinders in Series
• This is the simplest, accurate and easiest way of
achieving synchronization.
• The fluid from pump is connected to piston side of

cylinder 1 and fluid from rod side of cylinder 1 is
connected to piston side of cylinder 2 and fluid from rod
side of cylinder 2 is directed to tank via DCV.
• For synchronization the piston area of cylinder 2 must be

equal to the difference between the areas of the piston
and rod for cylinder 1.
cylinders in Series
• The pump flow should have the pressure rating equal to that
required for both the cylinders.
• As per Pascal’s law,

P1AP1 – P2(AP1-AR1)=F1
P2AP2 – P3(AP2-AR2)=F2
Adding both these equations and also note
AP2=AP1-AR1 and P3=0;
P1AP1= F1+ F2
ACCUMULATOR CIRCUITS
• Accumulators are devices that stores the potential
energy of the compressible fluid under pressure by an
external source against some dynamic force. The stored
energy is used to do useful work.
• The Accumulators are used as
• Auxiliary power source

• As a leakage compensator
• As a emergency power source
• As a shock absorber
ACCUMULATOR AS AN
AUXILIARY POWER SOURCE
ACCUMULATOR
Accumulator as an auxiliary power source

ACCUMULATOR AS AN
AUXILIARY POWER SOURCE
• The oil delivered by pump is stored by the

accumulator
• The accumulator then delivers the stored oil on
demand
• Useful to systems which has intermittent
operations
• The oil flows from the pump as well as from the
accumulator to the cylinder and at the end of
strokes the oil from the pump is stored in the
accumulator.
ACCUMULATOR AS A LEAKAGE
COMPENSATOR
PRESSURE
SWITCH
Accumulator as a leakage compensator

ACCUMULATOR AS A LEAKAGE
COMPENSATOR
• This is used for systems which operate for long period of
time.
• The pump charges the accumulator to the maximum

pressure and when it reaches the pressure switch closes
the operation and pump. The further operation is
managed by the flow from the accumulator and when the
pressure reduces, the pressure switch once again starts
the pump and thus it prevents the functioning of pump for
a long period and also supplies the fluid as and when
required.
ACCUMULATOR AS AN
EMERGENCY POWER SOURCE
Accumulator as an
emergency power source
ACCUMULATOR AS AN
EMERGENCY POWER SOURCE
• The accumulators are used to retract the

cylinders in case of power failures.
• In the circuit, the fluid is passed to blank side,

rod side and through the check valve to the
accumulator. In any case the power fails, the
solenoid DCV is pushed to spring offset mode
and the accumulator supplies fluid towards the
retraction of the cylinder.
ACCUMULATOR AS A
HYDRAULIC SHOCK ABSORBER
TO SYSTEM
EMERGENCY
SHUT-OFF
VALVE
Accumulator as a hydraulic
shock absorber
ACCUMULATOR AS A
HYDRAULIC SHOCK ABSORBER
• The hydraulic shocks are due to sudden

stoppage, deceleration of flow etc.. The shock
creates compression waves and travels at the
speed of sound and travels up and down until
their energy is lost as friction. This causes
damage to the components and if an
accumulator is placed near the rapidly closing
valve, the pressure pulsations are suppressed
and thus serves as a shock absorber.
SAFETY CIRCUITS
• Fail Safe circuits are designed to prevent
injury to the operator or damage to
equipment.
• In general it prevents the system from free

falling on the operator and prevent the
system from overloading.
FAIL SAFE CIRCUIT TO PROTECT FROM
CYLINDER FALLING
Fail-safe circuit
FAIL SAFE CIRCUIT TO PROTECT FROM
CYLINDER FALLING
• In this circuit, the lowering of the cylinder will occur only

when the pilot pressure from the blank side of the
cylinder pushes the pilot operated check valve to allow
the flow from the rod side to pass through the DCV.
• This is helpful in those places where inadvertent pushing

of the DCV takes place or rupture in the flow line occurs.
• To insure safety the push button will be used to give the

pilot pressure to operate the DCV or only when manual
operation of the DCV is done the flow is passed to the
blank side.
FAIL SAFE CIRCUIT FOR OVERLOAD
PROTECTION
Fail-safe circuit with overload
protection
Valve 3
Valve 4
Valve 2
Valve 1
FAIL SAFE CIRCUIT FOR OVERLOAD
PROTECTION
• Valve 1 is controlled by Valve 2.
• Valve 3 drains Valve 2 in its spring offset mode
• Valve 4 is operated when an increase in pressure due to overload is felt in the

upward line to the cylinder
• When Valve 2 is operated, it pushes the Valve 1(DCV)
• This transfers oil to the blank side and any increase in pressure operates Valve 4 and
this Valve 4 pilot operates Valve 3 and this drains Valve 1 and results in flow to the
rod side and prevents from further downward motion against load.
• Any motion of Valve 2 now will not do anything and only at the retraction of Valve 4 or
manual pushing of Valve 3 only will result in downward motion of the cylinder.
TWO HANDED SAFETY SYSTEM
Two-hand safety circuit
TWO HANDED SAFETY SYSTEM
– In this circuit the extension of cylinder will

occur only when both the push buttons are
pushed down
– In this circuit the retraction will occur only
when both the push buttons are released
– In any case, if one button is pressed there will
be no operation.
PUNCHING PRESS- DOUBLE PUMP CIRCUIT
Double pump hydraulic system
High pressure pump Low pressure pump

PUNCHING PRESS- DOUBLE PUMP CIRCUIT
• In this circuit there is a low pressure, high flow pump and high
pressure low flow pump, an unloading valve, a check valve, a
pressure relief valve and a double acting cylinder.
• The high flow low pressure pump is used for rapid extension and
high pressure low flow pump delivers during the actual punching
operation.
• The high flow pump during high pressure is protected by the check
valve and during punching, the flow is diverted through the
unloading valve back to the tank at low pressure.
• This eliminates the need of a large high pressure, high flow pump.
• An alternate circuit for punching is the pressure intensifier circuit.

PUNCHING PRESS-PRESSURE
INTENSIFIER CIRCUIT
Pressure intensifier circuit
F load
int
PUNCHING PRESS-PRESSURE
INTENSIFIER CIRCUIT
• This circuit has a pilot operated check valve ,a pressure

intensifier placed close to the cylinder in the load
application direction and a sequence valve.
• Once the flow is passed through the check valve, the

cylinder extends and when the pressure is required the
flow is passed to the intensifier through the sequence
valve that deliver the required pressure.
• The return flow is through the pilot check valve
• This eliminates the need of two pumps in a circuit.

SEQUENCING CIRCUIT
(A+B+B-A-)
Hydraulic cylinder sequence circuit
SEQUENCING CIRCUIT
• In this circuit if the DCV is shifted to the left, the left

cylinder extends completely and the right cylinder
extend.
• If the DCV is shifted to its right, the right cylinder retracts
completely and then the left cylinder retract.
• If Cylinder on left is clamping cylinder and Cylinder on
right is drilling, it can be taken for a clamp and drill circuit.
• This procedure can be adopted to all the machining
operations.
• A double ac ng cylinder is hooked up in the
regenera ve circuit. The relief valve se ng is
105 bars. The piston area is 130 sq.cm and the
rod area is 65 sq.cm. If the pump flow is
0.0016 m3/s, find the cylinder speed and load
carrying capacity for
– Extending stroke
– Retrac on stroke
Extending stroke
• Velocity = Qp / Ar = 0.0016 / 0.0065
= 0.246 m/s
Force = P Ar = 105 * 105 * 0.0065

= 68250 N
= 68.25 kN
Retrac on Stroke
• Velocity = Qp / (Ap – Ar) = 0.0016 / 0.0065
= 0.246 m/s
Force = P (Ap – Ar) = 105 * 105 * 0.0065

= 68250 N
= 68.25 kN
Circuit Minimization
• It is often uneconomical to realize a logic directly from the
first logic expression that pops into your head.
• Canonical sum and product expressions are especially
expensive because the number of possible minterms or
maxterms grows exponentially and hence gate with the
number of variables.
• We reduce a combinational circuit by reducing the number
and size of gates that are needed to build it.
• We can minimize the circuit function using Boolean
postulates and theorems.
• But it very difficult to find terms that can be combined in a
jumble of algebraic symbols.
• It lacks specific rules to predict each succeeding step in the
manipulative process.
• Solution to this is the Karnaugh Map method.
– This map method provides a simple straightforward
procedure for minimizing Boolean function.
– First proposed by Veitch and modified by Karnaugh,
known as Veitch diagram or Karnaugh map.
Karnaugh Map
• A Karnaugh map is a graphical representation of a logic
function’s truth table.
• It is diagram made up of squares.
• Each square represents one minterm.
• Since any Boolean function can be expressed as a sum of
minterms, the map presents a visual diagram of all possible
ways a function may be expressed in a standard form.
• By recognizing various patterns, the user can derive
alternative algebraic expressions for the same function,
from which he/she can select the simplest one.
• Simplest algebraic expression is one that has a minimum
number of literals and can be expressed as sum of products
or product of sums.
Two, three and four input maps
Karnaugh Map
• The minterms are not arranged in a binary sequence, but in
a sequence similar to the Gray code.
• The characteristic of this sequence is that only one bit
changes from 1 to 0 or from 0 to 1.
• Any two adjacent squares in the map differ by only one
variable, which is primed in one square and unprimed in the
other.
• From the postulates of Boolean algebra, it follows that the
sum of two adjacent minterms can be simplified to a single
AND term consisting of one less literals.
e.g.,
x.y + x.y’ = x.(y+y’) = x + 1 = x
Visualizing T10 -- Karnaugh maps
3-variable Karnaugh map
Example: F = S(1,2,5,7)
Karnaugh-map usage
• Plot 1s corresponding to minterms of function.
• Circle largest possible rectangular sets of 1s.
– # of 1s in set must be power of 2
– OK to cross edges
• Read off product terms, one per circled set.
– Variable is 1 ==> include variable
– Variable is 0 ==> include complement of variable
– Variable is both 0 and 1 ==> variable not included
• Circled sets and corresponding product terms are called
“prime implicants”
• Minimum number of gates and gate inputs
Prime implicant
• A prime implicant of a logic function F(XYZ) is a normal
product term P(XYZ) that implies F, such that if any
variable is removed from P, then the resulting product term
does not imply F.
• a prime implicant of F is a circled set of 1-cells satisfying
our combining rule, such that if we make it larger, it covers
one or more 0s.
Prime-number detector (again)
• When we solved algebraically, we missed one simplification
-- the circuit below has three less gate inputs.
Another example
Yet another example
• Distinguished 1 cells
• Essential prime implicants
the minimal sum
• A distinguished 1-cell of a logic function is an input
combination that is covered by only one prime implicant.
• An essential prime implicant of a logic function is a prime
implicant that covers one or more distinguished 1-cells.
• The minimal sum is the sum of essential prime implicants.
Simplifying Products of Sums
• In general, to find the lowest-cost realization of a logic
function, we have to find both a minimal sum and a minimal
product and compare them.
• Each 0 on the map corresponds to a maxterm in the
canonical product of the logic function.
10011011
i = 01234567
F = x,y,z (0,3,4,6,7) = F = x,y,z (1,2,5)
(F’)’ = (x,y,z (1,2,5))’ find the minimal sum for

the compliment of F and apply DeMorgan’s theorem.
“don’t-care” input combinations
• Sometimes the specification of a combinational circuit is
such that its output doesn’t matter for certain input
combinations, called don’t-cares.
• For example, suppose we wanted to build a prime-number
detector whose 4-bit input is always a BCD digit; then
minterms 10~15 should never occur.
F =  N N N N (1, 2, 3, 5, 7) + d(10,11,12,13,14,15)
3 2 1 0
don’t-care” input combinations
INTRODUCTION TO AUTOMATION
1
Production system: manufacturing support systems
and facilities.
Mfg Support Facilities

System (Factory
Equipments)
2
INTRODUCTION… Cont.
Mfg. Support System:- Procedures used to manage

production and to solve logistics & technical prob.
Facilities:-
The equipments in factory and the way the
equipment is organized. It includes machines,
tooling, material handling equipment, inspection
equipment, comp. & plant layout.
3
Sale,
Marketing
Forecasting
Order entry
Accounting
Customer
billing etc.
4
Manufacturing – the application of physical and chemical
processes to alter the geometry, properties and /or
appearance of a given starting material to make
parts/product
- includes the joining of multiple parts to make
assembled products
 Economic viewpoint- the transformation of material into
items of greater value…
 Eg: iron converted into steel, sand transformed into glass,
petroleum transforms into plastic etc.
5
Machinery
Tools
Power
Labor
Starting Mfg. Process Completed part

Material
Waste
As a technological process
6
Mfg. Process
Value Added
Starting material Material in Processing Completed part


 As an economic process
7
 Basic activities to convert raw material into
finished products:
i. Processing and assembly operations
ii. Material handling
iii. Inspection and test
iv. Coordination and control
8
 Processing operation transform a work material from
one state of completion to a more advanced state that
is closer to the final desired part/product. materials is
fed into the process, energy is apply by the machinery
and tooling to transform the material into finished
products.
 Assembly operations – two or more components
combined to form a new entity
Eg: Welding, Soldering, Screws, Rivets etc.
9
 Moving and storing materials between processing
and/or assembly operations.
Inspection and test

 Both are quality control activities to determine
whether products meet the design std. and spec.
10
 Includes at process and plant levels
 Process level – manipulating input and
parameters of the process.
 Plants level – labor, maintenance, costing,
shipping, scheduling etc.
11
 4 keys parameters:
i. Quality
ii. Variety
iii. Complexity of assembled products.
iv. Complexity of individual parts.
12
 If no = Num. of distinct operation through which work
units are routed.
PC = n SH Rp / no
To increase/decrease prod. Capacity:

i. Short term:
 changes of S and H will increase prod. Capacity
ii. Long term
 to increase capacity, change n, increase Rp and reduce
n o.
13
 Mfg costs – fixed and variable costs.
 Fixed costs-remains constant for any level of prod.
 Variable costs-varies in proportion to the level of
prod.
 Let TC = total annual costs (RM/yr), FC = fixed
annual costs (RM/yr), VC= variable costs (RM/pc)
and Q = annual quantity produced (pc/yr).
14
Typical Factory Overhead Expenses
15
16
 J.T Black.
17
18
 Industrial Automation
 The technology by which a process or procedure is
accomplished without human assistance.
 A technique that can be used to reduce costs and/or to
improve quality.
 Can increase manufacturing speed, while reducing cost.
 Can lead to products having consistent quality, perhaps
even consistently good quality
 It is implemented using a program of instructions
combined with a control system that executes the
instructions
19
Industrial Automation
 To automate a process, power is required, both to drive

the process itself and to operate the program and
control system.
 Automated processes can be controlled by human
operators, by computers, or by a combination of the
two.
20
21
Automated Assembly lines
22
 Automation is a technique that can be used to reduce
costs and/or to improve quality. Automation can
increase manufacturing speed, while reducing cost.
Automation can lead to products having consistent
quality, perhaps even consistently good quality.
OR
 Automation is a technology concerned with application
of mechanical, electronic and computer-based system to
operate and control system. This technology includes;
23
 Automatic assembly machines
 Automation machine tools to process parts
 Industrial robots
 Automatic materials handling and storage
system
 Automatic inspection system and quality
control
 Feedback control and computer process
control
 Computer system for planning, data
collection and decision making to support
manufacturing activities
24
 If a human operator is available to monitor and
control a manufacturing process, open loop
control may be acceptable.
 If a manufacturing process is automated, then it
requires closed loop control, also known as
feedback control.
 example of open loop control and closed loop
control.
25
 Automation is the key to shorter work week –
working hours per week reduces and , allowing
more leisure hours and a higher quality of life.
 Automation brings safer working conditions for
workers.
 Automated production results in lower prices and
better products
26
 It result in the subjugation of human being by a
machine – reduces the need for skilled labor
 There will be reduction in the labor force –
resulting un employment.
 Automation will reduce purchasing power-
markets will become saturated with products that
people cannot afford to purchase.
27
 What automation and control technology is available?
 Are employees ready and willing to use new
technology?
 What technology should be used?
 Should the current manufacturing process be improve
before automation?
 Should the product be improved before spending
millions of rupees acquiring equipment.
28
 Task is too technologically difficult to automate.
 Short product life cycle.
 Customized product.
 To cope with ups and downs in demand.
 To reduce risk of product failure.
29
 Hard Automation
◦ Controllers were built for specific purposes and
could not be altered easily.
◦ Early analog process controllers had to be rewired
to be reprogrammed.
◦ This controllers do what they are designed and built to do,

quickly and precisely perhaps, but with little adaptability for
change (beyond minor adjustments).
◦ Modification of hard automation is time-consuming and
expensive, since modifications can only be performed while
the equipment sits idle.
30
 Soft Automation
◦ Modern digital computers are reprogrammable.
◦ It is even possible to reprogram them and test the
changes while they work.
◦ Even if hardware changes are required to a soft
automation system, the lost time during changeover is
less than for hard automation
31
 Automated Mfg. System can be classified into three
basic types:
Fixed Automation
◦ A system which the sequence of processing (or
assembly) operations is fixed by the equipment
configurations.
◦ Each operations in the sequence is usually simple.
32
◦ The features of fixed automation;
 High initial investment for custom-engineered
equipment
 High production rates
 Relatively inflexible in accommodating product
variety.
 Examples, machining transfer lines and automated
assembly machines.
33
 Programmable Automation
◦ The production equipment is designed with the
capability to change the sequence of operations to
accommodate different product configurations.
◦ The operation sequence is controlled by a program,
which is a set of instruction coded so that they can be
read and interpreted by the system.
34
◦ New programs can be prepared and entered into
the equipment to produce new products.
◦ The physical setup of the machine must be
changed for each new products.
◦ This changeover procedures takes time.
◦ Eg: numerical control (NC) machine tools,
industrial robots and PLC.
35
◦ The features of programmable automation;
 High investment in general purpose equipment.
 Lower production rates than fixed automation.
 Flexibility to deal with variations and changes in
product configuration.
 Most suitable for batch production.
36
 Flexible Automation
◦ An extension of programmable automation.
◦ Capable of producing a variety of parts/products with
virtually no time lost for changeovers from one part
style to the next.
37
◦ The features of flexible automation;
 High investment for custom-engineered system.
 Continuous production of variable mixtures of
products.
 Medium production rates.
 Flexibility to deal with product design variations.
38
Examples, flexible manufacturing systems for
performing machining operations.
The relative positions of the three types of automation
for different production volume and product varieties
are shown below.
Product Variety
LOW
MEDIUM
HIGH
100 10000 1,000,000
Production Quantity 39
40
 To increase labor productivity
 To reduce labor cost
 To improve worker safety
 To improve product quality
 To mitigate the effects of labor shortages
 To reduce/eliminate routine manual & clerical tasks.
 To reduce mfg lead time
 To accomplish processes that cannot be done manually
 To avoid the high cost of not automating
41
 Specialization of operation
 Combined operations
 Simultaneous operations
 Integration operations
 Increased flexibility
 On-line inspection
 Improved material handling and storage
 Process control and optimization
 Plant operations control
 Computer-integrated manufacturing
42
 Usually implies a sequence of mechanical steps.
 A camshaft is an automation controller because it
mechanically sequences the steps in the operation of an
internal combustion engine.
 Manufacturing processes are often sequenced by special
digital computers, known as programmable logic
controller (PLC).
 PLC can detect and can switch electrical signals on and
off.
43
Materials Handling,
Storage, Use, and Disposal
1
PPT 10 Hour General Industry – Material Handling v.03.01.17 Created by OTIEC Outreach Resources Workgroup
Introduction
Lesson objectives:
1. Identify types of material handling equipment.
2. Describe hazards associated with material
handling activities.
3. Identify methods to prevent hazards
associated with material handling equipment.
4. Recognize employer requirements to protect
workers from material handling hazards.
2
Types of Equipment
Powered
Conveyors Industrial Trucks
Source: OSHA Source: TEEX-Harwood
3
Types of Equipment
Cranes Slings
Source: TEEX Source: OSHA
4
Hazards Associated with
Materials Handling
Factors contributing to injuries:
• Weight and bulkiness of objects
• Bending, twisting, turning movements
Source of photos: OSHA
5
Materials Handling
Hazards:
• Improper operation of equipment
• Accumulated materials or clutter
Source: OSHA
6
Materials Handling
• Unsafe conditions of materials or containers

