Unsteady MHD Hybrid Nanoparticle

(Au-Al2 O3 /Blood) Mediated Blood Flow

Through a Vertical Irregular Stenosed
Artery: Drug Delivery Applications

Rishu Gandhi and Bhupendra K. Sharma

Abstract The current study investigates the influence of hybrid nanoparticles (Au
& Al2 O3 ) on blood flow through a vertical artery with irregular stenosis with two-
dimensional pulsatile blood flow, an inclined external magnetic field, viscous dis-
sipation, and Joule heating. The blood flow is assumed to be unsteady, laminar,
viscous, and incompressible, and the artery walls are considered permeable. The
Reynolds temperature-dependent viscosity model is used to determine the variable
viscosity effects. The governing momentum and energy equations are solved using
Crank–Nicolson finite difference method by employing an appropriate coordinate
transformation to build an accurate mesh using rectangular mesh units. Outcomes of
the work are represented graphically for non-dimensional velocity, wall shear stress,
flow rate, and non-dimensional temperature, respectively. The recent findings could
be useful to biological researchers looking into the therapy of different cardiovascular
disorders.

Keywords Irregular-shaped stenosis · Heat transfer · Joule heating ·

Temperature-dependent viscosity · Hybrid nanoparticles

1 Introduction

Cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) have become a significant global public health issue,
with the highest morbidity and mortality rates among all conditions. A growing body
of evidence in the scientific literature indicates vascular fluid dynamics plays a vital
role in the onset and progression of arterial disorders. Stenosis is a term used to
describe narrowing an artery segment’s lumen. This is caused by the deposition
of numerous chemicals on the endothelium of the artery wall, such as cholesterol.
Many researchers have studied blood circulation dynamics via stenosed arteries, both

R. Gandhi (B) · B. K. Sharma

Department of Mathematics, Birla Institute of Technology and Science, Pilani, Rajasthan, India
e-mail: rishugandhi155@gmail.com
URL: https://www.bits-pilani.ac.in

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 325
S. Banerjee and A. Saha (eds.), Nonlinear Dynamics and Applications,
Springer Proceedings in Complexity,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-99792-2_28
326 R. Gandhi and B. K. Sharma

theoretically and experimentally. Ponalagusamy et al. [12] investigated blood flow

through an artery with tapered stenosis considering an unsteady two-fluid model
of blood. Basri et al. [2] employed Fluid-Structure Interaction to perform a tran-
sient study of three pulse cycles to examine hemodynamic parameters in normal and
single stenosed renal arteries. Chandgar et al. [4] considered an inclined multiple
stenosed artery and analyzed drug transport utilizing spherical gold nanoparticles by
employing a single-phase model as well as a discrete-phase model. Mensah et al.
[10] highlighted the 15 most prevalent causes of death from cardiovascular disor-
ders and the 13 risk factors associated with them. Ponalagusamy [11] depicted a
four-layered mathematical model of blood flow through a mildly stenosed artery. To
determine how varying core viscosity influences blood flow control, they compared
the outcomes for variable core viscosity with constant core viscosity. By considering
blood as a biomagnetic fluid, Sharma et al. [15] explored Soret and Dufour’s effects
in an artery with tapering effects. Chen et al. [5] examined the influence of coexisting
cardiovascular disease on the severity of COVID-19 and discovered that COVID-19
could have a significant effect on heart function and lead to myocardial damage.
Majee et al. [9] conducted a comprehensive study on targeted drug delivery with
magnetic nanoparticles with the goal of better understanding the blood flow in an
atherosclerotic artery. Shahzadi et al. [13] addressed the importance of permeability
in hybrid nanofluid blood flow through a bifurcated stenosed artery. She discov-
ered that permeability effects are more efficient at reducing hemodynamic effects in
atherosclerotic arteries with bifurcation effects. Tripathi et al. [17] investigated the
impact of heat and mass transmission through a stenosed artery considering the vari-
able magnetic field and varying viscosity. Kumawat et al. [8] investigated two-phase
blood flow in a curved artery with time-variant stenosis, taking into account variable
viscosity in the core and plasma region, respectively. Sharma et al. [14] investigated
heat transmission and entropy generation in a multi-stenosed artery with tapering
effects, viscous dissipation, radiation, and Joule heating using hybrid nanoparticles
(gold and alumina).
Nanotechnology’s application in biomedicine is a rapidly growing field with
promising prospects for improving human illness diagnosis and therapy. The capacity
to incorporate medications into a functionalized nanoparticle marks a new beginning
in which drugs can be delivered to tissues or cells selectively. Consistent drug delivery
to a target produces a more substantial therapeutic effect with lower drug levels than
conventional dosing approaches. This research work is also motivated by the benefits
of the nanoparticle drug delivery system. Having surveyed the literature, it is visu-
alized that the inclined external magnetic field effects on hybrid nanoparticles (Au
& Al2 O3 ) via a vertical artery with irregular stenosis having permeable walls is not
investigated yet. Most studies have overlooked the effects of Joule heating, viscous
dissipation, and variable viscosity in blood flow problems. In this work, the Reynolds
model for temperature-dependent viscosity is employed. The form of the stenosis
or the fatty buildup of particles on the artery wall cannot be precisely described
so, we’ve considered an irregular geometry of stenosis. The study’s objective is to
explore inclined magnetic field effects through an irregular stenosed artery consider-
Unsteady MHD Hybrid Nanoparticle (Au-Al2 O3 /Blood) Mediated … 327