• Flammability or toxicity of some materials
Source: OSHA
7
Materials Handling
• Weight of materials
• Binding ties or other
devices that secure
bundles or
bound materials Source: OSHA
8
Materials Handling
• Falling objects
• Lifting, pushing, pulling, or otherwise
manually moving large, heavy items
Source: OSHA Source: OSHA
9
Materials Handling
• Improperly stacked materials
• Struck-by or caught-in/-between hazards
Source TEEX - Harwood Source: OSHA
10
Materials Handling
Types of injuries commonly
reported:
• Sprains, strains, tears
• Soreness and pain
• Bruises and contusions
• Cuts, lacerations, punctures, Source: OSHA
crushing, and amputations
11
Materials Handling
Examples of events or
exposures leading to
injuries:
• Contact with objects
Source: OSHA
and equipment
• Transportation incidents
• Exposure to harmful
substances or environments
Source: OSHA
12
Materials Handling
• Falls, slips, trips, or loss
of balance
• Repetitive motion Source: OSHA
• Overexertion
Source: OSHA
13
Preventing Hazards
Moving materials manually:

• Use devices to assist with
holding loads
• Wear PPE
• Use proper lifting technique
• Seek help for oversized loads
• Use blocking materials
14
Preventing Hazards
Overhead and gantry cranes:
• Never move a load over co-workers or allow
co-workers to walk underneath
• Return the load block to its designated
location after use
• Do not leave the load
block low enough for
someone to run into
• Never leave a suspended
load unattended
Source: OSHA
15
Preventing Hazards
• Do not leave unused slings suspended on a
crane hook
• Store wall-mounted cranes against the wall
• Continuously observe equipment for any
sign of problems during operation.
• Don’t allow yourself to become distracted.
16
Preventing Hazards
• Operated only by thoroughly trained
and qualified workers
Source: UA
17
Preventing Hazards
Eliminate/reduce crane
hazards by:
• Knowing
– Load
– Capacity of the crane
Source: TEEX - Harwood
– When the load is safe to lift

• Always checking crane
load chart and never
exceed load limits
Source: TEEX - Harwood
18
Preventing Hazards
• Inspection of crane by a qualified person
– Modified, repaired, or adjusted
– Post-assembly
– At least every 12 months
– Equipment not in regular use
• Visual inspection by a
competent person
– Prior to each shift
– Monthly
Source: OSHA
19
Preventing Hazards
• Slings
– Connects a crane hook to a load
– Proper selection
– Inspection
20
Preventing Hazards
– Reduce sling hazards by:
• Lubricating
• Not shortening with knots, bolts, or other
devices, or kink legs
• Keeping clear of loads
• Avoiding sudden movement
21
Preventing Hazards
Forklifts
• Main causes of injuries
– Forklift overturns
– Forklift striking workers
on foot Forklift toppled sideways possibly due to shift in center of gravity.
Source: OSHA
– Persons crushed by forklifts

– Persons falling from forklifts
22
Preventing Hazards
• Illegal forklift operators
– Anyone under 18
– Anyone not properly trained
23
Preventing Hazards
– Driving the forklift
• Obstructed vision
• Travel path
• Approaching people
• Elevated platform
• Seat belts and ROPS
• Raising/lowering forks
• Safe distance
24
Preventing Hazards
– Elevating workers with forklift
• Standing on forks
• Lifting personnel
• Approved lift platform
• Restraining means
Source: OSHA
25
Preventing Hazards
– Driving forklift on grades/ramps
• Use extreme caution
• No turns
• Tilting and raising load
• Point load up the incline
26
Preventing Hazards
– Forklift operating speed
• Tip-overs
• Turning
• Avoiding collisions
• Wet and slippery floors
• Ascending/descending
• Obstructed vision
27
Preventing Hazards
– Avoiding excess weight

• Do not exceed weight
capacity of forklift.
• Center loads and secure to
keep from shifting to
maintain balance of weight
Source of graphics: OSHA
28
Preventing Hazards
– Use of dock boards for

loading/uploading
• Bridging space
• Securing portable dock boards
• Handholds for dock boards
Source: OSHA
29
Preventing Hazards
– Exiting the forklift
• Set brake, lower forks/lifting
carriage, neutralize controls
• Stand-up type forklift
– Riding the forklift

• No passengers allowed
• Exception – seat is provided
30
Preventing Hazards
– Avoiding struck-by/crushed-by
• Don’t jump from an overturning, sit-down
type forklift.
• Stay with the truck, hold on firmly, and
lean in the opposite direction of the overturn.
Source: OSHA
31
Preventing Hazards
– Forklift training – do not operate a forklift
without proper training
– Reporting damage – any damage or
problems that occur to a forklift during a
shift should be reported to the supervisor.
Source: OSHA
32
Employer Requirements
Comply with OSHA standards related to
materials handling, including:
• Training requirements
• Inspection requirements
33
Employer Requirements
• Comply with manufacturers’
requirements and recommendations for
materials handling equipment.
Source : OSHA
34
Recognizing Hazards
Identify potential hazards and possible solutions:
Source: OSHA
35
Recognizing Hazards
Source: OSHA Source: TEEX - Harwood
36
Recognizing Hazards
Source of photos : OSHA -UFCW

Source of photos : TEEX Harwood
37
Knowledge Check
1. What is the minimum age requirement
for the operation of a forklift,
regardless of training?
a. 16
b. 18
c. 21
d. 25
Answer: b. You must be at least

18 years old to operate a forklift.
38
Knowledge Check
2. A way to prevent materials handling
hazards is to ___.
a. refuse to allow personnel to ride equipment
without a seat and seatbelt
b. report all damaged equipment immediately
c. operate within manufacturer’s specifications
d. All of these
Answer: d. All of these are good ways

to prevent materials handling hazards.
39
Knowledge Check
3. Which of the following is a method for
eliminating or reducing crane operation
hazards?
a. A competent person should visually inspect the
crane once a year
b. Never exceed the load limit by more than 10%
c. Never move a load over co-workers
d. All of these
Answer: c. Never move a load over co-workers

or allow co-workers to walk underneath.
40
Knowledge Check
4. Employers must comply with OSHA
standards related to materials handling,
including training and _____.
a. equipment
b. operations
c. inspection
d. all of these
Answer: c. Employers must comply with OSHA

standards for training and inspection.
41
4+rta,-e-
Pr-g utrRrtrtG o\AGRAM
&
15 I Lsz-
A-
Programmable
Logic Controllers
Third Edition
Frank D. Petruzella
McGraw-Hill
Chapter 8
Programming
Counters
Counters
Common applications of counters include keeping track
of the number of items moving past a given point, and
determining the number of times a given action occurs.
A preset counter can control an

external circuit when its
counted total matches the
user-entered preset limits.
Mechanical Counters
Programmed counters can serve

the same functions as mechanical
counters.
Every time the actuating lever is moved

over the counter adds one number,
while the actuating lever returns
automatically to its original position.
Resetting to zero is done with a
pushbutton located on the side of the
unit.
Electronic Counters
Electronic counters can count up, count down, or be combined
to count up and down. They are dependent on external
sources, such as parts traveling past a sensor or actuating a
limit switch for counting.
Counter
Applications
Coil-Formatted Counter Instruction
The coil is assigned an
address as well as being
identified as a counter
Increments
Like the timer, preset and
counter by 1 for
accumulated values are
every false-to-true
included
transition
When the accumulated count equals the preset count, the

output is energized and the counter output is closed. The
counter contact can be used as many times as you wish
throughout the program as an NO or NC contact.
Coil-Formatted Counter And Reset Instruction
Same address
Resets counter when true

Block-Formatted Counter Instruction
Count line Type of

counter Output
line
Preset value
Reset line Accumulated

value
PLC counters operate or count on the leading edge of the

input signal. The counter will either increment or decrement
whenever the count input transfers from an "off" state to an
"on" state. The counter will not operate on the trailing edge,
or on-to-off transition of the input condition.
Counter Counting Sequence
PLC counters are normally retentive. Whatever

count was contained in the counter at the time of a
processor shutdown will be restored to the counter on
power-up. The counter may be reset, however, if the
reset condition is activated at the time of power
restoration.
PLC counters can be designed to count up to a preset

value or to count down to a preset value.
The up-counter is incremented by 1 each time the rung
containing the counter is energized.
The counter will increment until the accumulated value is

equal to or greater than the preset value, at which time an
output will be produced.
The down-counter decrements by 1 each time the rung
containing the counter is energized.
A counter reset is always provided to cause the counter

accumulated value to be reset to a predetermined value.
Simple Up-counter Program
7
Up-counter Program Timing Diagram
C5 Counter Data File
Each counter address is made of a 3-word element
•Bit 0-9: Internal Use

•Bit 10:
Specifies the value, UAthe
which - Update
counteraccumulation value. the controller
must reach before
This is the number
•Bit of
11:times
UN ofUnderflow
false to true transitions that have occurred
sets the done bit. When the-accumulated bit.
value becomes equal to or
since the counter was
•Bit 12:last
OV reset.
- Overflow
greater than the preset value, the donebit.
status bit is set. You can use this
•Bit
bit to control an 13: DN
output - Done
device.
•Bit 14: CD - Count down is enabled.
•Bit 15: CU - Count up is enabled.
PLC-5 And SLC 500 Count-Up Counter Instruction
ControlLogix Count-Up Counter Instruction
The counter address in the PLC-5 and SLC 500 is a data table
address, whereas in the ControlLogix it is a predefined
structure of the data type.
In the PLC-5 and SLC 500, the max value for the preset and
accumulated values is 32,767 and the min value is –32,768; for
the ControlLogix controller the max value is 2,147,438,647 and
the min value is –2,147,438,648.
RSLogic Counter Commands
Command Name Description

Decrements
Increments
Resets the
Counts the
the accumulated
accumulated
accumulated
high-speed pulses
RES
HSC
CTD
CTU Count-Down
Count-Up
High-Speed
Reset value
value ataand
at
value each
each false-to-true
false-to-true
status bit of
from fixed controller
Counter transition
transition andinput
and
the counter
high-speed retains the
retains the
accumulated value
accumulated value when
when
power cycle
power cycle occurs
occurs
Parts Counting Program
Counter C5:2 counts the

total number of parts coming
off an assembly line for final
packaging
Each package must contain 10 parts

When 10 parts are detected, counter C5:1 sets bit B3/1 to
initiate the box closing sequence
Counter C5:3 counts the total number of packages filled per day
A pushbutton is used to restart the total part and package count

from zero daily
Parts Counting Program
10
9
15
10
59
1
1. One common application for a counter is
keeping track of the number of items moving
past a given point. (True/False)
2. Timers, like counters, are not dependent on

external sources for counting. (True/False)
3. The down-counter increments by 1 each time

the rung containing the counter is energized.
(True/False)
4. Normally, when power to your PLC
system is lost, when power is restored the
counter accumulated value will be:
a. zero
b. whatever it was preset for
c. maximum
d. unchanged
5. The output of a PLC counter is switch from “off”
to “on” any time the count input rung is "true".
(True/False)
6. A PLC up-counter normally counts true-to-false

transitions. (True/False)
7. In order for the PLC counter to reset, the

counter reset rung must be “false”.
(True/False)
8. The done bit of a counter is true whenever:
a. the accumulated value is equal to the preset
value
b. the counter instruction is true
c. the accumulated value is greater than the
preset value.
d. both a and c
9. The _________ value of a PLC counter
is the current count based on the number
of times the rung goes from false-to-true.
a. preset c. accumulated
b. overflow d. underflow
10. Count rung transitions can be caused by

actuating:
a. a limit switch c. a pressure switch
b. a sensor d. any of these
OMRON COUNTER
6 5 4 3
7 8 1 2
One-Shot, Or Transitional, Contact Program
The transitional or one shot contact program can be used to
automatically clear or reset a counter. The program is designed
to generate an output pulse that, when triggered, goes on for
the duration of one program scan and then goes off.
One-Shot, Or Transitional, Contact Program
The transitional or one shot contact program can be used to
automatically clear or reset a counter. The program is designed
to generate an output pulse that, when triggered, goes on for
the duration of one program scan and then goes off.
The one-shot can be

triggered from a
momentary signal, or
one that comes on and
stays on for some time.
Types Of Transitional Contacts
Off-To-On Transitional Contact
Is programmed to
On provide a one-shot
pulse when the
Off referenced trigger
signal makes a
On positive (off-to-on)
Symbol One
transition
Off scan
On-To-Off Transitional Contact

On Is programmed to
provide a one-shot
Off pulse when the
referenced trigger
On signal makes a negative
Symbol One
scan
(on-to-off) transition
Off
Conveyor Motor Circuit That Uses A
Programmed One-Shot Reset Circuit
Proximity
switch Sequential Task:
The start button is pressed

Case
to start the conveyor motor
Cases move pass the proximity

switch and increment the
Count reset
Conveyor motor
button
counter's accumulated value
Start/Stop station
After a count of 50, the conveyor motor stops automatically

and the counter's accumulated value is reset to zero
The conveyor motor can be stopped or started manually at
anytime without loss of the accumulated count
Conveyor Motor Circuit That Uses A
Programmed One-Shot Reset Circuit
50
One-Shot Rising (OSR) Instruction
• Triggers a one-time event.

• The OSR instruction is a retentive input instruction
that triggers an event to occur only one time. Use the
OSR instruction when an event must start based on
change of state of the rung from false to true.
• When the input instruction goes from false to true, the
OSR instruction conditions the rung so that the output
goes true for one scan. The output goes false and
remains false for successive scans until the input makes
another false to true transition.
Alarm Monitor Program
 The alarm is triggered by the closing of liquid level switch

LS1
 The light will flash whenever the alarm condition is triggered

and has not been acknowledged, even if the alarm condition
clears in the meantime
 The alarm is acknowledged by closing selector switch SS1
 The light will operate in the steady mode when the alarm
trigger condition exists but has been acknowledged
Alarm Monitor Program
Down-Counter
The down-counter output instruction will count down
or decrement by 1 each time the counted event occurs.
Each time the down-count event occurs, the
accumulated value is decremented. Normally the down-
counter is used in conjunction with the up counter to
form an up/down counter.
Generic up/down
counter program
Up/Down Counter Timing diagram
Preset Value = 3
Parking Garage Counter Program
 As a car enters, it triggers the up-counter output instruction and

increments the accumulated count by 1.
 As a car leaves, it triggers the down-counter output
instruction and decrements the accumulated count by 1.
 Since both the up- and down-counters have the same address,
the accumulated value will be the same in both.
 Whenever the accumulated value equals the preset value, the
counter output is energized to light up the Lot Full sign.
Parking Garage Counter Program
50
38
150
50
150
38
PLC-5 And SLC-500
Count-Down Counter Instruction
If the accumulation value is below the

minimum range then the underflow
(UN) bit will be true.
Up/Down-Counter Program
1
10
1
10
When
Whenthe the CTU
CTD instruction
theaccumulated
instruction
When
is true, C5:2/CU will be value
true
isgreater
true,CC5:2/CD
isInput going
than true
or will beto
will
equal true
cause
the
causing
causing output
output A
B to
to be
be true
true
both counter
preset instructions
value, C5:2/DN will to
be
resetcausing output C to be
true,
true
In-Process Monitoring System
After processing,
Before start-up, finished
the parts
system is appearing empty
completely at the out-feed
of parts, sensor
and
When the
generate operation
down begins, raw parts move through the in-feed
the counter is counts, so the accumulated
reset manually to zero. count of the counter
sensor, with each
continuously part generating
indicates the numberan ofup count. parts.
in-process
In-Process Monitoring System
58
58
Counting Beyond The Maximum Count
15000
Counter Speed
The maximum speed of transitions you can count is

determined by your program's scan time. Any counter
input signal must be fixed for one scan time to be
counted reliably.
If the input changes faster

than one scan period, the
count value will become
unreliable because counts
will be missed. When this is
the case you need to use a
high-speed counter.
Cascading Counters
Depending on the
application, it may be
necessary to count events
that exceed the maximum
number allowable per
counter instruction. One way
of accomplishing this is by
interconnection, or
cascading, two counters.
Counting Beyond The Maximum Count
The output of the

first counter is
programmed into
the input of the
The status second counter
bits of both
counters are
These two
programmed
counters allow
in series to
twice as many
produce an
counts to be
output
measured
Cascading Counters For Extremely Large Counts
500
0
Whenever counter C5:1

reaches 500, its done bit
resets counter C5:1 and
1
increments counter C5:2
by 1
The output light turns

on after 500 x 500, or
250,000 transitions of
the count input
24 Hour Clock Program
The timer times for a 60 s period,
after which its done bit is set. This,
in turn cases C5:0 to increment 1
count. On the next processor scan,
the timer is reset and begins timing
again.
Whenever C5:0 reaches its preset

value of 60, its done bit is set. This, in
turn causes it to reset itself and C5:1
to increment 1 count.
Whenever C5:1 reaches its preset

value of 24, its done bit is set to reset
itself.
Program For
Monitoring
The Time
Of An Event
Incremental Encoder
An incremental encoder creates a
series of square waves as its shaft
is rotated.
The encoder disk interrupts the light
as the encoder shaft is rotated to
produce the square wave output
waveform.
Incremental Encoder
The number of square waves obtained

from the output of the encoder can be
made to correspond to the mechanical
movement required.
To divide a shaft revolution into 100

parts, an encoder could be selected to
supply 100 square wave cycles per
revolution. By using a counter to
those cycles, we could tell how far
the shaft has rotated.
Cutting Objects To A Specific Size
The object is advanced for a specific distance and measured

by encoder pulses to determine the correct length for
cutting.
Counter Used For Length Measurement
Count input pulses are generated by the magnetic sensor, which
detects passing teeth on a conveyor drive sprocket. If 10 teeth per
foot of conveyor motion pass the sensor, the accumulated count of
the counter would indicate feet in tenths.
The photoelectric sensor monitors a reference point on the

conveyor. When activated, it prevents the unit from counting,
thus permitting the counter to accumulate counts only when bar
stock is moving.
Counter Used For Length Measurement
10
Photo sensor activated, therefore,

accumulated count remains at 10
Combining Counter And Timer Functions
When the start button is pressed,
conveyor M1 begins running.
After 15 plates have been stacked,

conveyor M1 stops and conveyor
M2 begins running.
After conveyor M2 has been

operated for 5 s, it stops and the
sequence is repeated
automatically.
The done bit of the timer resets

the timer and counter, and
Automatic Stacking Process provides a momentary pulse to
automatically restart conveyor
M1.
Automatic
Stacking
Program
Motor Lock-Out Program
Designed to prevent The normally open (OL) relay
a machine operator contact momentarily closes
from starting a each time an overload current
motor that has is sensed.
tripped off more Every time the the motor
than 5 times in an stops due to an overload
hour. condition, the motor start
circuit is locked out for 5 min.
If the motor trips off more

than 5 times in an hour, the
motor stat circuit is
permanently locked out and
cannot be started until the
reset button is actuated.
Motor
Lock-Out
Program
Product Flow Rate Program
Parts This program is designed to indicate how

many parts per minute pass a given
process point.
Sensor
When the start switch is closed, both the counter and timer
are enabled.
The counter is pulsed for each part passing the sensor.
The counting begins and the timer starts timing through its
1-min time interval.
At the end of 1 min, the timer done bit causes the counter
rung to go false. Sensor pulses continue but do not affect the
PLC counter. The number of parts for the past minutes are
represented by the accumulated value of the counter.
Product Flow Rate Program
60
28
Timer Driving A Counter For Long Time-Delay Period
0
10,000
Each timer T4:0

input closes for
1
10,000 s, its done
bit resets itself
and increments
C5:0 by 1.
The output light turns on 10,000 x