Fig. 1 The geometrical

representation of an artery
with irregular stenosis

ing permeable wall conditions in the presence of Joule heating, viscous dissipation,
and variable viscosity.

2 Mathematical Modeling

The cylindrical coordinate system (r1∗ , θ̃, z 1∗ ) is considered to analyze the blood flow
behavior through a vertical artery with irregular stenosis by assuming blood as a
Newtonian fluid. The flow is in the radial (i.e., r1∗ -axis) and axial (z 1∗ -axis) directions
respectively. The mild stenotic assumption reduces the bi-directional flow to uni-
directional flow. The impact of an inclined external magnetic field, Joule heating,
pulsatile blood flow, and viscous dissipation is the subject of this study. The induced
magnetic field is considered meager compared to the applied magnetic field. Figure 1
represents the geometry of the artery with suspended nanoparticles.
The geometry of the stenosis (irregular-shaped) [18] is assumed as

R(z ∗ ) =
⎧ 1       
⎨ z 1∗ −d
R0 − 2δ cos 2π 2 −
L0
− 7
100 cos
32π
z 1∗ − d − L0
d ≤ z 1∗ ≤ d + L 0 ,
L0 4 L0 2 (1)
⎩
R0 otherwise.

where R(z 1∗ ) represents the radius of the artery’s stenosed portion, d indicates the
stenosis location, R0 represents the radius of the artery in the non-stenotic area, δ
represents the critical stenosis height, and L 0 represents the length of the stenosis.
328 R. Gandhi and B. K. Sharma

2.1 Governing Equations

The velocity and temperature fields for the present study are defined as follows in
the case of unsteady and axisymmetric hybrid nanoparticle-doped blood flow:

Ṽ ∗ = Ṽ ∗ [u ∗1 (r1∗ , z 1∗ , t1∗ ), 0, w1∗ (r1∗ , z 1∗ , t1∗ )] , T̃ ∗ = T̃ ∗ (r1∗ , z 1∗ , t1∗ )

where u ∗1 represents the radial component and w1∗ represents the axial component
respectively.

The governing equations of the flow are represented as:

∂u ∗1 u ∗1 ∂w1∗
+ + =0 (2)
∂r1∗ r1∗ ∂z 1∗

   ∗
∂u ∗1 ∗
∗ ∂u 1
∗
∗ ∂u 1 ∂ p1∗ 1 ∂ ∗ ∂u 1
ρhn f ∗ + u1 ∗ + w1 ∗ = − ∗ + ∗ ∗ μhn f (T̃ ) ∗
∂t1 ∂r1 ∂z 1 ∂r1 r ∂r ∂r1
 1 1  ∗ 
∂ ∗ ∂u 1 ∂w1∗
+ ∗ μhn f (T̃ ) +
∂z 1 ∂z 1∗ ∂r1∗
∗
u
− 2μhn f (T̃ ∗ ) ∗21 − σhn f B02 cos 2 ξw1∗ (3)
r1

    ∗ 
∂w1∗ ∗ ∂w1
∗
∗ ∂w1
∗
∂ p1∗ 1 ∂ ∗ ∗ ∂u 1 ∂w1∗
ρhn f ∗ + u1 ∗ + w1 ∗ =− + r μ hn f ( T̃ ) +
∂t1 ∂r1 ∂z 1 ∂z 1∗ r ∗ ∂r ∗ 1 ∂z 1∗ ∂r1∗
 1 1 
∂ ∂w ∗
+ ∗ 2μhn f (T̃ ∗ ) ∗1
∂z 1 ∂z 1
+ (ργ)hn f g(T̃ ∗ − T̃1∗ ) − σhn f B02 sin 2 ξw1∗ (4)

   
∂ T̃ ∗ ∗ ∂ T̃
∗
∗ ∂ T̃
∗
∂ 2 T̃ ∗ 1 ∂ T̃ ∗ ∂ 2 T̃ ∗
(ρC p )hn f ∗ + u1 ∗ + w1 ∗ = khn f + ∗ ∗ +
∂t1 ∂r1 ∂z 1 ∂r1∗2 r1 ∂r1 ∂z 1∗2
+ σhn f B02 sin 2 ξw1∗2 + φ∗ (5)

where
 2  2  2   
∗ ∂u ∗1 u ∗1 ∂w1∗ 1 ∂u ∗1 ∂w1∗ 2
φ = 2μhn f + + + + (6)
∂r1∗ r1∗ ∂z 1∗ 2 ∂z 1∗ ∂r1∗

The boundary conditions for the flow are:

Unsteady MHD Hybrid Nanoparticle (Au-Al2 O3 /Blood) Mediated … 329

Fig. 2 a Thermophysical parameters of hybrid nanofluid [6], b Thermophysical properties of blood

and nanoparticles

∂w1∗ ∂ T̃ ∗
∗ = 0, = 0 at r1∗ = 0; (7)
∂r1 ∂r1∗

∂w1∗ α
w = ws , = ∗ (ws − w por ous ), T̃ ∗ = T̃w∗ at r1∗ = R, (8)
∂r1∗ k1

where w por ous is the velocity in the permeable boundary, ws is the slip velocity, Da is
the Darcy number, α (called the slip parameter) is a dimensionless quantity depending
on the material parameters which characterize the structure of the permeable material
within the boundary region.
The initial conditions are assumed as:

w1∗ = 0, T̃ ∗ = 0 at t1∗ = 0 (9)

Figure 2a depicts the thermophysical parameters of hybrid nanofluid whereas

Fig. 2b shows the thermophyiscal properties of blood and nanoparticles.
Blood flows through the cardiovascular system due to the heart’s pumping motion,
causing a pressure gradient across the vascular network. The pressure gradient is
separated into two parts: non-fluctuating (continuous) and fluctuating (pulsatile) [3]:
330 R. Gandhi and B. K. Sharma

∂ p1∗
− = A0 + A1 cos(w p t1∗ ), t1∗ > 0 (10)
∂z 1∗

where w p = 2π f p , f p denotes the heart pulse frequency, A0 signifies the amplitudes

of the steady-state component, and A1 represents the pulsatile components of the
pressure gradient, respectively.
The preceding governing equations (2)–(5) are non-dimensionalized to achieve a
numerical solution by introducing the following transformation variables:

r1∗ w1∗ L 0 u ∗1 ∗ U0 t1∗ z 1∗ R02 p1∗ T̃ ∗ −T̃1∗

r̄1∗ = R0
, w̄1∗ = U0
, ū ∗1 = δ ∗ U0 1
, t¯ = R0
, z̄ 1∗ = L0
, p̄1∗ = U0 L 0 μ0
, θ̃ = T̃w∗ −T̃1∗
,
ws w por ous Q 0 R02 U0 ρ f R 0
R̄ = R
R0
, d̄ = d
L0
, w̄s = U0
, w̄ por ous = U0
, Q= (T̃w∗ −T̃1∗ )k f
, Re = μf
,
ρ f R02 gγ f (T̃w∗ −T̃1∗ ) σ f B02 R02 U02 μ f Cp
Gr = μ f U0
, M2 = μf
, Ec = C p (T̃w∗ −T̃1∗ )
, Pr = kf
,
k1∗ μ f U02
Da = R02
, Br = Ec Pr = k f (T̃w∗ −T̃1∗ )
. (11)