100, or 1,000,000 seconds after the
timer input contact closes.
11. A _______ contact is designed to generate
an output pulse that, when triggered, goes on
for the duration of one program scan and then
goes off.
(a) examine if open
(b) examine if closed
(c) internal relay
(d) transitional
12. The down-counter output instruction will
increment by 1 each time the counted event
occurs. (True/False)
13. Normally the down-counter is used in

conjunction with the up counter. (True/False)
14. The individual up- and down-counters of

an up/down counter program must have the
same address. (True/False)
15. PLC counters can be used for:
a. straight counting in a process
b. two counters used to give the difference
between two counts
c. two counters used to give the sum of the
two counts
d. all of these
16. Interconnecting or cascading two PLC counters
involves:
a. programming the outputs of each in parallel
b. hardwiring the two in series
c. programming the output of the first counter
into the input of the second counter
d. hardwiring the two in parallel
17. The incremental encoder creates:
a. a pure dc waveform
b. a sawtooth waveform
c. an ac sine waveform
d. a series of square waves
18. The maximum speed of transitions you
can count is determined by:
a. the amount of PLC memory
b. the preset value of the counter
c. your program's scan time
d. all of these
19. For the program shown, if the in-feed switch is
pulsed 9 times followed immediately by 5 out-feed
switch pulses, the accumulated count would be:
(a) 0 (b) 14 (c) 50 (d) 4
20. For the program shown, the light turns on ___
seconds after the timer input contact closes.
(a) 1,000,000 (b) 50,000,000
(c) 500,000 (d) 100,000
Basic PLC
1
Basic PLC
Description
This training introduces the basic hardware and software
components of a Programmable Controller (PLC). It
details the architecture and basic instruction set common
to all PLC’s. Basic programming techniques and logic
designs are covered. This training describes the
operating features of the PLC, the advantages of the
PLC over hard-wired control systems, practical
applications, troubleshooting and maintenance of PLC’s.
2
Basic PLC
Objectives
At the end of the training the participants should be able
to:
 Describe the major components of a common PLC.

 Interpret PLC specifications.
 Apply troubleshooting techniques.
 Convert conventional relay logic to a PLC language.
 Operate and program a PLC for a given application.
3
Basic PLC
Course Contents
History of Programmable Controllers
 Relay Ladder Logic
 Central Processing Unit
 Input/Output System
 Programming and Peripheral Devices
 Programming Concepts
 Applications
 Troubleshooting and Maintenance
4
Basic PLC
INTRODUCTION TO PLCS
Advantages of PLCs
• Less wiring.
• Wiring between devices and relay contacts are done in
the PLC program.
• Easier and faster to make changes.
• Trouble shooting aids make programming easier and
reduce downtime.
• Reliable components make these likely to operate for
years before failure.
Basic PLC
PLC Origin
•- Developed to replace relays in the late 1960s

•- Costs dropped and became popular by 1980s
•- Now used in many industrial designs
Basic PLC
Historical Background
The Hydramatic Division of the General Motors
Corporation specified the design criteria for the first
programmable controller in 1968
Their primary goal
To eliminate the high costs associated with inflexible,

relay-controlled systems.
7
Basic PLC
Historical Background
• The controller had to be designed in modular form, so that
sub-assemblies could be removed easily for replacement or
repair.
• The control system needed the capability to pass data

collection to a central system.
• The system had to be reusable.
• The method used to program the controller had to be simple,

so that it could be easily understood by plant personnel.
8
Basic PLC
Programmable Controller Development

1968 Programmable concept developed
1969 Hardware CPU controller, with logic
instructions, 1 K of memory and 128 I/O
points
1974 Use of several (multi) processors within a
PLC - timers and counters; arithmetic
operations; 12 K of memory
and 1024 I/O points
1976 Remote input/output systems introduced
1977 Microprocessors - based PLC introduced
9
Basic PLC
Programmable Controller Development

1980 Intelligent I/O modules developed
Enhanced communications facilities
Enhanced software features
(e.g. documentation)
Use of personal microcomputers as
programming aids
1983 Low - cost small PLC’s introduced
1985 on Networking of all levels of PLC, computer
and machine using SCADA software.
10
Basic PLC
Programmable Logic Controllers

( Definition according to NEMA standard ICS3-1978)
A digitally operating electronic apparatus which uses a

programming memory for the internal storage of instructions
for implementing specific functions such as logic,
sequencing, timing, counting and arithmetic to control
through digital or analog modules, various types of machines
or process.
11
Basic PLC
Leading Brands Of PLC

AMERICAN 1. Allen Bradley
2. Gould Modicon
3. Texas Instruments
4. General Electric
5. Westinghouse
6. Cutter Hammer
7. Square D
EUROPEAN 1. Siemens
2. Klockner & Mouller
3. Festo
4. Telemechanique
12
Basic PLC
Leading Brands Of PLC

JAPANESE 1. Toshiba
2. Omron
3. Fanuc
4. Mitsubishi
13
Basic PLC
Areas of Application
 Manufacturing / Machining
 Food / Beverage
 Metals
 Power
 Mining
 Petrochemical / Chemical
14
Basic PLC
PLC Size
1. SMALL - it covers units with up to 128 I/O’s and
memories up to 2 Kbytes.
- these PLC’s are capable of providing
simple to advance levels or machine
controls.
2. MEDIUM - have up to 2048 I/O’s and memories up
to 32 Kbytes.
3. LARGE - the most sophisticated units of the PLC
family. They have up to 8192 I/O’s and
memories up to 750 Kbytes.
- can control individual production
processes or entire plant.
15
Basic PLC
Tank Used to Mix Two Liquids
MOTOR
A
FS FLOAT SWITCH
SOLENOIDS B
SOLENOID
C
TIMER
1 -MINUTE
16
Basic PLC

A tank is used to mix two liquids. The control circuit operates
as follows:
1. When the start button is pressed, solenoids A and B

energize. This permits the two liquids to begin filling the tank.
2. When the tank is filled, the float switch trips. This de-
energizes solenoids A and B and starts the motor used to
mix the liquids together.
3. The motor is permitted to run for one minute. After one

minute has elapsed, the motor turns off and solenoid C
energizes to drain the tank.
17
Basic PLC

4. When the tank is empty, the float switch de-energizes
solenoid C.
5. A stop button can be used to stop the process at any

point.
6. If the motor becomes overloaded, the action of the entire

circuit will stop.
7. Once the circuit has been energized it will continue to

operate until it is manually stopped.
18
Basic PLC
Major Components of a Common PLC
POWER
SUPPLY
I M O M
N O U O
P D T D
U U PROCESSOR P U
T L U L
From E T E
To
SENSORS
OUTPUT
Pushbuttons, Solenoids,
contacts, contactors,
limit switches, alarms
etc. etc.
PROGRAMMING
DEVICE
19
Basic PLC

POWER SUPPLY
Provides the voltage needed to run the primary PLC

components
I/O MODULES
Provides signal conversion and isolation between the

internal logic- level signals inside the PLC and the field’s
high level signal.
20
Basic PLC

PROCESSOR
Provides intelligence to command and govern the activities

of the entire PLC systems.
PROGRAMMING DEVICE
used to enter the desired program that will determine the

sequence of operation and control of process equipment or
driven machine.
21
Basic PLC
Programming Device
Also known as:
 Industrial Terminal ( Allen Bradley )
 Program Development Terminal ( General Electric )
 Programming Panel ( Gould Modicon )
 Programmer ( Square D )
 Program Loader ( Idec-Izumi )
 Programming Console ( Keyence / Omron )

22
Basic PLC
Programming Device
Types:
 Hand held unit with LED / LCD display
 Desktop type with a CRT display
 Compatible computer terminal
23
Basic PLC
I/O Module
• The I/O interface section of a PLC connects it to
external field devices.
• The main purpose of the I/O interface is to condition the

various signals received from or sent to the external input
and output devices.
• Input modules converts signals from discrete or analog

input devices to logic levels acceptable to PLC’s processor.
• Output modules converts signal from the processor to

levels capable of driving the connected discrete or analog
output devices.
24
Basic PLC
I/O Module
DC INPUT MODULE
IS NEEDED TO:
USE TO  Prevent voltage
DROP THE transients from
VOLTAGE damaging the
TO LOGIC processor.
LEVEL Helps reduce the
effects of electrical
noise
Current Buffer,
FROM Limiting Filter,
OPTO- TO
INPUT Resistor ISOLATOR hysteresis
PROCESSOR
DEVICE Circuits
25
Basic PLC
I/O Module
AC INPUT MODULE
IS NEEDED TO:
CONVERTS THE AC  Prevent voltage
INPUT TO DC AND transients from
DROPS THE VOLTAGE damaging the
TO LOGIC LEVEL processor.
Helps reduce the
noise
Rectifier, Buffer,
FROM Resistor Filter,
OPTO- TO
INPUT Network ISOLATOR Hysteresis
PROCESSOR
DEVICE Circuits
26
Basic PLC
27
Basic PLC
28
Basic PLC
29
Basic PLC
I/O Module
DC / AC OUTPUT MODULE
IS NEEDED TO:
 Prevent voltage
transients from
damaging the
processor.
Helps reduce the
noise
Amplifier
FROM RELAY
TTL OPTO- TO
PROCESSOR ISOLATOR TRIAC
Circuits OUTPUT
X’SISTOR
DEVICE
30
Basic PLC
31
Basic PLC
I/O Circuits
DIFFERENT TYPES OF I/O CIRCUITS
1. Pilot Duty Outputs

Outputs of this type typically are used to drive high-current
electromagnetic loads such as solenoids, relays, valves, and
motor starters.
These loads are highly inductive and exhibit a large inrush

current.
Pilot duty outputs should be capable of withstanding an

inrush current of 10 times the rated load for a short period of
time without failure.
32
Basic PLC
I/O Circuits
2. General - Purpose Outputs
These are usually low- voltage and low-current and are used
to drive indicating lights and other non-inductive loads. Noise
suppression may or may not be included on this types of
modules.
3. Discrete Inputs
Circuits of this type are used to sense the status of limit
switches, push buttons, and other discrete sensors. Noise
suppression is of great importance in preventing false
indication of inputs turning on or off because of noise.
33
Basic PLC
I/O Circuits
4. Analog I/O
Circuits of this type sense or drive analog signals.

Analog inputs come from devices, such as thermocouples,
strain gages, or pressure sensors, that provide a signal
voltage or current that is derived from the process variable.
Standard Analog Input signals: 4-20mA; 0-10V
Analog outputs can be used to drive devices such as

voltmeters, X-Y recorders, servomotor drives, and valves
through the use of transducers.
Standard Analog Output signals: 4-20mA; 0-5V; 0-10V
34
Basic PLC
I/O Circuits
5. Special - Purpose I/O
Circuits of this type are used to interface PLCs to very specific

types of circuits such as servomotors, stepping motors PID
(proportional plus integral plus derivative) loops, high-speed
pulse counting, resolver and decoder inputs, multiplexed
displays, and keyboards.
This module allows for limited access to timer and counter

presets and other PLC variables without requiring a program
loader.
35
Basic PLC
OUTPUTS
INPUTS MOTOR
CONTACTOR
LAMP
PUSHBUTTONS
PLC
36
Basic PLC
Allen-Bradley 1746-1A16
L1 L2 I= Input
Module
I:2 slot # in rack
P. B SWITCH 0 Module
Terminal #
Address I:2.0/0
LADDER PROGRAM
INPUT MODULE
WIRING DIAGRAM
37
Basic PLC
CONTACTOR
L2 L1 N.O
MOTOR
L2
C •SOLENOID
L1
•VALVES
FIELD WIRING •LAMP
•BUZZER
OUTPUT MODULE
WIRING
L1 O:4 L2
CONTACTOR 0
LADDER PROGRAM
38
Basic PLC
Discrete Input
A discrete input also referred as digital input is an input that is
either ON or OFF are connected to the PLC digital input. In the
ON condition it is referred to as logic 1 or a logic high and in the
OFF condition maybe referred to as logic o or logic low.
Normally Open Pushbutton
Normally Closed Pushbutton
Normally Open switch
Normally Closed switch
Normally Open contact
Normally closed contact 39

Basic PLC
IN
OFF PLC
Logic 0
Input
Module
24 V dc
IN
OFF PLC
Logic 1
Input
Module
24 V dc
40
Basic PLC
Analog Input
An analog input is an input signal that has a continuous
signal. Typical inputs may vary from 0 to 20mA, 4 to 20mA
or 0 to10V. Below, a level transmitter monitors the level of
liquid in the tank. Depending on the level Tx, the signal to the
PLC can either increase or decrease as the level increases
or decreases.
Level Transmitter IN
PLC
Analog
Tank Input
Module
41
Basic PLC
Digital Output
A discrete output is either in an ON or OFF condition. Solenoids,

contactors coils, lamps are example of devices connected to the
Discrete or digital outputs. Below, the lamp can be turned ON or
OFF by the PLC output it is connected to.
OUT
PLC
Lamp
Digital
Output
Module
42
Basic PLC
Analog Output
An analog output is an output signal that has a continuous

signal. Typical outputs may vary from 0 to 20mA, 4 to 20mA
or 0 to10V.
Electric to pneumatic transducer
OUT
E Supply air
PLC 0 to 10V P
Analog
Output
Module
Pneumatic control valve
43
Basic PLC
Processor
The processor module contains the PLC’s microprocessor,
its supporting circuitry, and its memory system.
The main function of the microprocessor is to analyze data

coming from field sensors through input modules, make
decisions based on the user’s defined control program and
return signal back through output modules to the field
devices. Field sensors: switches, flow, level, pressure, temp.
transmitters, etc. Field output devices: motors, valves,
solenoids, lamps, or audible devices.
The memory system in the processor module has two parts:

a system memory and an application memory.
44
Basic PLC
Memory Map Organization

•System memory includes an area called the EXECUTIVE,
composed of permanently-stored programs that direct all system
activities, such as execution of the users control program,
communication with peripheral devices, and other system
SYSTEM activities.
•The system memory also contains the routines that implement the
PLC’s instruction set, which is composed of specific control
functions such as logic, sequencing, timing, counting, and
arithmetic.
•System memory is generally built from read-only memory devices.
APPLICATION
•The application memory is divided into the data table area and
•Data Table user program area.
•The data table stores any data associated with the user’s control
•User Program program, such as system input and output status data, and any
stored constants, variables, or preset values. The data table is
where data is monitored, manipulated, and changed for control
purposes.
•The user program area is where the programmed instructions
entered by the user are stored as an application control program.
45
Basic PLC
Memory Designs
VOLATILE.
A volatile memory is one that loses its stored information
when power is removed.
Even momentary losses of power will erase any information

stored or programmed on a volatile memory chip.
Common Type of Volatile Memory
RAM. Random Access Memory(Read/Write)

Read/write indicates that the information stored in the
memory can be retrieved or read, while write indicates that
the user can program or write information into the memory.
46
Basic PLC
Memory Designs
The words random access refer to the ability of any

location (address) in the memory to be accessed or used.
Ram memory is used for both the user memory (ladder
diagrams) and storage memory in many PLC’s.
RAM memory must have battery backup to retain or protect

the stored program.
47
Basic PLC
Memory Designs
Several Types of RAM Memory:
1.MOS
2.HMOS
3.CMOS
The CMOS-RAM (Complimentary Metal Oxide

Semiconductor) is probably one of the most popular. CMOS-
RAM is popular because it has a very low current drain when
not being accessed (15microamps.), and the information
stored in memory can be retained by as little as 2Vdc.
48
Basic PLC
Memory Designs
NON-VOLATILE
Has the ability to retain stored information when power is
removed, accidentally or intentionally. These memories do not
require battery back-up.
Common Type of Non-Volatile Memory
ROM, Read Only Memory

Read only indicates that the information stored in memory
can be read only and cannot be changed. Information in ROM
is placed there by the manufacturer for the internal use and
operation of the PLC.
49
Basic PLC
Memory Designs
Other Types of Non-Volatile Memory
PROM, Programmable Read Only Memory

Allows initial and/or additional information to be written into
the chip.
PROM may be written into only once after being received

from the PLC manufacturer; programming is accomplish by
pulses of current.
The current melts the fusible links in the device, preventing it

from being reprogrammed. This type of memory is used to
prevent unauthorized program changes.
50
Basic PLC
Memory Designs
EPROM, Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory
Ideally suited when program storage is to be semi-

permanent or additional security is needed to prevent
unauthorized program changes.
The EPROM chip has a quartz window over a silicon

material that contains the electronic integrated circuits. This
window normally is covered by an opaque material, but
when the opaque material is removed and the circuitry
exposed to ultra violet light, the memory content can be
erased.
The EPROM chip is also referred to as UVPROM.