After inserting the non-dimensionalized variables, the normalized form of the pres-
sure gradient is:
∂ p1∗
− = B1 [1 + ecos(c1 t1∗ )] (12)
∂z 1∗

where

A1 A0 R02 2π R0 f p
e= , B1 = , c1 = (13)
A0 μ0 U0 U0

With the substitution of variables given in (11), ignoring the bars, assuming that
in comparison to the radius of the artery, the maximal height of stenosis is lesser,
i.e., δ(= δ ∗ /R0 ) << 1 and the radius of the artery and the length of the stenotic
area have comparable magnitudes, i.e., (=R 0 /L 0 ) = O(1),
 and further utilizing
r1∗
the radial coordiante transformation given by x1∗ = R(z 1∗ )
, the governing (2)–(5)
become:

   2 ∗ 
ρhn f ∂w1∗ ∗ μhn f (θ̃) 1 ∂ w1 1 ∂w1∗
Re = B1 [1 + ecos(c1 t1 )] + + ∗
ρ f ∂t1∗ μ0 R2 ∂x1∗2 x1 ∂x1∗
(ργ)hn f σhn f 2 ∗
+ Gr θ̃ − M w1 (14)
(ργ) f σf
Unsteady MHD Hybrid Nanoparticle (Au-Al2 O3 /Blood) Mediated … 331

Table 1 The values of emerging parameters

Parameters φ1 φ2 d B1 c1 e δ β0 ws α ξ M Gr Da Re Pr Ec
√
Value 0.03 0.03 0.56 1.41 1 0.2 0.1 0.5 0.1 0.1 π/4 3 0.5 0.1 2 21 0.1


 2 
(ρC p )hn f ∂ θ̃ 1 khn f 1 ∂ θ̃ 1 ∂ θ̃ σhn f EcM 2 ∗2
= + ∗ + w1
(ρC p ) f ∂t1∗ Re Pr k f R 2 ∗2
∂x1 ∗
x1 ∂x1 σf Re
  ∗ 2
μhn f (θ̃) Ec 1 ∂w1
+ (15)
μ0 Re R 2 ∂x1∗

Here, Reynolds viscosity model [7] is considered for the temperature-dependent

viscosity, which is as follows:

μ f (θ̃) = μ0 e−β0 θ̃ = μ0 [1 − β0 θ̃] where β0 << 1 (16)

The associated boundary conditions (7), (8) and the initial conditions (9) becomes:

∂w1∗

1 ∂w1∗

α ∗ ∗ ∂ θ̃

= 0, = √ (w − w ), w | = w , = 0, θ̃|x1∗ =1 = 1
∂x1∗
x ∗ =0 R ∂x1∗
x ∗ =1 1 x1 =1
∂x1∗
x ∗ =0
s por ous s
1 1
Da 1
(17)

w1∗ |t1∗ =0 = 0, θ̃|t1∗ =0 = 0 (18)

The wall shear stress (WSS) and the flow rate are expressed as:
 
1 ∂w1∗
τw = − (19)
R ∂x1∗ x1∗ =1
 1
Q 1 = 2π R 2 w1∗ x1∗ d x1∗ (20)
0

The equations given by (14) and (15) are coupled partial differential equations,
and numerical schemes are often used to solve these equations as finding an exact
solution is a tedious work. The Crank–Nicolson scheme is based on the implicit finite
difference method. The fact that this method is unconditionally stable is one of the
key reasons for its use [16]. Furthermore, the order of convergence is two in time and
space. The step size in the spatial direction is x = 1/N+1, discretizing the spatial
variable in N+1 grid points. The value of t k given as t k = (k − 1)dt, determines the
time instant, and dt signifies a small increment in time. The method being implicit
is stable for any value of dt and d x, we have chosen the values very precisely as
dt = 0.0001 and d x = 0.0001. Also, no further change is noticed in the results with
a decrement in these values. The reduced system of Eqs. (14) and (15) are solved
332 R. Gandhi and B. K. Sharma

using the Tri-diagonal Matrix Algorithm (TDMA) [1] as they form a tri-diagonal
system of equations.

3 Results and Graphical Analysis

The goal of this study is to investigate the hemodynamic features under the effect of
pulsatile blood flow via an artery with irregular stenosis, an inclined external magnetic
field, viscous dissipation, and Joule heating incorporating hybrid nanoparticles. The
validation of the work done is depicted by Fig. 3. Streamline contours for different
flow parameters are depicted in Figs. 4 and 5. The results for velocity, wall shear
stress, volumetric flow rate, and temperature are illustrated graphically in Figs. 6, 7,
8 and 9. The computational work has been carried out by using the data illustrated
in the Table 1.

3.1 Validation of the Numerical Results

The results obtained are compared with previously published work to authenticate
the results obtained in the present study. Figure 3a, b are used for validating velocity
and temperature profiles of the present work with previous study done by Tripathi et
al. [18]. The results are compared for Au-nanoparticles, which is common in both
the research work and the effect of the Darcy number (Da), velocity slip (α), and
Eckert number (Ec) has been ignored. Tripathi et al. [18] used the FTCS scheme
to solve the dimensionless governing equations. Therefore, in this comparison, the
FTCS scheme is employed for [18] work, and the Crank–Nicolson scheme is used
in the current study. These figures show a good agreement between our study for
velocity and temperature with the previous research [18].
The velocity contours depict the actual blood flow patterns as these correctly
illustrate the research efforts. Figures 4 and 5 represent these contours for different
influential parameters. The impact of ws is depicted in Fig. 4. The number of trapped
boluses and their size increases with increasing ws values implying that the velocity
profile elevates with an increase in ws . The slip effect amplifies the acceleration in
the axial flow, which is the reason for elevation in velocity profiles with increasing
ws values. The velocity contours for different Re values are illustrated in Fig. 5.
With increasing Re values, the trapped boluses become fewer and eventually vanish,
suggesting a drop in velocity values. The regime becomes viscous-dominated at low
Re values. As a result, a drop in velocity is correlated with a rise in Re values.
The velocity profiles for Darcy number (Da), wall slip velocity (ws ), inclination
parameter (ξ), and varying concentrations of Au & Al2 O3 nanoparticles (φ1 , φ2 ) are
illustrated in Fig. 6. Figure 6a shows the influence of Da on non-dimensional velocity
profiles in the presence and absence of a magnetic field. The medium’s permeability
increases as the value of Da rises, resulting in a declination of the velocity profile.
Unsteady MHD Hybrid Nanoparticle (Au-Al2 O3 /Blood) Mediated … 333

√
Fig. 3 a Comparison of velocity profile for M 2 = 3, b Comparison of temperature profile for Pr
= 21

Fig. 4 Velocity contours for wall slip velocity a ws = 0.03, b ws = 0.05, c ws = 0.1

Fig. 5 Velocity contours for Reynolds number a Re = 2, b Re = 3, c Re = 5

It’s also worth noting that when M 2 rises, the velocity profile declines slightly. This
demonstrates that using a magnetic field to reduce blood velocity is advantageous.
The velocity profiles for different values of ws is represented by Fig. 6b. The hydro-
dynamic wall slip effect causes the axial flow to accelerate as the wall slip velocity
increases. The inclusion of slip results in a momentum increases at the application
zone, which improves the velocity profile. The Au-Al2 O3 /blood hybrid nanofluid
consistently reaches lower magnitudes than the Au/blood nanofluid, showing the
presence of Al2 O3 nanoparticles decelerates the blood flow. Figure 6c highlights the
influence of ξ on the dimensionless velocity profile. With increasing values of ξ, a
decreasing trend in velocity profiles is observed. This is because as the angle of incli-
nation increases, the influence of the magnetic field on fluid particles increases. Thus,
334 R. Gandhi and B. K. Sharma

Fig. 6 Effect of a Darcy number (Da), b wall slip velocity (ws ), c inclination parameter (ξ), and d
varying concentrations of Au & Al2 O3 nanoparticles (φ1 , φ2 ) on velocity at z 1∗ = 1.06 and t1∗ = 1.2