51
Basic PLC
Memory Designs
EEPROM, Electrically Erasable Programmable Read
Only Memory
Also referred to as E2PROM, is a chip that can be

programmed using a standard programming device and can
be erased by the proper signal being applied to the erase pin.
EEPROM is used primarily as a non-volatile backup for the

normal RAM memory. If the program in RAM is lost or erased,
a copy of the program stored on an EEPROM chip can be
down loaded into the RAM.
52
Basic PLC
PLC Operation
Basic Function of a Typical PLC
Read all field input devices via the input interfaces, execute
the user program stored in application memory, then, based
on whatever control scheme has been programmed by the
user, turn the field output devices on or off, or perform
whatever control is necessary for the process application.
This process of sequentially reading the inputs, executing

the program in memory, and updating the outputs is known
as scanning.
53
Basic PLC
While the PLC is running, the scanning process includes the

following four phases, which are repeated continuously as
individual cycles of operation:
PHASE 1
Read Inputs
Scan
PHASE 2
Program
Execution
PHASE 3
Diagnostics/
Comm
PHASE 4
Output
Scan
54
Basic PLC
PHASE 1 – Input Status scan
 A PLC scan cycle begins with the CPU reading the status
of its inputs.
PHASE 2– Logic Solve/Program Execution
 The application program is executed using the status of

the inputs
PHASE 3– Logic Solve/Program Execution

 Once the program is executed, the CPU performs
diagnostics and communication tasks
55
Basic PLC
PHASE 4 - Output Status Scan

•An output status scan is then performed, whereby the
stored output values are sent to actuators and other field
output devices. The cycle ends by updating the outputs.
56
Basic PLC
As soon as Phase 4 are completed, the entire cycle begins

again with Phase 1 input scan.
The time it takes to implement a scan cycle is called SCAN

TIME. The scan time composed of the program scan time,
which is the time required for solving the control program, and
the I/O update time, or time required to read inputs and
update outputs. The program scan time generally depends on
the amount of memory taken by the control program and type
of instructions used in the program. The time to make a single
scan can vary from 1 ms to 100 ms.
57
Basic PLC
PLC Communications
Common Uses of PLC Communications Ports
 Changing resident PLC programs - uploading/downloading

from a supervisory controller (Laptop or desktop computer).
 Forcing I/O points and memory elements from a remote

terminal.
 Linking a PLC into a control hierarchy containing several

sizes of PLC and computer.
Monitoring data and alarms, etc. via printers or Operator

Interface Units (OIUs).
58
Basic PLC
PLC Communications
Serial Communications
PLC communications facilities normally provides serial

transmission of information.
Common Standards
RS 232
 Used in short-distance computer communications, with the

majority of computer hardware and peripherals.
 Has a maximum effective distance of approx. 30 m at
9600 baud.
59
Basic PLC
PLC Communications
Local Area Network (LAN)
Local Area Network provides a physical link between all

devices plus providing overall data exchange management or
protocol, ensuring that each device can “talk” to other
machines and understand data received from them.
LANs provide the common, high-speed data communications

bus which interconnects any or all devices within the local
area.
LANs are commonly used in business applications to allow

several users to share costly software packages and
peripheral equipment such as printers and hard disk storage.
60
Basic PLC
PLC Communications
RS 422 / RS 485
 Used for longer-distance links, often between several PCs

in a distributed system. RS 485 can have a maximum
distance of about 1000 meters.
61
Basic PLC
PLC Communications
Programmable Controllers and Networks
Dedicated Network System of Different Manufacturers
Manufacturer Network
Allen-Bradley Data Highway
Gould Modicon Modbus
General Electric GE Net Factory LAN
Mitsubishi Melsec-NET
Square D SY/NET
Texas Instruments TIWAY
62
Basic PLC
Specifications
Several factors are used for evaluating the quality and
performance of programmable controllers when selecting a
unit for a particular application. These are listed below.
NUMBER OF I /O PORTS
This specifies the number of I/O devices that can be

connected to the controller. There should be sufficient I/O
ports to meet present requirements with enough spares to
provide for moderate future expansion.
63
Basic PLC
Selecting a PLC
Criteria
• Number of logical inputs and outputs.

• Memory
• Number of special I/O modules
• Scan Time
• Communications
• Software
Basic PLC
A Detailed Design Process
1. Understand the process

2. Hardware/software selection
3. Develop ladder logic
4. Determine scan times and memory requirements
Basic PLC
Specifications
OUTPUT-PORT POWER RATINGS
Each output port should be capable of supplying sufficient

voltage and current to drive the output peripheral connected
to it.
SCAN TIME
This is the speed at which the controller executes the relay-

ladder logic program. This variable is usually specified as the
scan time per 1000 logic nodes and typically ranges from 1 to
200 milliseconds.
66
Basic PLC
Specifications
MEMORY CAPACITY
The amount of memory required for a particular application is

related to the length of the program and the complexity of the
control system. Simple applications having just a few relays
do not require significant amount of memory. Program length
tend to expand after the system have been used for a while. It
is advantageous to a acquire a controller that has more
memory than is presently needed.
67
Basic PLC
PLC Status Indicators

•Power On
•Run Mode
•Programming Mode
•Fault
Basic PLC
Troubleshooting
1. Look at the process

2. PLC status lights
HALT - something has stopped the CPU
RUN - the PLC thinks it is OK (and probably is)
ERROR - a physical problem has occurred with the PLC
3. Indicator lights on I/O cards and sensors
4. Consult the manuals, or use software if available.
5. Use programming terminal / laptop.
Basic PLC
List of items required when working with PLCs:
1. Programming Terminal - laptop or desktop PC.

2. PLC Software. PLC manufacturers have
their own specific software and license key.
3. Communication cable for connection from Laptop
to PLC.
4. Backup copy of the ladder program (on diskette, CDROM,
hard disk, flash memory). If none, upload it from the PLC.
5. Documentation- (PLC manual, Software manual, drawings,
ladder program printout, and Seq. of Operations manual.)
Basic PLC
Examples of PLC Programming Software:
1. Allen-Bradley – Rockwell Software RSLogix500

2. Modicon - Modsoft
3. Omron - Syswin
4. GE-Fanuc Series 6 – LogicMaster6
5. Square D- PowerLogic
6. Texas Instruments – Simatic
6. Telemecanique – Modicon TSX Micro
Basic PLC
PROGRAMMING
Normally Open Normally Closed

(NO) (NC)
Power flows through these contacts when they are closed. The
normally open (NO) is true when the input or output status bit
controlling the contact is 1. The normally closed (NC) is true
when the input or output status bit controlling the contact is 0.
72
Basic PLC
Coils
Coils represent relays that are energized when power flows to

them. When a coil is energized it causes a corresponding
output to turn on by changing the state of the status bit controlling
the output to 1. That same output status bit maybe used to control
normally open or normally closed contact anywhere in the program.
73
Basic PLC
Boxes
Boxes represent various instructions or functions that are

Executed when power flows to the box. Some of these
Functions are timers, counters and math operations.
74
Basic PLC
AND OPERATION
A B C
Rung
Each rung or network on a ladder program represents

a logic operation. In the rung above, both inputs A and B
must be true (1) in order for the output C to be true (1).
75
Basic PLC
OR OPERATION
A C
Rung
In the rung above, it can be seen that either input A or B

is be true (1), or both are true, then the output C is true (1).
76
Basic PLC
NOT OPERATION
A C
Rung
In the rung above, it can be seen that if input A is be true (1),

then the output C is true (0) or when A is (0), output C is 1.
77
Programmable
Logic Controllers
Third Edition
Frank D. Petruzella
McGraw-Hill
Chapter 7
Programming
Timers
Timers
There are very few industrial control systems that do not
need at least one or two timed functions. They are used to
activate or de-activate a device after a preset interval of
time.
Time delay relays and solid-state timers are used to provide a time
delay. They may have displays, pots or other means of operator
interface for time settings and electromechanical or solid state
outputs.
Time Delay Solid-State

Relay Timer
On-Delay Timing Relay
Operating coil
NO Nontimed contacts are
controlled directly by
Instantaneous the timer coil, as in a
contacts general-purpose
NC control relay.
When the coil is

energized, the timed
contacts are are
prevented from opening
NO
or closing until the time
Time control delay period has elapsed.
contacts However, when the coil is
NC de-energized, the timed
contacts return
Time adjustment instantaneously to their
normal state.
Timed Contact Symbols
On-Delay Symbols
Normally open, timed Normally closed, timed

closed contact (NOTC) open contact (NCTO)
Contact is open when Contact is closed when

relay coil is de-energized relay coil is de-energized
When relay is energized, When relay is energized,

there is a time delay in there is a time delay in
closing opening
Timed Contact Symbols
Off Delay Symbols
Normally open, timed Normally closed, timed

open contacts (NOTO). closed contacts (NCTC).
Contact is normally Contact is normally
open when relay coil closed when relay coil
is de-energized. is de-energized.
When relay coil is When relay coil is
energized, contact closes energized, contact opens
instantly. instantly.
When relay coil is de- When relay coil is de-
energized, there is a time energized, there is a time
delay before the contact delay before the contact
opens. closes.
On-Delay Relay Timer Circuit (NOTC Contact)
L1 S1
L2 Sequence of operation
S1 open, TD de-energized,
TD1 open, L1 is off.
L1
S1 closes, TD energizes,
timing period starts,
10 s
TD1 still open, L1 is still off.
10 s After 10 s, TD1 closes, L1 is

switched on.
Input
ON
S1 is opened, TD de-
OFF
Output energizes, TD1 opens
Timing Diagram instantly, L1 is switched off.
On-Delay Relay Timer Circuit (NCTO Contact)
L1 L2
S1 Sequence of operation
TD1 closed, L1 is on.
L1
10 s timing period starts, TD1
is still closed, L1 is still on.
10 s After 10 s, TD1 opens,
L1 is switched off.
Input
On
Output S1 is opened, TD de-energizes,
Off TD1 closes instantly, L1 is
Timing Diagram switched on.
Off-Delay Relay Timer Circuit (NOTO Contact)
L1 L2
TD1 open, L1 is off.
L1
TD1 closes instantly,
10 s L1 is switched on.
S1 is opened, TD de-energizes,
10 s
timing period starts, TD1 is
still closed, L1 is still on.
Input
On
Off After 10 s, TD1 opens, L1 is
Output
switched off.
Timing Diagram
Off-Delay Relay Timer Circuit (NCTC Contact)
L1 L2
TD1 closed, L1 is on.
L1
TD1 opens instantly,
10 s L1 is switched off.
10 s S1 is opened,
TD de-energizes, timing
period starts, TD1 is still
Input
On
open, L1 is still off.
Output
Off After 10 s, TD1 closes,
Timing Diagram
L1 is switched on.
1. Timers are used to activate or de-activate a
device after a preset interval of time.
(True/False)
2. With most timers the time delay period is fixed

and can not be varied. (True/False)
3. ________ contacts are controlled directly by the

timer coil, as in a general-purpose control relay.
(a) timed (c) instantaneous

(b) NO (d) NC
4. When a relay timer coil is de-energized, the
timed contacts return instantaneously to their
normal state. (True/False)
5. Which of the following symbols represents a

normally open timed closed contact?
6. Which of the following symbols represents a
normally closed timed open contact?
7. The timed relay contact shown is designed to
operate so that:
a. when the relay coil is energized, there is a

time delay in closing
b. when the relay coil is energized, there is a
time delay in opening
c. when the relay coil is de-energized, there is a
time delay in closing
d. when the relay coil is de-energized, there is a
time delay in opening
8. The timing diagram shown is that of an
10 s
Input
On
Off
Output
Timing Diagram
a. on-delay timer circuit (NOTC contact)

b. on-delay timer circuit (NCTO contact)
c. off-delay timer circuit (NCTC contact)
d. off-delay timer circuit (NOTO contact)
9. In the circuit shown, the light will stay off
L1 L2
S1
L1
10 s
a. as long as S1 is closed
b. for 10 seconds after coil TD is energized
c. for 10 seconds after coil TD is de-energized
d. both a and c
10. In the circuit shown, the light will stay on
a. as long as S1 is closed
b. as long as S1 is open
c. for 10 seconds after S1 is closed
d. both b and c
Programmed Timer Instructions
PLC timers are output instructions that provide the

same functions as timing relays and solid state timers.
Some advantages of PLC timers:
 their settings can be altered easily
 the number of PLC timers used

can be increased or decreased by
programming changes without
wiring changes
 timer accuracy and repeatability

are extremely high
RSLogic Timer Commands
TON
Timer/Counter
TON Timer On-Delay Counts time base

intervals when the
instruction is “true”
TOF
Timer/Counter
TOF Timer Off-Delay Counts time base

intervals when the
instruction is “false”
RTO RES
Timer/Counter

Counts time base
RTO Retentive Timer intervals when the
ON instruction is “true” and
retains the accumulated
value when the
instruction goes "false" or
when power cycle occurs
Reset When this instruction is

RES "true" it resets the count
of the RTO counter
Quantities Associated with the Timer Instruction
Preset Time – Represents the time duration of the timing
circuit. For example, if a time delay of 10 s is required,
the timer will have a preset of 10 s.
Accumulated Time – Represents the amount of time that

has elapsed from the moment the timing coil became
energized.
Time Base – Timers can typically be programmed with

several different time bases: 1 s, 0.1 s, and 0.01 s are
typical time bases. For example, if you enter 0.1 for the
time base and 50 for the preset time the timer would
have a 5 s delay (50 x 0.1 s = 5 s).
Coil-Formatted Timer Instruction
Contact determines The timer assigned
rung continuity an address
The type of timer
is specified XXX
TON
Preset value PR:YYY

Time base 0.1 s
Accumulated value AC:000
When the timer rung has logic continuity, the timer's
accumulated value increases. When accumulated value equals
the preset value, the output is energized and and the timed
output contact associated with the output is closed. The timed
contact can be used as many times as you wish throughout the
program as a NO or NC contact.
Generic Block-Formatted Timer Instruction
Timers are most often represented by boxes in a ladder
logic.
Control line controls the actual timing operation of the timer.
Whenever this line is true the timer will time.
Retentive timer block
Preset time
Time base
Accumulated time Output line
The timer continuously compares its accumulated time with its

preset time. Its output is logic 0 as long as the accumulated time is
less than
Reset linethe preset
resets thetime. When the
the timer's two become
accumulated equal
value the output
to zero.
changes to logic 1.
On-Delay Timer Instruction
The on-delay timer operates
so that, when the rung Input Timer
containing the timer is true,
the timer time-out period
commences.
Timer Sequence True
False The timed output
Rung condition becomes true
sometimes after the
Timed period timer rung becomes
On delay
time duration true; hence the timer
is said to have an on
True
delay.
False ON
Timed output bit
OFF
Allen-Bradley On-Delay Timer Instruction
Allen-Bradley PLC-5 and SLC-500 controller timer
elements each take three data table words: the
control word, preset word, and accumulated word.
The control word uses three control bits: Enable (EN) bit,
Timer-Timing (TT) bit, and Done-Bit (DN).
TIMER TABLE
/EN /TT /DN

T4:0 0 0 0
The Enable (EN) bit is true (has a status of 1)
whenever the timer instruction is true. When the
timer instruction is false, the enable bit is false (has
a status of 0)
Enable bit false
TON
TIMER ON DELAY
Timer T4:0 EN
T4:0
Enable bit true
EN
The Timer-Timing (TT) bit is true whenever the
accumulated value of the timer is changing, which
means the timer is timing.
TON
TIMER ON DELAY
Timer T4:0 EN
Preset 50
Accumulated 10
T4:0
Timer-Timing bit true
TT
The Done-Bit (DN) changes state whenever the
accumulated value reaches the preset value. Its
state depends on the type of timer being used.
TON
TIMER ON DELAY
Timer T4:0 EN
Preset 50 DN
Accumulated 10
50
T4:0
Done-bit changes state
DN
The preset value (PRE) word is the set point of the
timer, that is, the value up to which the timer will
time.
The accumulated value (ACC) word is the value that
increments as the timer is timing. The accumulated
value will stop incrementing when its value reaches
the preset value.
TIMER TABLE
/EN /TT /DN .PRE .ACC
T4:0 0 0 0 0 0
The information to be entered includes:
TON
TIMER ON DELAY
Timer T4:0 EN
Time base 1.0
Preset 15 DN
Accumulated 0
Timer number which must come from the timer file.

Time base which is expressed in seconds.
Preset value which is the length of the time delay.
Accumulated value which is normally entered as 0.
On-Delay Timer Program
Ladder Logic Program

L1 L2
Input A TON
TIMER ON DELAY
Input A Output B G
Timer T4:0 EN
Time base 1.0
Preset 10
Accumulated DN
100 Output C R
T4:0 Output B
EN Output D Y
T4:0 Output C
TT
T4:0 Output D
DN
Timing Diagram
On
Input condition A
Off
On
Timer-enable bit
Off
On
Timer-timing bit
Off
4s 4s
On
Timer-done bit
Off
Timer accumulated 0
value
Timers are 3-word elements
Word
EN TT DN Internal use 0
Preset value PRE 1
Accumulated value ACC 2
Word 0 is the control word

Word 1 stores the preset value
Word 2 stores the accumulated value

On-Delay Timer With Instantaneous Output
Relay Ladder Schematic Diagram
Stop Start
L1 L2
1TD
1TD-1
(instantaneous M
contact)
1TD-2
(5 s)
(timed contact)
On-Delay Timer With Instantaneous Output
Programmed Circuit
Ladder logic program
Inputs Internal
Stop Start Output
relay
L1 L2
Stop
Motor M
Start Internal Motor
relay M
Timer
PR: 5
TB: 1 s Output
line
Start-Up Warning Signal Circuit
Relay Ladder Schematic Diagram
L1 Start-up Reset L2
PB1 PB2 CR1
CR1-1
1TD
CR1-2
Horn
CR1-3
1TD-1
(10 s)
Start-Up Warning Signal Circuit
Programmed Circuit

Inputs
Output
PB1 PB2 TON
Start-up TIMER ON DELAY
Timer T4:0 EN
PB1 Time base 1.0
T4:0 DN
Reset Preset 10 Horn
PB2 Accumulated 100
EN
Horn
T4:0 T4:0
DN EN
Timed Closed Solenoid Value Program

Input Output
L1 L2
Switch SW_1 TON
Timer On Delay
SW_1 Timer timer_1 EN Valve
Preset 12000 DN
Accumulated 120000
timer_1.dn Valve
Automatic Sequential Control System
L1 Start
L2
Stop PB2
Relay Ladder PB1
Lube oil OL
pump motor
Schematic
M1
Diagram
M1-1 Main drive

motor OL
PS1
M2
(lube oil
pressure switch) 1TD
OL
M3
1TD-1 Feed
(15 s) motor
Automatic Sequential Control System
Programmed Circuit
Inputs PB1 PB2 M1 Outputs
OL
PB1
M1 M1
PB2 OL
PS1 M2 M2
PS1
OL
M3
TON
TIMER ON DELAY EN
Timer T4:0
Time base 1.0 DN
Preset 15
Accumulated 15
0
T4:0 M3
DN
Off-Delay Programmed Timer
The off-delay timer (TOF) operation will keep the output
energized for a period after the rung containing the timer
has gone false.
Ladder logic program Output

Input
L1 L2
S1 I:1.0/0 TOF
TIMER OFF DELAY
I:1.0/0 EN O:2.0/1 PL
TIMER T4:3
Time base 1.0 DN
Preset 15
Accumulated 0
15
T4:3/DN O:2.0/1
Off-Delay Programmed Timer
Timing Diagram
True
Input condition
S1 False
Timed period
Off delay
timed duration
True (logic 1)
Timed output False (logic 0)
O:2.0/1 Preset value = accumulated value

Off-Delay Timer Used To Switch Motors Off
Input Ladder logic program
Output L2
L1
5000
10000
15000
Pneumatic Off-Delay Timer
L1 L2
Relay Ladder
Schematic
Diagram
Programmed Pneumatic Off-Delay Timer
Equivalent Programmed Circuit
Input Outputs
L1 L2
5
Fluid Pumping Process
Operation
 Before starting, PS1 must be closed.

 When the pump start button is pressed, the pump starts. The
button can then be released and the pump continues to operate.
 When the stop button is pushed, the pump stops.
 PS2 and PS3 must be closed for 5 s after the pump starts. If
either PS2 or PS3 opens, the pump will shut off and will not not
be able to start again for another 14 s.
Fluid Pumping Process Program
Inputs Output
L1 L2
05
Retentive Timer
A retentive timer accumulates time whenever the device
receives power, and maintains the current time should
power be removed from the device. Once the device
accumulates time equal to its preset value, the contacts of
the device change state. The retentive timer must be
intentionally reset with a separate signal for the
accumulated time to be reset.
Electromechnical Retentive Timer
Once power is applied, the motor
starts turning the cam. The
Cam operated positioning of the lobes determines
contact the time it takes to activate the
contacts. If power is removed from
Motor-driven the motor, the shaft stops but does
cam not reset.
Retentive On-Delay Timer Program
The PLC-programmed RETENTIVE ON-DELAY timer
(RTO) operates in the same way as the nonretentive on-
delay timer (TON), with one major exception. This is a
retentive timer reset (RTR) instruction.
Unlike the TON, the RTO
will hold its accumulated
value when the timer rung
goes false and will continue
timing where it left off when
the timer rung goes true
again. This timer must be
Same address accompanied by a timer reset
(RES) instruction to reset the
accumulated value of the
timer to zero.
Retentive On-Delay Timer Program
039
Retentive On-Delay Timing Chart
Enable bit is reset when
input pushbutton PB1 is
opened
Accum = Preset
Accum value retained
when rung goes false
When reset PB2 is closed,

the T4:2/DN bit is reset to
0. Accumulated value is
reset and held at zero until
the reset pushbutton is
opened.
Retentive On-delay Alarm Program
Ladder logic program L2
L1
60000
0
The purpose of the RTO timer is to detect whenever a piping

system has sustained a cumulative overpressure condition of 60 s.
At that point, a horn is sounded automatically. You can silence the
alarm by switching the key switch to the rest position.
Bearing Lubrication
Program
Sequence Of Operation
 To start the machine, the operator turns SW on.

 Before the motor shaft starts to turn, the bearings are supplied
with oil by the pump for 10 s.
 The bearings also receive oil when the machine is running.
 When the operator turns SW off to stop the machine, the oil
pump continues to supply oil for 15 s.
 A retentive timer is used to track the total running time of the
pump. When the total running time is 3 h, the motor is shut down
and a pilot light is turned on to indicate that the filter and oil
need to be changed.
 A reset button is provided to reset the process after the filter and
oil have been changed.
Bearing Lubrication Program
10
0
15
10800
Cascading Timers
The programming of two or more timers together is
called cascading. Timers may be interconnected, or
cascaded to satisfy any required control logic.
Relay Schematic
Diagram
Three motors started

automatically in
sequence with a 20-s
time delay between
each motor startup.
Equivalent Time-Delayed Motor-Starting Program
20000
20000
Annunciator Flasher Circuit
Two timers can be interconnected to form an oscillator
circuit. The oscillator logic is basically a timing circuit
programmed to generate periodic output pulses of any
duration. They can be used as part of an annunciator
system to indicate an alarm condition.
The oscillator circuit output

is programmed in series with
the alarm condition. If the
alarm condition is true, the
appropriate output
indicating light will flash.
Annunciator Flasher Circuit
Cascading of Timers for Longer Time Delays
30000
12000
Control of Traffic Lights in One Direction
A typical application for PLC timers is the control of

traffic lights.
Control of Traffic in One Direction

Sequence of Operation
Red Green Amber

30 s 25 s 5s
Control of Traffic Lights in One Direction
30
25
5
11. The timed contact of a PLC timer can only
be used as a normally-open contact. (True/False)
12. The ______ bit operates the same as an

instantaneous contact on a timer relay.
a. enable
b. done
c. timer-timing
d. timer number
13. The preset time of a PLC timer represents the
amount of time that has elapsed from the moment
the timing coil became energized. (True/False)
14. If the preset time of a timer is 150 and the time

base is 0.1 seconds, the time-delay period would
be 1500 seconds. (True/False)
15. In general, the three different types of PLC
timers are:
a. TON, TOF, and PRE
b. TON, TOF, and RTO
c. TON, ACC, and RTO
d. TT, EN, and DN
16. The amount of time for which a timer is
programmed is called the
a. preset
b. set point
c. Done Time (DN)
d. accumulated time
17. The timer reset instruction must be addressed
to the same address as the ______ instruction.
a. TON
b. TOF
c. RTO
d. EN
18. Which of the following statements is not
true for a retentive on-delay timer?
a. The timer accumulates time when it is
energized.
b.The timer requires a reset instruction to
reset the accumulated value of the timer to
zero.
c. The timer does not reset to zero when it is
de-energized.
d. The reset input to the timer will not
override the control input.
19. The timer instruction is:
a. an input instruction c. either a or b
b. an output instruction d. both a or b
20. The interconnection of timers is commonly

called :
a. grouping
b. programming
c. sequencing
d. cascading
21. For the program shown, the pilot light will be:
a. on at all times
b. off at all times
c. switched on 15 s after the switch has been actuated
from the open to the closed position
d. switched off 15 s after the switch has been actuated
from the on to off position
162 Instrumentation and Control Systems
outputs. They are designed to be used close to the equipment being

controlled. Systems with larger numbers of inputs and outputs are likely
to be modular and designed to fit in racks. The number of inputs and
outputs of a system can then be readily increased by adding more
modules.
7.4 PLC programming The basic form of programming used with PLCs is ladder programming.
As an introduction to ladder diagrams, consider the simple wiring
diagram for an electrical circuit in Figure 7.13(a). The diagram shows
the circuit for switching on or off an electric motor. We can redraw this
diagram in a different way, using two vertical lines to represent the input
power rails and stringing the rest of the circuit between them. Figure
7.13(b) shows the result. Both circuits have the switch in series with the
motor and supplied with electrical power when the switch is closed. The
circuit shown in Figure 7.13(b) is termed a ladder diagram.
With the ladder diagram the power supply for the circuits is always
shown as two vertical lines with the rest of the circuit as horizontal lines.
The power lines, or rails as they are often termed, are like the vertical
(a) sides of a ladder with the horizontal circuit lines like the rungs of the
ladder. The horizontal rungs show only the control portion of the circuit,
L2
in the case of Figure 7.13 it is just the switch in series with the motor.
o o——(^Vf Circuit diagrams often show the relative physical location of the circuit
rh
Switch Mntrw
Motor < components and how they are actually wired. With ladder diagrams no
attempt is made to show the actual physical locations and the emphasis is
Power rails on clearly showing how the control is exercised.
(b) Writing a program for a PLC using ladder programming is equivalent
to drawing a switching circuit of the form shown in Figure 7.13(b).
Figure 7.13 Ways of drawing Figure 7.14 shows a simple ladder program. In drawing a ladder
the same electrical circuit diagram, certain conventions are adopted:
1 The vertical lines of the diagram represent the power rails between
which circuits are connected.
2 Each rung on the ladder defines one operation in the control process.
In 1 Out 1 3 A ladder diagram is read from left to right and from top to bottom.
Thus, the top rung is read from left to right. Then the second rung
down is read from left to right and so on. When the PLC is in its run
In 2 Out 2
mode, it goes tlirough the entire ladder program to the end, the end
HhCH rung of the program being clearly denoted, and then promptly
resumes at the start. This procedure of going through all the rungs
of the program is tenned a cycle.
In 3 Out 4
4 Each rung must start with an input or inputs and must end with at
least one output, input devices being represented by two short
Outs
parallel lines to represent switching contacts and output devices
151
END
Figure 7.14 A simple ladder

being represented by circles. The term input is used for a control
action, such as closing the contacts of a switch, used as an input to
the PLC. The term output is used for a device connected to the
program output of a PLC, e.g. a motor.
PLC systems 163
5 Electrical devices are shown in their normal condition. Thus a

Input contacts switch which is normally open until some object closes it, is shown
normally open as open on the ladder diagram. A switch that is normally closed is
shown closed.
-if input contacts

normally closed 6 A particular device can appear in more than one rung of a ladder.
For example, we might have a relay which switches on one or more
O
or
Output device
7
devices. The same letters and/or numbers are used to label the,
device in each situation.
The inputs and outputs are all identified by their addresses, the
notation used depending on the PLC manufacturer. This is the
address of the input or output in the memory of the PLC. For
J 1 A special instruction, example, Mitsubishi PLCs precede input elements by an X and
' ' e.g.END
output elements by a Y and thus we have numbers such as X400 and
X401 for inputs and Y430 and Y431 for outputs.
Figure 7.15 Standard symbols
Figure 7.15 shows some of the standard symbols used in ladder
X400 Y430
diagrams.
To illustrate the drawing of a ladder diagram rung, consider a
HK3H situation where the starting of a motor output device depends on a
normally open start switch being closed. Starting with the input, we
represent the normally open switch by the symbol | |. This might be
Figure 7.16 An example of labelled with the address X400. The ladder rung terminates with the
a ladder rung output, the motor, which is designated by the symbol O. This might be
labelled with the address Y430. We thus have the ladder diagram shown
, X400 X401 Y430 , in Figure 7.16. When the switch is closed the motor is activated.
pHhOl 7.4.1 Logic gates

Ladder rungs are frequently written to carry out logic functions. For
example, consider a situation where a motor is started when two,
Figure 7.17 An AND gate
normally open, switches have both to be closed. This might represent a
machine tool motor which will not start until the power switch is on and
the switch indicating the closure of the safety guard is on. This describes
X400 Y430
an AND logic gate situation. The ladder diagram starts with 11, labelled
Hhi-OH X400, to represent switch A and in series with it | |, labelled X401, to
represent switch B. The line then terminates with O, labelled Y430, to
X401 represent the output. Figure 7.17 shows the ladder rung.
H Figure 7.18 shows a situation where a motor is not switched on until

either, normally open, switch A or switch B is closed. The situation is an
OR logic gate. The ladder diagram starts with | |, labelled X400, to
Figure 7.18 An OR gate represent switch A and in parallel with it 11, labelled X401, to represent
switch B. The line then terminates with O, labelled Y430, to represent
the output.
X400 Y430
Figure 7.19 shows a NOT gate system on a ladder diagram. The input
OH X400 contacts are shown as being normally closed. This is in series with
the output Y430. With no input to X400, the contacts are closed and so
there is an output. When tliere is an input, the contacts open and there is
Figure 7.19 NOT gate then no output. An example of a NOT gate control system is a light that
comes on when it becomes dark, i.e. when there is no light input to the
X400 Y430
light sensor there is an output.
HA-^<U
X401
Figure 7.20 shows a ladder diagram which gives a NAND gate. When
the inputs to input X400 and input X401 are both 0 then the output is 1.
When the inputs to input X400 and input X401 are both 1, or one is 0
HA-" and the other 1, then the output is 0. An example of a NAND gate
control system is a warning light that comes on if, with a machine tool,
the safety guard switch has not been activated and the limit switch
Figm^ 7.20 NAND gate signalling the presence of the workpiece has not been activated.
Figure 7.21 shows a ladder diagram of a NOR system. When input
I X400 X401 Y430 , X400 and input X401 are both not activated, there is a 1 output. When
either X400 or X401 are 1 there is a 0 output.
hHfoH
Figure 7.21 NOR gate
Figure 7.22 shows a ladder diagram for an XOR gate system. When
input X400 and input X401 are not activated then there is 0 output.
When just input X400 is activated, then the upper branch results in the
output being 1. When just input X401 is activated, then the lower branch
results in the output being 1. When both input X400 and input X401 are
I X400 X401 Y430 activated, there is no output. In this example of a logic gate, input X400
and input X401 have two sets of contacts in the circuits, one set being
normally open and the other normally closed. With PLC programming,
X400 X401 each input may have as many sets of contacts as necessary.
7.4.2 Latching
There are often situations where it is necessary to hold an output
Figure 7.22 XOR gate energised, even when the input ceases. A simple example of such a
situation is a motor which is started by pressing a push button switch.
Though the switch contacts do not remain closed, the motor is required
to continue running until a stop push button switch is pressed. The term
latch circuit is used for the circuit used to cany out such an operation. It
X400 X401 Y430
is a self-maintaining circuit in that, after being energised, it maintains
Y430
VKM that state until another input is received.
An example of a latch circuit is shown in Figure 7.23. When the input
X400 contacts close, there is an output at Y430. However, when there is
an output, another set of contacts | | Y430 associated with the output
closes. These contacts form an OR logic gate system with the input
contacts. Thus, even if the input X400 opens, the circuit will still
maintain the output energised. The only way to release the output is by
Figure 7.23 Latch circuit
operating the normally closed contact X401.
As an illustration of the application of a latching circuit, consider a
motor controlled by stop and start push button switches and for which
one signal light must be illuminated when the power is applied to the
motor and anotlier when it is not applied. Figure 7.24 shows the ladder
diagram. When X400 is momentarily closed, Y430 is energised and its
contacts close. This results in latching and also the switching oflFof Y431
and the switching on of Y432. To switch the motor off, X401 is pressed
and opens. Y430 contacts open in the top rung and third rung, but close
in the second rung. Thus Y431 comes on and Y432 off.
PLC systems 165
X400 X401 Y430

Note that the stop
Motor output
contacts X401 are
shown as being
programmed as open.
If the stop switch used
is normally closed
then X401 receives
a start-up signal to
Lamp for power
close. This gives a
not applied
safer operation than
programming X401
Lamp for power as normally closed.
applied
Figure 7.24 Motor on-ojf, with signal lamps, ladder diagram
7.4.3 Internal relays

In PLCs thc/e are elements that behave like relays, being able to be
switched on or off and, in turn, switch other devices on or off. Hence the
term internal relay. Such internal relays do not exist as real-world
switching devices but are merely bits in the storage memory that behave
in the same way as relays. For programming, they can be treated in the
same way as an external relay output and input. Thus we might have
Internal relay coil (Figure 7.25):
On one rung of the program:

Energising the Inputs to external inputs activate the internal relay output.
coil activates
On a later rung of the program:
the contacts
As a consequence of tlie internal relay output:
hK^
Internal relay
internal relay contacts are activated and so control some output.
In using an internal relay, it has to be activated on one rung of a

contacts program and then its output used to operate switching contacts on
another rung, or rungs, of the program. Internal relays can be
Figure 7.25 Internal relay programmed with as many sets of associated contacts as desired.
To distinguish internal relay outputs from external relay outputs, they
are given different types of addresses. Different manufacturers tend to
use different terms for internal relays and different ways of expressing
their addresses. For example, Mitsubishi uses the term auxiliary relay or
marker and the notation MlOO, MlOl, etc., the M indicating that it is an
internal relay or marker rather than an external device. Siemens use the
Xtrm flag and notation FO.O, FO.l, etc. The internal relay switching
contacts are designated with the symbol for an input device, namely ||,
and given the same address as the internal relay output, e.g. MlOO.
As an illustration of the use that can be made of internal relays,
consider the following situation. A system is to be activated when two
different sets of input conditions are realised. We might just program
this as an AND logic gate system; however, if a number of inputs have to

be checked in order that each of the input conditions can be realised, it
may be simpler to use an internal relay. The first input conditions then
are used to give an output to an internal relay with the associated
contacts becoming part of the input conditions with the second input.
Figure 7.26 shows a ladder program for such a task. For the first rung:
when input X400 or input X402 is closed and input X401 closed, then
X400 X401 M100
internal relay MlOO is activated. This results in the contacts MlOO
HHKH
X402
closing. If input X403 is then activated, there is an output from output
Y430. Such a task might be involved in the automatic lifting of a barrier
when someone approaches fi'om either side. Input X400 and input X402
HHM100
Ml 00 X403 Y430
are inputs from photoelectric sensors that detect the presence of a person,
input X400 being activated from one side of it and input X402 fi'om the
other. Input X401 is an enabling switch to enable the system as a whole
HHhCH to be switched on. Thus when input X400 or input X402, and input
X401, are activated, there is an output from the internal relay MlOO.
This will close the internal relay contacts MlOO. If input X403, perhaps
Figure 7.26 Program a limit switch, detects that the barrier is closed then it is activated and
closes. The result is then an output from Y430, a motor which lifts the
barrier. If the limit switch detects that the barrier is already open, the
person having passed through it, then it remains open and so output
Y430 is no longer energised and a counterweight might then close the
barrier. The internal relay has enabled two parts of the program to be
linked, one part being the detection of the presence of a person and the
second part the detection of whether the barrier is already up or down.
7.4,4 Timers
In many control tasks there is a need to control time. For example, a
Timer
I imercoil
coii . motor or a pump might need to be controlled to operate for a particular
interval of time, or perhaps be switched on after some time interval.
lots
Timer contacts V ^ / | PLCs thus have timers as built-in devices. Timers count fractions of
H^ Time delay
before activated
seconds or seconds using the internal CPU clock.
PLC manufacturers differ on how timers should be programmed and
hence how they can be considered. A common approach is to consider
timers to behave like relays with coils which when energised result in the
Figure 7.27 Timer closure or opening of contacts after some pre-set time. The timer is thus
treated as an output for a rung with control being exercised over pairs of
contacts elsewhere (Figure 7.27). There are a number of different forms
of timers that can be found with PLCs. With small PLCs there is likely to
be just one form, the on-delay timers. These are timers which come on
after a particular time delay (Figure 7.28). The time duration for which a
On
timer has been set is termed the pre-set and is set in multiples of the time
base used. Typical time bases are 10 ms, 100 ms, 1 s, 10 s and 100 s.
Off Thus a pre-set value of 5 with a time base of 100 ms is a time of 500 ms.
Time
Figure 7.29 shows a ladder rung diagram involving a delay-on timer.
The timer is like a relay with a coil which is energised when the input
Figure 7.28 On-delay X400 occurs (rung 1). It tlien closes, after some pre-set time delay, its
timer contacts on rung 2. Thus the output from Y430 occurs some pre-set time
after the input X400 occurs.
PLC systems 167
As an illustration of the use of a timer, consider the ladder diagram

Input Timer shown in Figure 7.30. When the input 1 is on, the output 1 is switched
X400 T450 K5 on. The contacts associated with this output then start the timer. The
HhCH
Timer Output
contacts of the timer will close after the pre-set time delay. In this case
with K = 5.5 and using a time base of 1 s the time delay is 5.5 s. When
this happens, output 2 is switched on. Thus, following the input 1, output
T450 Y430 1 is switched on and followed 5.5 s later by output 2. This illustrates how
HhOH timed sequence of outputs can be achieved.
Figure 7.31 shows how timers can be used to start three outputs, e.g.
three motors, in sequence following a single start button being pressed.
Input When the start push button is pressed there is an output from internal
X400
relay IRl. This latches the start input. It also starts both the timers, Tl
j ^ ^1 Time and T2, and motor 1. When the pre-set time for timer 1 has elapsed then
Output! !^ ^ Time delay its contacts close and motor 2 starts. When the pre-set time for timer 2
Y430 I
I has elapsed then its contacts close and motor 3 starts. The three motors
Time are all stopped by pressing the stop push button. Since this is seen as a
complete program, the end instruction has been used.
Figure 7.29 Ladder
program with a delay-on Start Stop IR1
timer
I Input 1 Output 1 ,
H IR1
Output 1 Timer IRl T1