Fig. 7 Influence of a stenotic depth (δ), b viscosity parameter (β0 ), on wall shear stress at t1∗ = 1.2

the Lorentz force enhances, which causes a reduction in velocity values. The influence
of varying concentrations of Au & Al2 O3 nanoparticles (φ1 , φ2 ) on velocity profile is
shown in Fig. 6d. The value φ1 = 0.01, φ2 = 0.05 shows minimal velocity, whereas
the maximum velocity is shown for φ1 = 0.05, φ2 = 0.01. This demonstrates that Au
& Al2 O3 nanoparticles show opposite effects on velocity. The velocity profiles show
an enhancement with an increase in the concentration of Au-nanoparticles, whereas
a decrement in velocity profile is analyzed with an increase in Al2 O3 -nanoparticles.
This benefits bringing blood velocity under control and allowing surgeons to make
adjustments as needed.
The profiles corresponding to wall shear stress are demonstrated in Fig. 7 for
stenotic depth (δ) and viscosity parameter (β0 ). The wall shear stress profiles high-
lighting the impact of δ are represented by Fig. 7a. As shown by the profiles, the
Unsteady MHD Hybrid Nanoparticle (Au-Al2 O3 /Blood) Mediated … 335

Fig. 8 Effect of a different concentrations of Au-nanoparticles (φ1 ), b varying concentrations of

Au & Al2 O3 nanoparticles (φ1 , φ2 ) on Flow rate at t1∗ = 1.2

values of wall shear stress show a decrement with increasing δ values. This implies
that there are lower shear stress values with an increment in the stenotic depth.
These lower values are more dangerous, as suggested by Zhang et al. [19] in their
study. Figure 7b signifies the wall shear stress profiles for different values of β0 . With
an increase in the β0 values corresponding increase in the wall shear stress values
is observed. The increment in wall shear stress denotes that the particles’ internal
resistance has decreased as the magnitude of the viscosity parameter has increased.
The volumetric flow rate is the amount of fluid(blood) that flows in a given amount
of time. The flow rate profiles for varying concentrations of Au-nanoparticles (φ1 ) and
varying concentrations of Au & Al2 O3 nanoparticles (φ1 , φ2 ) are depicted in Fig. 8.
Figure 8a represents the influence of Au-nanoparticles concentration on volumetric
flow rate. According to the findings, the flow rate profiles demonstrate an increasing
trend with increasing concentration of Au-nanoparticles. The flow rate profiles for
the influence of varying concentrations of Au & Al2 O3 nanoparticles is shown in
Fig. 8b. It can be interpreted that there is a declination in flow rate on increasing the
concentration of Al2 O3 nanoparticles, whereas it enhances with increment in Au-
nanoparticles. So, it can be concluded from Fig. 8a and b that the Al2 O3 nanoparticles
reduce the flow rate.
The non-dimensional temperature profiles for Eckert number (Ec) and Prandtl
number (Pr) are illustrated by Fig. 9. Figure 9a depicts the impact of Ec on the non-
dimensional temperature profile. The Ec describes how work against viscous fluid
stress converts kinetic energy into internal energy. The heat energy develops in the
fluid due to this conversion which causes the fluid’s (blood) temperature to rise. As
a result, a rise in Ec denotes a higher temperature distribution. Figure 9b portrays the
non-dimensional temperature profiles for different values of Pr. With increasing Pr,
the temperature profiles show a decreasing trend. The Pr is a dimensionless quantity
that correlates viscosity to thermal conductivity in a fluid. As a result, it determines
the link between the motion of a fluid and its heat transfer capacity. The thickness of
the thermal boundary layer reduces, which means the transfer of heat from the artery
decreases with increasing Pr values leading to a declination of arterial temperature.
336 R. Gandhi and B. K. Sharma

Fig. 9 The non-dimensional temperature profiles for a Eckert number (Ec), b Prandtl number (Pr)
at z 1∗ = 1.06 and t1∗ = 1.2

4 Conclusions

This study focuses on the influence of hybrid nanoparticles on blood flow through
an artery with mild irregular stenosis. This model aims to improve nanoparticle drug
delivery to a desired location in the human body. The partial differential equations are
solved using an implicit finite difference scheme, i.e., the Crank–Nicolson scheme.
The effects of a wide range of physical parameters have been evaluated on axial
blood velocity, temperature profile, volumetric flow rate, and artery wall shear stress
(WSS). The following are some of the study’s key findings: The streamline contours
illustrate that as ws increases, so does the velocity. The velocity profile diminishes
as Da and ξ are increased. The profiles for wall shear stress show an enhancement
with increasing β0 values, whereas an increase in δ leads to lower profiles. The flow
rate increases as φ1 increases but decreases as φ2 increases. The temperature profiles
increase as the Ec values rise but decrease as the Pr values rise.

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