Preset
HhOj
to 5.5
6\
T2
Timer Output 2
H li Motor 1
Figure 7.30
outputs
Sequenced H Tl Motor 2
H T2
-OH
Motor 3
-OH
END
Figure 7.31 Motor sequence
7.4.5 Counters
Counters are provided as built-in elements in PLCs. A counter allows a
number of occurrences of input signals to be counted. This might be
counting the number of revolutions of a shaft, or perhaps the number of
people passing through a door.
A counter is set to some pre-set number value and, when this value of
input pulses has been received, it will operate its contacts. Thus normally
open contacts would be closed, normally closed contacts opened. There
are two types of counter, tliough PLCs may not include both types. These
are down-counters and up-counters. Down-counters count down from the
pre-set value to zero, i.e. events are subtracted from the set value. When
the counter reaches the zero value, its contacts change state. Most PLCs
offer down counting. Up-counters count from zero up to the pre-set
value, i.e. events are added until the number reaches the pre-set value.
When the counter reaches the set value, its contacts change state.
Different PLC manufacturers deal with counters in slightly different
ways. Some treat the counter as two basic elements: one relay coil to
count input pulses and one (RST) to reset the counter, the associated
contacts of the counter being used in other rungs. Figure 7.32 illustrates
this with a basic counting circuit. When there is a pulse input to input 1,
the counter is reset. When there is an input to input 2, the counter starts
counting, ff the counter is set for, say, 10 pulses, then when 10 pulse
inputs have been received at input 2, the counter's contacts will close
and there will be an output from output 1. ff at any time during the
counting there is an input to input 1, the counter will be reset and start
all over again and count for 10 pulses.
Input 1 Counter
HKBH 3
Q.
C
Time
[t2 Counter
1 nn nn n n n n n n
Time
Counter Output 1
er Output 1
t
o
1 . r Time
Figure 7.32 Basic counter program
X400 Figure 7.33 shows how the above program would appear with a
H RESET
C460
Mitsubishi PLC. The reset and counting elements are combined in a
single box spanning the two rungs. You can consider the rectangle to be
enclosing the two counter outputs in Figure 7.32.
X401 K10 Counters can be used to ensure that a particular part of a sequence is
OUT repeated a known number of times. This is illustrated by the following
program which is designed to enable a three-cylinder, double
Y430 solenoid-controlled arrangement to give the sequence A+, A-, A+, A~,
C460
hhOH A+, A-, B^, C+, B-, C-. The A+, A- sequence is repeated three times
before B+, C-»-, B-, C- occur. We can use a counter to enable this
repetition. Figure 7.34 shows a possible program. The counter only
Figure 7.33 Mitsubishi allows B+ to occur after it has received three inputs corresponding to
program tliree a~ signals.
PLC systems 169
E L N Power
b- b+
Figure 7.34 Three-cylinder system
7.5 Case studies The following case studies are intended to illustrate the application of the
PLC programming techniques given in this chapter.
7.5.1 Signal lamp to monitor operations

Pump Pressure Lamp Consider a basic situation where a signal lamp is required to be switched
X400 X401 Y430 on if a pump is running and the pressure is satisfactory, or if the lamp
HHhK^
X402
X
test switch is closed. For the inputs from the pump and the pressure
sensors we have an AND logic situation since both are required if there
is to be an output from the lamp. We, however, have an OR logic
situation with the test switch in that it is required to give an output of
H Test
lamp on regardless of whether there is a signal from the AND system.
The ladder program is thus of the form shown in Figure 7.35. Note that
END M we tell the PLC when it has reached the end of the program by the use of
the END instruction.
Figure 7.35 Signal lamp 7.5.2 Cyclic movement of a piston

Consider the task of obtaining cyclic movement of a piston in a cylinder.
This might be to periodically push workpieces into position in a machine
tool with another similar, but out of phase, arrangement being used to
remove completed workpieces. Figure 7.36 shows the valve and piston
arrangement that might be used, a possible ladder program and chart
indicating the timing of each output.
Consider both timers set for 10 s. Wlien the start contacts X400 are
closed, timer T450 starts. Also there is an output from Y431. The output
Y431 is one of the solenoids used to actuate the valve. When it is
energised it causes tlie pressure supply P to be applied to the right-hand
end of the cylinder and the left-hand side to be connected to the vent to
the atmosphere. The piston thus moves to the left. After 10 s, the
normally open T450 contacts close and the normally closed T450
contacts open. This stops the output Y431, starts the timer T451 and
energises the output Y430. As a result, the pressure supply P is applied
to the left-hand side of the piston and the right-hand side connected to
the vent to the atmosphere. The piston now moves to the right. After
10 s, tlie T451 normally closed contacts are opened. This causes the
normally closed contacts of T450 to close and so Y431 is energised.
Thus the sequence repeats itself
X400 T451 T450

X400
^ 10s Time
T450 T451
Hl^rOH
T450
^
n n
t^ 10 s Time
Y430 T451
r-\ r Time
X400 T450 Y431 Y430
nn Time
I Symbol for vent to
V the atmosphere for
END
Y431
n r-i r Time
a pneumatic valve
Figure 7.36 Cyclic movement of a piston

PLC systems 171
7.5.3 Sequential movement of pistons

Consider another task involving three pistons A, B and C that have to be
actuated in the sequence: A to tlie right, A to the left, B to the right, B to
the left, C to the right, C to the left (such a sequence is often written A-i-,
A-, B-I-, B-, C+, C-). Figure 7.37 shows the valves and a ladder
program using timers that might be used.
. X400 T450 Y431 Y432 Y433 Y434 Y435 Y430 .

Piston A moves to right
Y430 T450
TÔ
H T451
Piston A moves to left
'431 T451
T451 T452
K5H
Y432
H ^432 T452
Piston B moves to right
K T452 T453
Piston B moves to left
Uv T453 T454
Y434
Piston C moves to right
HW4- T454
H 54 T455
Piston C moves to left
Y435 T455
HH KSH
END
Figure 7.37 Sequential movement of pistons

X400 is the start switch. When it is closed there is an output from

Y430 and thetimerT450 starts. The start switch is latched by the output.
Piston A moves to the right. After the set time, K = 4, the normally
closed timer T450 contacts open and the normally open timer T450
contacts close. This switches off Y430 and energises Y431 and starts
timer T451. Piston A moves to the left. In rung 2, the T450 contacts are
latched and so the output remains on until the set time has been reached.
When this occurs the normally closed timer T451 contacts open and the
normally open T451 contacts close. This switches ofif Y431 and
energises Y432 and starts timer T452. Piston B moves to the right. Each
succeeding rung activates the next solenoid. Thus in sequence, each of
the outputs is energised.
7.5.4 Central heating system

Consider a domestic central heating system where the central heating
boiler is to be thermostatically controlled and supply hot water to the
radiator system in the house and also to the hot water tank to provide hot
water from the taps in the house. Pump motors have to be switched on to
direct the hot water from the boiler to either, or both the radiator and hot
water systems according to whether the temperature sensors for the room
temperature and the hot water tank indicate that the radiators or tank
need heating. The entire system is to be controlled by a clock so that it
only operates for certain hours of the day. Figure 7.38 shows the system
and how a Mitsubishi PLC might be used.
Motorised pump
Room temperature
Radiators sensor
Hot water
M2 tank
Hot water tank

Motorised pump
temperature sensor
Boiler temperature 4 - H
sensor
Stop and run

L N E
4,jq4|^^
Boiler
switches
"%n STOP
RUN
Power
" ^
•»-24V
Inputs Outputs Boiler
Clock
X400 Y430
z Radiator system
Boiler X401 Y431 M1|
z Hot water system
Room
Water
X402
X403
Y432
nzH
Figure 7.38 Central heating system
PLC systems 173
The boiler, output Y430, is switched on if X400 and X401 and either
X402 or X403 are switched on. This means if the clock is switched on,
the boiler temperature sensor gives an on input, and either the room
temperature sensor or the water temperature sensor give on inputs. The
motorised valve Ml, output Y431, is switched on if the boiler, Y430, is
on and if the room temperature sensor X402 gives an on input. The
motorised valve M2, output Y432, is switched on if the boiler, Y430, is
on and if the water temperature sensor gives an on input.
Problems Questions 1 to 6 have four answer options: A, B, C or D. Choose the

correct answer from the answer options.
1 Decide whether each of tliese statements is True (T) or False (F).

Figure 7.39 shows a ladder diagram rung for which:
(i) The input contacts are normally open.
(ii) There is an output when there is an input to the contacts.
Figure 7.39 Problem 1
A (i)T (ii)T
B (i)T (ii)F
C (i)F (ii)T
D (i)F (ii)F
2 Decide whether each of these statements is True (T) or False (F).

Figure 7.40 shows a ladder diagram rung for which:
Figure 7.40 Problem 2 (i) The input contacts are normally open.
(ii) There is an output when there is an input to the contacts.
A (i)T (ii)T
B (i)T (ii)F
C (i)F (ii)T
D (i)F (ii)F
I 1 2 Output 3 Decide whether each of these statements is True (T) or False (F).
H[H4-CH Figure 7.41 shows a ladder diagram rung for which:
inputs (i) When only input 1 contacts are activated, there is an output.
Figure 7.41 Problem 3 (ii) When only input 2 contacts are activated, there is an output.
A (i)T (ii)T
B (i)T (ii)F
C (i)F (ii)T
D (i)F (ii)F
h OH 4 Decide whether each of these statements is True (T) or False (F).
HH Figure 7.42 shows a ladder diagram rung for which there is an

output when:
(i) Inputs 1 and 2 are both activated.
Figure 7.42 Problem 4 (ii) Either one of inputs 1 and 2 is not activated.
A (i)T (ii)T
B (i)T (ii)F
C (i)F (ii)T
D (i) F (ii) F
I 1 2 Output 5 Decide whether each of these statements is True (T) or False (F).
HHh-OH Figure 7.43 shows a ladder diagram rung with an output when:
Inputs (i) Inputs 1 and 2 are both activated,
Figure 7.43 Problem 5 (ii) Input 1 or 2 is activated.
A (i)T (ii)T
B (i)T (ii)F
C (i)F (ii)T
D (i) F (ii) F
1 2 Output 6 Decide whether each of these statements is True (T) or False (F).
H Output
WOA Figure 7.44 shows a ladder diagram rung for which there is an
output when:
HH (i) Input 1 is momentarily activated before reverting to its normally
open state.
(ii) Input 2 is activated.
A (i)T (ii)T
B (i)T (ii)F
C (i)F (ii)T
D (i) F (ii) F
Input Input Problems 7 to 9 refer to Figure 7.45 which shows a ladder diagram
IR1
H VOA
IR1
with an internal relay, designated IR 1, two inputs Input 1 and Input
2, and an output Output 1.
HH IR 1 Output 1
For the ladder diagram shown in Figure 7.45, there is an output
HI OH from Output 1 when:
(i) There is just an input to Input 1.
Figure 7.45 Problems 7, (ii) There is just an input to Input 2.
8 and 9
A (i)T (ii)T
B (i)T (ii)F
C (i)F (ii)T
D (i)F (ii)F

For tlie ladder diagram shown in Figure 7.45, there is an output
from Output 1 when:
(i) There is an input to Input 2 and a momentary input to Input 1.
(ii) There is an input to Input 1 or an input to Input 2.
PLC systems 175
A (i)T (ii)T
B (i)T (ii)F
C (i)F (ii)T
D (i)F (ii)F

For the ladder diagram shown in Figure 7.45, the internal relay:
(i) Switches on when there is just an input to Input 1.
(ii) Switches on when there is an input to Input 1 and to Input 2.
A (i)T (ii)T
B (i)T (ii)F
C (i)F (ii)T
Input Input D (i) F (ii) F
1 IR1
H^^<H
Input 3
Problems 10 to 12 refer to Figure 7.46 which shows a ladder
diagram involving internal relays IR 1 and IR 2, inputs Input 1,
HH Input 4 IR 1
Input 2 and Input 3, and output Output 1.

HI IR 1
OH
IR 2 Output 1
For the ladder diagram shown in Figure 7.46, the internal relay IR 1
HHhOH is energised when:

(i) There is an input to Input 1.
(ii) There is an input to Input 3.
Figure 7.46 Problems 10, A (i)T (ii)T
11 and 12
B (i)T (ii)F
C (i)F (ii)T
D (i)F (ii)F

For the ladder diagram shown in Figure 7.46, the internal relay IR 2
is energised when:
(i) Internal relay IR 1 is energised.
(ii) Input 4 is energised.
A(i)T(ii)T
B (i)T (ii)F
C (i)F (ii)T
D (i)F (ii)F

For the ladder diagram shown in Figure 7.46, there is an output
from Output 1 when:
(i) There are inputs to just Input 1, Input 2 and Input 4.
(ii) There are inputs to just Input 3 and Input 4.
A (i)T (ii)T
Input 1 Timer B (i)T (ii)F
H/l—OH
inpui 1
Input output 1
Timer Output
C
D
(i)F
(i) F
(ii)T
(ii) F

diagram with an on-delay timer, an input Input 1 and an output
Output 1
Output 1.
HH 13 Decide whether each of these statements is True (T) or False (F).
Figm-e 7.47 Problems 13 When there is an input to Input 1 in Figure 7.47:
to 16
(i) The timer starts.
(ii) There is an output from Output 1.
A (i)T (ii)T
B (i)T (ii)F
C (i)F (ii)T
D (i) F (ii) F

The timer in Figure 7.47 starts when:
(i) There is an output,
(ii) The input ceases.
A (i)T (ii)T
B (i)T (ii)F
C (i)F (ii)T
D (i) F (ii) F

When there is an input to Input 1 in Figure 7.47, the output is
switched:
(i) On for the time for which the timer was pre-set.
(ii) OflFfor the time for which the timer was pre-set.
A (i)T (ii)T
Counter
Input 1 B (i)T (ii)F
C (i)F (ii)T
, Input 2 Counter
D (i) F (ii) F

Counter Outgutl diagram with a counter, two inputs Input 1 and Input 2 and an
hKjH
Figure 7.48 Problems 16
output Output 1.

to 18
For the ladder diagram shown in Figure 7.48, when the counter is
set to 5, there is an output from Output 1 every time:
(i) Input 1 has closed 5 times.
PLC systems 177
(ii) Input 2 has closed 5 times.

A (i)T (ii)T
B (i)T (ii)F
C (i)F (ii)T
D (i)F (ii)F

For the ladder diagram shown in Figure 7.48:
(i) The first rung gives the condition required to reset the counter,
(ii) The second rung gives the condition required to generate pulses
to be counted.
A (i)T (ii)T
a- a+ B (i)T (ii)F
C (i)F (ii)T
D (i) F (ii) F

When there is an input to Input 1 in Figure 7.48:
(i) The counter contacts in the third rung close.
(ii) The counter is ready to start counting the pulses from Input 2.
A+ ^ I ^ A-
b- b+
A (i)T (ii)T
B (i)T (ii)F
C (i)F (ii)T
D (i)F (ii)F
•mm
19 This problem is essentially concerned with part of the domestic
washing machine program. Devise a ladder program to switch on a
pump for 100 s. It is then to be switched off and a heater switched
on for 50 s. Then the heater is switched off and another pump is
B+ vlv ^"" used to empty the water.
0 - . c+ 20 Devise a ladder program that can be used with a solenoid valve
^•i controlled double-acting cylinder, i.e. a cylinder with a piston which

can be moved either way by means of solenoids for each of its two
positions, and wliich moves the piston to the right, holds it there for
m^
2 s and then returns it to the left.
21 The inputs from the limit switches and the start switch and the
outputs to the solenoids of the valves shown in Figure 7.49 are
connected to a PLC which has the ladder program shown in Figure
C- 7.50. What is the sequence of the cylinders?
22 The inputs from the limit switches and the start switch and the
Figure 7.49 Problem 21 outputs to the solenoids of the valves shown in Figure 7.51(a) are
connected to a PLC which has the ladder program shown in Figure
7.51(b). What is the sequence of the cylinders?
b-, |b+
start A+
i\<
H Start
H a-t- b
IJe^^ .
HH (a)
A* Jf J '
HI— -6] IR 1
hWH
IR 2 Start
Hh-— O H IR 1 IR 2
IF
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IRI IR2 a+
END hW-VH
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HW
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IR1
IR 1
IR2 b-»-
IR2
CM
IF
H a+
IR 1 IR 2 b- IR1 IR2
KH4H IR2 IR2

Oi
a-
(b) END

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Hydraulic
Fleetschool Fact Sheet
Beta Ratio – Comparing

Hydraulic Filter Element
Performance
Knowing what to look for in filter test data can have a direct bearing The following table lists some selected beta ratios and the
on the quality of the selection decision and the cost-effective corresponding efficiencies:
performance of a filter system. Unless the data has been obtained
in a Multi Pass Test to (ANSI (NFPA)T3.10.8.8 RI-1990 or ISO 4572)
standard, the results might be altered and a comparison meaningless. Filtration Ratio Capture Efficiency
(at a given particle size) (at the same particle size)
The key information that can be obtained from a Multi Pass Test
2 50%
to determine filter performance is:
• Dynamic efficiency 5 80%
• Dirt holding capacity
• Clean element pressure drop 10 90%
• Terminal pressure drop 20 95%
Dynamic efficiency is expressed in terms of Alpha or Beta Ratios, 75 98.6%

depending on the type of test dust. If AC coarse dust is used for
100 99%
the test, the resulting values are called Alpha Ratios, if AC fine dust is
used the results are called Beta Ratios. 200 99.5%
In a Multi Pass Test the test filter is the only filter in the system 1000 99.9%
and the contaminants are circulated for repeated passes. The filter
performance is determined on the basis of counting the particles
of preselected size ranges up and downstream of the test filter
simultaneously. The particle size measurement and counting is
accomplished by electronic means, using automatic particle counters.
The ratio is then determined by dividing the number of particles
entering by the number of particles leaving the test filter. The primary
advantage of the dynamic efficiency test method is the system’s ability
to simulate actual operating conditions.
A Beta Ratio may be given for a filter as B10 = 50.

(Depicted in this way on many filters)
This simply means that the Beta Ratio for 10 micron equals Clean element pressure drop is the pressure loss
a ration of 50. across the filter element determined under steady
Now divide the ratio, in this case 50 into 100, ie. equals 2. flow conditions using a clean fluid across the element
Subtract the answer, in this case 2 from 100, the answer is 98. at the beginning of the multi pass test.
This filter is 98% efficient at removing 10 micron particles.
Terminal pressure drop, also called terminal delta
P, is the highest acceptable pressure drop at which
the test is terminated. The highest acceptable
pressured drop is determined by the type of filter and
application.
Dirt holding capacity is a measure of test dust

retained by weight in gram in the element at the time
the Multi Pass Test was terminated.
Filters that allow the fewest wear causing particles to

circulate in the system offer the best wear protection.
TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE
Fleetschool Fact Sheet 1. When comparing Filter element
performance, which performance
description gives a filtration ration
that translates into capture efficiency?
A Nominal filter rating
B Absolute filter rating
C Beta ration filter rating
2. When a filter performance is express
as B20 = 10, what does it mean?
A Beta ration of 20, 95% efficient
at removing 10 micron particles
B Beta ration of 10, 90% efficient
at removing 20 micron particles
3. When confronted with the choice of
elements, which of the elements provides
the better wear protection at 10 micron?
A B10 = 200 B B5 = 75
C B25 = 200 D B200 = 10
A 3. B 2. C 1.
ANSWERS
These and other Fleetschool Fact Sheets

can be found on the Fleetguard Website at:
www.fleetguard.com/fleet/en/product_literature/en_lit_asia.jsp#fleetschool
Asia Pacific China Korea India

No. 9 Building, 353 RiYing North Rd 1293-2, (4-NA-203) Fleetguard Filters Pvt. Ltd.
Australia Waigaoqiao Free Trade Zone Jeongwang-Dong Kirloskar House 100
31 Garden Street Pudong, Shanghai 200131 China Siheung-City, Gyunggi-Do Anand Park, Aundh
Cummins Filtration 2006 • 3.301.016A
Kilsyth Victoria 3137 Australia Tel. 86 21 50463918 Korea 429-450 Pune - 411 007 India
Tel. 1 800 032 037 Fax: 86 21 50463928 Tel. 82 31 432 0616-9 Tel. 91 20 2588 3903~0537
Tel. 61 3 9721 9100 fleetassist.china@cummins.com Fax. 82 31 432 9478 Fax. 91 20 2588 7428
Fax. 1 800 032 036 fleetmaster.korea@cummins.com marketing@fleetguard-filtrum.com
Fax. 61 3 9721 9147 Japan
fleetassist.australia@cummins.com PO Box 536, Ark Mori Building Singapore Cummins Exhaust India Ltd
22nd Floor 8 Tanjong Penjuru Plot No. 1, Silver Industrial Estate
New Zealand 12-32 Akasaka 1-Chome Jurong Industrial Estate Village Bhimpore
Tel. 0800 448 363 Minato-Ku, Tokyo, 107-6022 Japan Singapore 609019 Dist. Daman (Union Territory)
Fax. 0800 448 367 Tel. 81 3 3505 1851 Tel. 65 6266 3833 Pin 396 210 India
fleetassist.australia@cummins.com Fax. 81 3 3505 0990 Fax. 65 6265 6909 Tel. 91 260 257384
fleetassist.japan@cummins.com fleetassist.singapore@cummins.com Fax. 91 260 257238
Fluids and Filtration
Transmission Design Elements
Sauer-Danfoss
Hydraulic
Unit Design
Pressure
Fluid
and Speed
Quality
Ratings
Transmission
Design
Circuit Component
Design Sizing
Customer
Machine
Design
Hydraulic Fluid Roles
• Remove/Deal With Contamination

• Lubricate (separate moving parts)
• Transfer Heat
• Prevent Corrosion
Types of Contaminants
• Water / other fluid

• Air
• Solid particles
Water/Fluid Contamination
• Water or other fluids in a system may result in:

– corrosion
– cavitation
– altered fluid viscosity
• Water can react with some fluids
– create harmful chemical by-products
– destroy important additives
• Good hydrolytic stability

• Fluid compatability
• ASTM D-2619 and JDQ 84
Air Contamination
• Air increases the compressibility of the fluid

– creates a “spongy” system that is less responsive
• Air creates a loss of efficiency
– Higher operating temperatures
– Increased noise levels
– Loss of lubricity
– Increases oxidation
• Good anti-foam and resist dissolved air

Particle Contamination
• Solid Particles increase wear in your system

• Solid Particles can stick valves / plug orifices
• Size & quantity of these particles

• Allowable contamination is determined by the
ISO4406 standard
ISO Solid
Contaminant Code
• Each level describes

the amount of particles
for a given particle
size
• Example: 22/18/13
– 22 is number of
particles larger than
4mm
– 18 is number of
6mm
– 13 is number of
14mm
Cleanliness Levels
• Important notes:
• Old standard only used two numbers
– Exmaple 18/13 was 18 for 5mm particles and 13 for
15mm particles
• 22/18/14 fluid has TWICE as many particles of
the 14mm size as 22/18/13 fluid

• Transfer Heat
Lubricate
• Hydrodynamic Lubrication (Viscosity)

• EP (Extreme Pressure additives)
• Viscosity
Viscosity Requirements
• Fluid must have high enough viscosity to

maintain oil film between sliding surfaces
– Fluid that is too thin will result in excessive leakage
and adhesive wear
• Viscosity and temperature limits must be met
simultaneously
• Viscosity depends on fluid selection
• Remember low temperature viscosity during
selection
Viscosity
• Viscosity Index (VI) improved fluids

– Higher VI, usually more susceptible to sheardown
• Sheardown may lower operating viscosity below
the originally specified value
Viscosity
Piston Units Gear Units
Recommended 12-60 cSt 25-50 cSt

Operating Range 70-278 SUS 164-220 SUS
Intermittent 7 cSt 7 cSt

49 SUS 49 SUS
Minimum 1600 (1000*) cSt 1000 cSt

Startup 7500 (4600*) SUS 4600 SUS
EP Additives
• When viscosity just isn’t enough

– Phospherous
– Zinc Phosphates (ZDDP)
– Molybdenum
– Polymers

• Transfer Heat
Effects of High Temperature
• Affects viscosity (lubricity, film thickness)

• Limits life of rubber seals
– high temperatures cause rubber to harden,
crack
• Fluid breaks down
– sheardown occurs easier at higher
temperatures
– thermal stability is critical
• Could mean air in system
– cavitation possible
Temperature Requirements
• Size heat exchangers to keep fluid within

recommended temperature limits
• Select worst continuous operating conditions
– For most machines, this occurs at highest
transmission output speed obtainable
• Should test to verify these temperature limits
are maintained
• Excessive heat may be generated by other
circuit components
Temperature Requirements
• Circuit designs should avoid depending on high

pressure relief valves as part of the control
system
• Frequent operation of these relief valves will
generate intolerable heat
• Circuit components with high internal leakage
also contribute to heat problems
• Circuits containing flow control valves such as
flow dividers are susceptible to heat generation
since they function by restricting oil flow with a
pressure drop
Temperature Limits
Series Series
90/42/51 15/40/L/K
Continuous 220o F 180o F
104o C 82o C
Intermittent 240o F 220o F
116o C 104o C
Sources of Heat
• Component malfunction or circuit design

• High psi relief operation
• Inherent internal leakage
• Flow dividers, throttling devices
• Long power loop lines
• Extended roading

• Transfer Heat
– Fluid compatibility with metals
Fluid Quality
Fluid Quality
• System Life depends on Fluid Quality

– 85 to 90% of all service problems are fluid related!
• Poor Fluid affects Hydraulic Systems
– Does not necessarily break components
– Causes loss of Efficiency
• Reduced Speed
• Reduced Power
• Fluid selection can lessen the impact of unusual
environmental factors
• If you are getting good results with your current
fluid, change with CAUTION!
Fluid Quality
• Loss of Efficiency is caused by:

– Smearing: Parts rubbing, material transfer
• Caused by low fluid viscosity, lack of lube film
– Cavitation: Fluid implosion, material removal
• Caused by air in fluid
– Etching: Chemical corrosion, material removal
• Fluid becomes acidic due to presence of water and/or excessive
temperature
– Scoring: Grooves in parts, material removal/transfer
• Caused by particles of abrasive material in fluid
Fluid Recommendations
• No set rules for choosing fluid

• Is a fluid is acceptable? How to get it approved
– Fluid producer should provide primary data including
proof the fluid does work on piston equipment
• Approvals not published by pump mfgs.
– pump mfgs do not produce fluids
– pump mfgs do not control changes in fluid chemistry
• If the current fluid is working, change with
caution
• Talk to your fluid people!
• Talk to your filter people!
Successful Experience
• Premium grade antiwear mineral-based

hydraulic fluids
– Premium turbine oils (except S51)

– API CD engine oils - SAE J183
– Type F automatic transmission fluid -M2C33F
– Power shift fluids (Allison C-4, CAT TO-2)
Successful Experience
– Tractor fluids (IH Hytran, etc) -- except some have

shown etching of yellow metals
– ATF except some Dexron III -- has shown etching of
yellow metals
– Fire resistant fluids (at modified conditions)
– Environmentally acceptable (biodegradable) fluids
Environmentally Friendly
Environmentally Friendly Fluids
• When your customer wants:

this instead of this
Some Key Terms
• Readily Biodegradable
– 60% breakdown within 28 days
• Inherently Biodegradable
– 60% breakdown within 90 days
• Ashless
– typically contains no zinc or other heavy metals
Types
• Vegetable Based
– HETG – Rape Seed, traditionally
• Mineral Oil Based
– no recognized ISO classification
• Synthetic
– HEPG – Polyglycol
– HEES – Synthetic Ester
– HEPR - Polyalphaolefins
– Many new proprietary types
Considerations
• Temperature
• Pressure
• Speed
• Long term fluid quality
• Increased maintenance interval
• Special filtration
Fire Resistant
Fire Resistant Fluids
• Phosphate ester or ester with oil

• Polyolester
• Invert emulsion
• Water glycol
• HWCF (define)
• Require special system considerations

– Seals (with Skydrol)
– Inlet plumbing
– Reservoir size
– Filter size
– Modified operating parameters
– Increase maintenance frequency
– Fluid monitoring (bacterial growth, breakdown, etc)
FLUID TYPE Speed Pressure Maximum
(% Catalog) (% Catalog) Temp.
Phosphate 100% 100% 180o F
Ester 82o C
Polyolester 85% 85% 150o F
66o C
Invert Emulsion 65% 70% 140o F
(60 oil/40water) 60o C
Water Glycol 65% 60% 140o F
(60 / 40) 60o C
HWCF 65% 40% 122o F
(95 water/5 oil) 50o C
Filtration
Filters
• Filters clean the oil at start-up & maintain

acceptable levels of contamination as particles
are ingested during system operation
• Filtration -- controlling particle sizes and
quantities to meet appropriate levels
• Fluid cleanliness can only be maintained by
selecting a filter capable of removing
contaminants from the system
Filter Selection
• Dependent on circuit design

• Fluid cleanliness requirement
• Particle ingression rate
• Maintenance interval
– Dirt holding capacity
• Built-in dirt
• Clean-up rate
Filter Selection
• Filters are selected to meet the previous

requirements using rating parameters of filter
efficiency and capacity
• Filter efficiency -- how well the filter removes
contaminants from the fluid
• Filter capacity -- how much contaminant the
filter is capable of removing before a filter
replacement is needed
Filter Selection
Filter Efficiency designated by Beta Ratio

Beta (b) Ratio = Upstream particles
Downstream particles
bx = 10 = 10 or 90% efficient
1
x = particle size in microns
b10 = 10, means that 90% of all particles 10 microns

and larger are filtered out.
Filter Testing
• ISO 16889 Multi-Pass Test

– Pressure drop/flow,
– Variation in particle removal abilities (Beta ratio) with size,
– Variation in performance with time and differential pressure,
– Weight of test contaminant retained by the filter,
– Filtration ratings over a wide size range, and
– Filtration performance over a wide range of particle sizes.
• What does an ‘Absolute’ rating on a filter mean?

– ‘Absolutely’ don’t believe a word they say.
Literature
520L0463 520L0465
Literature
520L0466 520L0467
Cavitation
FILTRATION
 Settling does not remove
all flocs – further
treatment is required
 Filtration provides the
additional opportunity for
separation of small flocs
or particles
 This presentation is an
introduction to filtration
technology concepts
12/14/2021 Water filtration 1

Overview of solid-liquid separation alternatives in water
Direct
Filtration

(precoat filtration)
or expanded perlite

Particle size (micron)

Filtration Mechanisms
 Important to understand the
mechanisms
 Settling, adsorption and diffusion
 Not much screening

A B

Filter Classification by Filtration Rate
2-4 gpm/ft2 18-40 thou 1.6-3.3 ft
1-3 gpm/ft2 0.5-2 thou

Diagrammatic layout
of sand filters

Typical multimedia filter

Construction details of sand filters

Construction details of sand filter

Filter operation

Some examples
of layout and
construction
details

Multimedia filters

PRESSURE
FILTERS

1.Overflow
2.Filter Influent
3.Coarse Media
4.Fine Media
5.Filtrate Nozzles
6.Filtrate Chamber
7.Level Controller
8.Filter Reject
9.Wash box
10.Counter-Current Washer
11.Airlift
12.Central Feed Chamber
13.Actuated Valve

Slow Sand Filtration

Slow Sand Filter Cleaning

Slow Sand Filter Underdrain

COVER STORY
Jean Van Rensselar / Contributing Editor
Fire-resistant
fluids
Will they ever be
good enough?
Key Concepts
• There is no affordable fire-resistant

fluid on the market that offers safety
assurance and acceptable in-use
performance.
• Despite ever-increasing performance
demands and new regulations, the
incentive for research isn’t there.
• Coming to a consensus on key
fire-resistant definitions continues
to be a significant problem with no
resolution in sight.
2 • J U LY 2 0 1 3 T R I B O LO GY & LU B R I CAT I O N T EC H N O LO GY W W W. ST L E .O RG
New regulations and increased
performance requirements are
changing the way researchers
develop modern fire-resistant fluids.
W hat is preventing researchers from creating a fire-

resistant fluid that offers safety assurance, afford-
ability and equipment compatibility—qualities
that no single fire-resistant fluid (FRF) has today? Unfortunately,
there are several factors.
STLE-member Brian Goldstein, product marketing manager,
lubricants & fuel additives, Dow Chemical Co. in Houston, ex-
plains, “From my point of view, while breakthrough innovation
in the area of fire-resistant properties has been slow, researchers
continue to look at ways to improve overall performance attri-
butes of FRF formulations. In the past, certain chemistries, which
may inherently provide improved performance, have not been
cost-effective due to economies of scale or availability of raw ma-
terials. With changing regulations and equipment design, the
need for innovation does exist, whereby alternative chemistries
can be considered.”
“Another hurdle to development has to do with the commer-
cial feasibility of successfully introducing a new technology.
Without a clear economic payoff for the development effort re-
quired, base fluid suppliers and formulators have little incentive
to invest additional R&D capital in developing FRFs,” Goldstein
says. “That said, changes in industry standards and regulations
will naturally stimulate further development if the scope of the
expected changes was deemed realistic.”
Regulations for FRFs continue to tighten, and new FR and
environmental standards are emerging in regions such as Asia. In
addition, equipment builders are developing machines with high-
er power densities and operational output, putting further de-
mands on lubricants and especially water-based FRFs.
Since their inception more than 60 years ago, FRFs have of-
fered an added degree of safety protection over hydrocarbon-
based fluids in industries such as steel/aluminum processing and
mining. But the degree of actual fire protection for the many types
of FRFs is controversial.
W W W. ST L E .O RG T R I B O LO GY & LU B R I CAT I O N T EC H N O LO GY J U LY 2 0 1 3 • 3
Today’s FRFs span a wide range of presence of coal dust, which is ex-
technologies including water-based tremely combustible. An additional
fluids (e.g., water glycol HFCs) and consideration is the grim fact that en-
anhydrous fluids (phosphate esters, closed mines not only encourage the
polyalkylene glycols [PAGs], vegetable rapid propagation of flames into full-
oils and esters). Each fluid type brings scale fires, they also leave their occu-
its own specific advantages. Water- pants with limited opportunity for a
based fluids are inexpensive and offer quick escape.
excellent fire resistance, but they only Steel mills. Heated metal is a perva-
work in moderate pump operating sive ignition source in most industrial
conditions. Anhydrous fluids can op- environments. Because of the abun-
erate under severe pump conditions, dance of heated metal (in both liquid
but their fire-resistance performance is and solid form), steel mills pose a par-
limited. ticular fire hazard. This is especially
In the area of anhydrous-based, true if the floor plan doesn’t provide
fire-resistant fluids, there has been adequate separation between hydrau-
much debate about the different types lic lines and ignition sources. A small
of fluids and their fire-resistant prop- hydraulic fluid leak almost anywhere
erties. It is generally accepted that on the floor in many steel mills could
phosphate esters offer the highest de- either cause an explosion or a fire that
gree of fire protection. But on combus-
tion, highly toxic and corrosive fumes
Fire-resistant fluids offer quickly becomes out of control.
Airplanes. Some people wonder
can generate and create a deadly envi- safety protection over why fire-resistant hydraulic fluid is so
ronment.1
Others would say that newer fluids
hydrocarbon-based important in airplanes since there are
also thousands of gallons of highly
such as synthetic esters and PAGs fluids in industries such combustible fuel. There are two rea-
don’t provide acceptable fire resistance sons: (1.) hydraulic fluid typically cir-
and that protection is barely better
as steel/aluminum culates throughout the aircraft. This
than hydrocarbon oils. processing and mining. means a single ignition could quickly
spread through the structure and (2.)
Risk factors hydraulic fluid—unlike fuel—is under
Regulators and test developers look at extreme pressure. A small leak can
the fire risk that a lubricant poses, es- quickly mushroom into a high diame-
pecially where enclosed spaces such as ter, three-dimensional spray that will
mines and tunnels are involved. Five equipment pose a fire risk, under- interact with any ignition source, in-
factors they consider are: ground mine maintenance facilities are cluding super-heated metal.
a particular hazard. Fires in diesel- World War II was a watershed mo-
1. The possibility that a release will powered mining equipment most of- ment for FRFs. Modern war machin-
occur ten occur because of leaking high- ery, especially tanks and airplanes,
2. The likely scale pressure hydraulic lines that spray caused far too many fiery deaths on all
3. The possibility that it will ignite heated and highly combustible fluid sides. It became glaringly apparent
4. The possibility that it will combust onto an ignition source such as super- that anything that could be done to
5. The potential safety, health and heated metal exhaust. Fires that ignite prevent or reduce the consequences of
financial consequences. in this way tend to spread quickly. fire-related casualties should be done.
Adding to the danger is that much Also, as a result of modern machinery
The environments at most risk for of the mobile equipment used in un- (more ignition and combustion sourc-
hydraulic fluid fires are mines, mills derground mines contains not only es), around this time there were many
and planes. Put two of those togeth- fuel sources but also ignition sourc- tragic coal mine fires. Although fuel
er—a coal-handling facility integrated es—making them virtual fire factories. was responsible for a percentage of
into a steel mill—and the danger mul- Given this, it’s not surprising that these fires, ignitable lubricants were
tiplies exponentially. welding and cutting operations, which responsible for many more.
Mines. While most maintenance fa- are carried out regularly, are a leading One of the solutions researchers
cilities and especially any mobile cause of mine fires. Then there’s the looked at was adding water to existing
1
Research suggests that anhydrous fumes may not be as toxic as fumes from other FRFs.
that prevent erosion, corrosion,
Confusion over terminology, sludge and other equipment-
developing consensus unfriendly conditions.
3. Affordable: It would be financial-
ly practical for applications that
Asked if he thinks the current definition of an FRF is clear, David Phillips, hydraulic require a continuous and sig-
nificant amount of fluid.
fluid and lubricant consultant with W. David Phillips & Associates, says, “No, there is
still a dichotomy between the requirements of ISO and those of Factory Mutual Corp.
ISO has recently published a revised specification for fire-resistant hydraulic fluids, Then there are a lot of nice-to-
and attempts will be made to obtain precision data on the different ISO fire-resis- haves (requirements in some applica-
tance methods. If this is successful, it may then be possible to classify fire resistance tions) such as biodegradability, low
on the basis of performance in the different tests.” environmental toxicity and quick
Coming to consensus definitions of fire-related properties is of utmost impor- availability.
tance because the consequences, in terms of injury and death, legal proceedings Following are three main types of
and financial losses, are so high. The meaning of fire resistant varies from discipline fire-resistant hydraulic fluids:
to discipline, industry to industry and material to material. Both fire resistant and
fireproof are (wrongly) used as synonyms for incombustible and not ignitable. Actually 1. High water-based HFAs
combustion and ignition can create a fire independently of each other. For example, 2. Water-glycol HFCs
water-based lubricants can ignite without combusting. When the temperature is suffi-
3. Synthetic HFDs.
ciently high, a fluid can combust but not ignite. Fireproof should refer to a substance
that is neither ignitable nor combustible. Fire resistant should refer to the degree of
resistance to ignitability and combustibility. It’s also important to note that the terms According to STLE-member W. Da-
flame-propagating and combustible also are not synonymous. Following are some very vid Phillips, hydraulic fluid and lubri-
basic consensus definitions: cant consultant, W. David Phillips &
Associates in Stockport, U.K., current
Fireproof: Impossible to ignite, combust or propagate a flame. test data ranks fluids in the following
order—from most to least fire resis-
Fire resistant: Extremely difficult or impossible to ignite and not capable of tant: water-based fluids (depending on
propagating flame. the water content), aryl phosphate es-
ters, polyglycol ethers/polyol esters/
Fire retardant: Difficult to ignite and will not significantly propagate flame.
vegetable oils and mineral oil.
Ignitable: Energy from an ignition source can raise the temperature to point of High water-based HFAs. High water-
ignition. based fluids, also known as HWBFs,
high water-content fluids (HWCFs) or
Combustible: Burning (combustion) results in a flame. ISO HFA fluids contain droplets of
specially refined oil dispersed in water.
Flame propagation: Roughly the same as combustion (but there must have This means the fluid behaves more
been an original ignition). Fluid continues to burn (as a flame) when it is no longer like water than oil. Microemulsions,
in contact with the ignition source. with a considerably smaller droplet
size, are nearly transparent.
Advantages
• HFAs have both cost and envi-
fluid. This led to the development of Availability ronmental advantages. They
nearly self-extinguishing, water-based The ideal FRF doesn’t exist, but if it can be made from concentrate
lubricants. Another solution was de- did, it would have the following three and are less toxic than other
veloping an entirely new category of qualities: FRFs.2 HFAs are highly fire re-
synthetics capable of resisting and ex- sistant and have excellent cool-
1. Safe: It would actually be fire re-
tinguishing flames. Some of these (im- ing characteristics. When prop-
sistant in all applications and
perfect) products are still in use to- erly formulated, these fluids
environments.
day—a fact that points to the glaring offer strong protection against
need for a renewed research effort and 2. Equipment friendly: It would pos- rust and acceptable steel-to-
better products. sess basic lubrication properties steel lubricity.
2
FRFs as a group generally have a very low toxicity, so this advantage is debatable.
Disadvantages Steel mills and HFCs
• Compared to the other two
groups, HFAs can have inferior
performance and operation. For
example, they have much lower
viscosity, film strength and lu-
T ony LeBarge, director of technology, KOST USA, Inc., says that today’s steel
mills need HFCs with a number of key characteristics, including the following:
bricity than oil-based lubri- Optimal water content. The water content provides the primary fire resis-
cants. A significant disadvan- tance. A minimum of 35 percent water is typically required to maintain optimum
tage is that equipment fire resistance. Too much water can adversely affect pump performance and cause
components must be designed premature failure. For this reason, less than 41 percent water is recommended.
specifically for use with HFAs. Shear stability. As machine and maintenance practices improve, there are
The high water content creates greater demands on fluid. The higher pressures, temperatures and flow rates, along
susceptibility to freezing, which with reduced down times, expose the fluid to more shearing stress. This can result
also reduces the effectiveness of in permanent viscosity loss, which can make equipment more susceptible to prema-
additives. High turbulence pro- ture failure. The correct choice of customized or optimized polymer thickeners will
duces bubbles that lead to cavi- become increasingly important.
tation and wear. Also, seal mate- Corrosion control. Because they contain a high proportion of water, HFCs
rials that deteriorate in water have a greater tendency to corrode ferrous parts. A fluid properly formulated with
(such as paper, cork and leath- corrosion inhibitors will reduce or prevent this. However, the area of most concern is
er) cannot be used. where the fluid does not come in contact with the parts needing corrosion protec-
tion. Due to elevated operating temperature and the volatility of water in the fluid,
“Water-containing fluids have been water vapor tends to condense into the cooler-head space of components such as
in use for many years, and their per- reservoirs and storage tanks. This is why many fluids contain vapor-phase corro-
formance has undoubtedly improved, sion inhibitors. The challenge is to maintain the proper levels throughout the fluid
but limitations remain regarding lubri- life. These inhibitors are designed to evaporate and protect the metal surfaces from
cation, volatility, low temperature be- corrosion due to water vapors. The challenge is to select a corrosion inhibitor that
havior and corrosivity,” Phillips says. volatizes slowly enough to maintain protection over an extended service application.
“To be used successfully, they require a
tight operating envelope, components
that are compatible in terms of both
corrosion and lubrication and possibly
a pressurized tank. The lower cost of Disadvantages Anhydrous synthetic HFDs. Synthetic
these fluids is therefore usually more • The cost of HFCs is greater than fire-resistant fluids (ISO HFDs) are
than offset by more expensive sys- conventional oils. HFCs must be lab-synthesized chemicals that are less
tems.” continually evaluated for water flammable than petroleum-based oils.
Water-glycol HFCs. Water-glycol flu- content, and any evaporated wa- HFDs include phosphate esters, polyol
ids (ISO HFCs) are composed of 35-45 ter must be continually replen- esters, halogenated (fluorinated and/
percent water for fire resistance, a gly- ished. Evaporation might also or chlorinated) hydrocarbons and
col, a water-soluble thickener to im- reduce certain additives, which mixtures of phosphate esters or polyol
prove viscosity and additives that pre- will shorten the fluid life and hy- esters and petroleum oil.
vent foaming, rust, corrosion and draulics. In order to avoid evap- HFDs ignite easily. They may also
improve lubrication. But compared to oration, operating temperatures contain a polymer thickener that will
most fire-resistant anhydrous fluids, must be kept as low as possible. increase the droplet size in a spray.
HFCs are poor lubricants. As with HFAs, seal materials that While this makes the spray less ig-
deteriorate in water cannot be nitable and might improve the per-
Advantages used. Metals that react adversely formance of new fluid, as the poly-
• HFCs generally have good wear- with HFCs such as cadmium, mer shears down during use, the fire
resistance properties where magnesium and zinc will gener- resistance reduces to the point of be-
there are not high speeds and ate a machine-destroying gum- ing on par with a polymer-free fluid.
high loads. Synthetic seal mate- my residue. Even parts alloyed/ This means that the actual fire resis-
rials used with petroleum oils plated with these metals cannot tance of HFDs can be hard to pin
are also compatible with HFCs. be used with HFCs. down.3
3
From: http://www.azom.com/article.aspx?ArticleID=2235.
AD
Place Holder
Advantages also the issue of toxic fumes as Low water-based HFBs. Primarily
• Since HFDs do not contain any these FRFs degrade. But Phil- used in Great Britain, low water-based
water or other volatile material, lips points out, “All non-aque- HFBs are water-in-oil emulsions with a
they operate better at higher ous hydraulic fluids can emit maximum of 60 percent combustible
temperatures than water-con- noxious products when they (petroleum) material. This means they
taining FRFs. They also are bet- combust or thermally de- must contain at least 40 percent water.
ter for higher-pressure systems grade—not just phosphates. Because of the relatively high petro-
than water-containing FRFs. The volume and type of decom- leum-to-water content, they are com-
Also, unlike other FRFs, they position products will, in part, monly referred to as invert emulsions.
degrade very little in use and depend on the conditions under Additives. Despite many attempts,
perform well in low tempera- which combustion or thermal there are currently no additives—oth-
tures. decomposition occurs. For ex- er than droplet-size modifiers—that
ample, the availability of oxy- will make a flammable material more
Disadvantages gen will determine whether full fire resistant. As it stands, the fire
• Despite this, HFDs are not the or partial oxidation products properties of a lubricant are deter-
best among FRFs for low-tem- are formed (the formation of mined by the fire properties of the base
perature operations. There is CO as opposed to CO2).” stock, rather than the additives.
Stakeholders
Although everyone is primarily con-
Factory Mutual accreditation *,** cerned about the safety and welfare of
those who work with and around hy-
draulic fluids, OEMs tend to place
Factory Mutual Global (FM) approval testing for flammability is considered greater importance on equipment
among the world’s most rigorous. FM statistics show that fire protection deficien- compatibility and in-use performance
cies for lube-oil systems were a major factor in 17 large turbine building fires that than end-users.
resulted in over $400 million in gross losses during a recent 15-year period. FM Equipment builders. Dow’s Goldstein
says that the use of an FM-approved industrial fluid can prevent or significantly explains that OEMs are interested in
reduce the extent of damage in a fire. evaluating new fluids, but it is not al-
FM Approval Standard 6930, Flammability Classification of Industrial Fluids, ways possible for OEMs to vet all flu-
evaluates the ignitability characteristics of industrial fluids by determining a spray ids. “Therefore they may take a general
flammability parameter for industrial fluids that have a fire point.*** For water- approach to ensure compatibility and
based fluids without a fire point, the standard requires the calculation of a different performance with conventional flu-
parameter. ids,” he says. “While some OEMs are
FM-approved industrial fluids represent a low fire hazard and do not require in the business of selling aftermarket
additional automatic sprinkler protection. While specification-tested fluids are products and service, others are in the
less ignitable than mineral oil fluids, they still may stabilize a spray flame and may business of selling long-life equip-
require sprinkler protection. ment. Different OEM business models
For many years, the U.S. Mine Safety & Health Administration (MSHA) has had will dictate to what extent fluids are
a similar FRF evaluation program for qualifying fluids that are used in coal mines. tested and approved. An OEM who
MSHA test procedures are similar but not identical to FM. sells long-life equipment may recom-
Brian Goldstein, product marketing manager, lubricants & fuel additives, Dow mend the use of a fluid that comple-
Chemical Co., explains, “In the U.S., FM Approval is a requirement for doing busi- ments performance expectations and
ness with most industrial end-users who operate equipment in environments where warranty claims, thus completing
fluids can be exposed to extreme heat. FM accreditation of fluids continues to be more rigorous fluid testing. In the case
leveraged across lubricant markets, as end-users become more conscious about of building smaller, faster, longer life
safety and loss prevention. For fire resistance, FM accreditation remains the stan- equipment, OEMs are considering in-
dard that industry tends to accept.” novative base fluid chemistries and
formulations.”
* From: http://www.fmglobal.com/assets/pdf/P11208.pdf.
End-users. “Fluid users need many
** FM Global conducts property loss prevention research to optimize its international commercial things from their suppliers,” explains
and industrial property insurance, underwriting and risk management products and services.
STLE-member Tony LeBarge, director
***The fire point is the lowest temperature at which a fluid’s vapors will sustain combustion once
of technology, KOST USA, Inc., in Cin-
ignited.
cinnati. “Today’s fluids must perform
over longer service intervals for many
reasons, including the increased cost ters—first introduced in 2005.
of disposal. As a result, the need for Fire-resistant polyol esters.4 For
specific and timely fluid analysis con- many years, some industrial users
tinues to be more important. Also, as have preferred polyol ester fluids to
companies strive to increase share- phosphate esters for reasons of cost,
holder value, end-users are asking system compatibility, environmental
their suppliers for help with improv- concerns and worker health and safety.
ing performance and reducing ex- Some of these industrial users would
pense.” also prefer to use a new FM Global Ap- What a hydraulic fluid
In the U.S., many end-users require proved product and have created a de- fire looks like*
that fluids have Factory Mutual (FM) mand for new organic ester technolo-
accreditation. Goldstein explains that gy. These products would combine the
while FM approval provides a standard environmental benefits of polyol esters W hen hydraulic fluid is released
for fire resistance, it does not take into with the FM approval status of phos- under pressure, the usual result is an
account a fluid’s chemical properties, phate esters. atomized spray or mist of oil droplets
tribology characteristics and any re- Because of this demand, research is that may extend as far as 40 feet from
sulting impact on equipment perfor- focused on organic esters with higher the break. The flammable oil spray can
mance. “End-users must perform ad- intrinsic fire-resistance properties. The be easily ignited by hot surfaces such
result is a class of esters that can be as heated or molten metal, electric
formulated into FM-approved fluids heaters, open flames or welding arcs.
without the presence of water or phos- The resulting fire usually is torch-like
phate ester. They have excellent lubri- with a very high rate of heat release.
‘Today’s fluids must cation properties, as well as intrinsic Automatic sprinklers can protect the
perform over longer service resistance to ignition and flame propa- building and prevent involvement of
gation. other nearby combustibles, but the
intervals for many reasons, Through selection of the acid and torch-like fire presents very little
including the increased alcohol components, custom esters burning surface for cooling or wetting.
can be designed for use in fire-resistant The high-heat release can continue,
cost of disposal.’ hydraulic fluids that meet all perfor- triggering multiple sprinklers until the
mance requirements and approvals oil discharge is stopped.
without the use of (non-fire-resistant)
polymer-based additives. This makes • From: http://www.risklogic.com/articles/
oct1999.html.
ditional due diligence by considering new polyol ester fluids available for
operating conditions, rate of fluid top- applications that require new FM ap-
off, equipment design (including con- proval and/or ISO approval where op-
struction materials) and economics,” erators prefer not to use fluids that
he says. Goldstein also believes that as contain water or phosphate ester.5
regulation continue to drive up the to- The chemical nature of these new
tal cost of ownership for conventional polyol ester bases also makes them tive fluid once chemistry is proven. As
fluids, it will improve the relative af- readily biodegradable for applications long as there are changes in the way
fordability of advanced synthetic fluids. that require environmentally friendly operators run and OEMs design their
fluids. Drain intervals and cold-weath- equipment, there will be a need for in-
Developing New FRFs er performance are superior to that of novation.”
Phillips isn’t optimistic that any new vegetable-derived fluids. LeBarge says that while FRF re-
FRFs will be on the horizon soon. He “There’s always a need for innova- search isn’t at the forefront at KOST
points out that FRFs are a niche mar- tion, whether to improve fire resis- USA, it’s not at a standstill either. “We
ket and any new chemistry would be tance, extend fluid life, reduce wear or continue to develop our fluids, but
extremely expensive to develop. prevent varnish build-up,” Goldstein due to the competitive nature of larger
The only intriguing relatively new says. “Further, there’s always a push to volume FRFs the return on investment
products are fire-resistant polyol es- reliably produce the most cost-effec- on a product modification must be
4
From: http://www.aist.org/magazine/06april_98_101.pdf.
5
ISO 12922:2012, which replaces ISO 12922: 2002, specifies the minimum requirements of unused fire resistant and less-flammable hydraulic fluids for
hydrostatic and hydrodynamic systems in general industrial applications. It provides guidance for suppliers and end-users of these fluids and to OEMs of the
hydraulic equipment in which they are used. It does not apply to aerospace or power-generation applications, which have different requirements.
What causes hydraulic fluid to escape?* evaluated. The cost of obtaining FM-approv-
al registration of a new or slightly modified
H igh-pressure pipe with welded and screwed joints, steel and

formula is greater than $20,000 per product,
and this is just for FM. This does not include
copper tubing, and metal-reinforced rubber hose are used to third-party pump testing or field trials to
distribute hydraulic fluid at pressures as high as 10,000 psi. qualify the performance of the product.”
Failure of piping, particularly at the threaded sections, fail- As FRF regulations continue to tighten
ure of valves and gaskets or fittings, pulling out of copper and lubricants continue to operate under
and steel tubing from fittings, and rupture of flexible hose harsher conditions with no single fluid tech-
are the principal causes of oil releases from systems. nology offering affordability and all-round
Repeated flexing and abrasion of rubber hoses against performance, there is an opportunity for the
other hoses or machine parts can create weak spots, industry to reinvent FRFs beyond what’s in
which eventually result in rupture. Lack of adequate use today.
supports or anchors that lead to vibration or move-
ment of piping has been a factor in some of these
failures. Also, tubing under pressure can release
oil when accidentally cut by welding torches or
other equipment.
• From: http://www.risklogic.com/articles/oct1999.html.
Jean Van Rensselar heads her own communications firm,

Smart PR Communications, in Naperville, Ill. You can reach
her at jean@smartprcommunications.com.
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Lecture 1

INTRODUCTION TO HYDRAULICS AND PNEUMATICS

Upon completion of this chapter, the student should be able to:

Explain the meaning of fluid power.

1.2 Fluid Power and Its Scope

Fluid power applications can be classified into two major segments:

Production and assembly of vehicles of all types.

Machine tools and transfer lines.

Table 1.1 More applications of fluid power

Agriculture Tractors; farm equipment such as mowers, ploughs,

Automation Automated transfer lines, robotics

Automobiles Power steering, power brakes, suspension systems,

Aviation Fluid power equipment such as landing wheels in aircraft.

Construction For metering and mixing of concrete rudders, excavators,

Fabrication industry Hand tools such as pneumatic drills, grinders, borers,

Instrumentation Used to create/operate complex instruments in space

Machine tools Automated machine tools, numerically controlled(NC)

Medical Medical equipment such as breathing assistors, heart assist

Newspapers and periodicals Edge trimming, stapling, pressing, bundle wrapping

Oil industry Off-shore oil rigs

Robots Fluid power operated robots, pneumatic systems

Ships Stabilizing systems, unloading and loading unit, gyroscopic

Transportation Hydraulic elevators, winches, overhead trams

The following are the two types of hydraulic systems:

1.3 Classification of Fluid Power Systems

Open-loop system: There is no feedback in the open system and performance is

The advantages of a fluid power system are as follows:

2. Multiplication and variation of forces: Linear or rotary force can be multiplied by a

1.7 Basic Components of a Hydraulic System

Hydraulic systems are power-transmitting assemblies employing pressurized liquid as a fluid

Figure 1.1 Components of a hydraulic system

Functions of the components shown in Fig. 1.1 are as follows:

Cylinder movement is controlled by a three-position change over a control valve.

Motor Directional control valve

Figure 1.2 Components of a hydraulic system (shown using symbols).

1. The power device parallels the electrical generating station.

1.8 Basic Components of a Pneumatic System

Pressure 1 – Off 2 – Forward 3- Return

Figure 1.3 Components of a pneumatic system.

The functions of various components shown in Fig. 1.3 are as follows:

Table 1.2 Comparison between a hydraulic and a pneumatic system</table>

S. No. Hydraulic System Pneumatic System

It employs a pressurized liquid It employs a compressed gas, usually

2. An oil hydraulic system operates at A pneumatic system usually operates

5. Valve operations are difficult Valve operations are easy

6. Heavier in weight Lighter in weight

Pumps are used to provide Compressors are used to provide

Automatic lubrication is provided Special arrangements for lubrication

Table 1.3 Comparison of different power systems</table>

Property Mechanical Electrical Pneumatic Hydraulic

Input energy I C engines I C engines I C engines I C engines

Control Fair Best Good Good

The automation market in India is estimated to be 1/10ththat of China. If India has to

1. As the economy grows, this industry grows.

Fill in the Blanks

4. Only are capable of providing constant force or torque regardless of speed

5. The weight-to-power ratio of a hydraulic system is comparatively than that of an

State True or False

1. Hydraulic lines can burst and pose serious problems.

2. Power losses and leakages are less in pneumatic systems.

3. Pneumatic system is not free from fire hazards.

4. Hydraulic power is especially useful when performing heavy work.

5. Water is a good functional hydraulic fluid.

2. Symbol Rules 2.5.1 Circle and SemiCircle