Food Control 130 (2021) 108326

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Food Control
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/foodcont

Impedimetric sensing of honey adulterated with high fructose corn syrup

Ta-Kang Huang a, Min-Chieh Chuang b, Yi Kung a, Bo-Chuan Hsieh a, *
a
Department of Biomechatronics Engineering, National Taiwan University, No. 1, Sec. 4, Roosevelt Rd., Taipei, 10617, Taiwan
b
Department of Chemistry, Tunghai University, Taichung, 40704, Taiwan

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Honey adulteration is a highlighted global issue in the modern food supply chain, the most commonly seen case
Honey adulteration is to cut honey with cheap and easily available sugar-based sweeteners, such as high fructose corn syrup (HFCS).
High fructose corn syrup To acquire a precise impedimetric response from such a high resistance sample, a low cell constant (13.9 cm− 1)
Impedance
electrochemical chamber composed of two identical bare gold electrodes was developed for investigating the
Label-free
Reagentless
impedimetric differences among pure honey, blended honey, and HFCS. Charge transfer resistance (RCT) and
logarithmic impedance (Log Z, in a broad frequency range of 101–105 Hz) were useful to discriminate all pure
honeys from blended honeys with good resolution and reproducibility (relative standard deviations of RCT and
Log Z were both less than 3% in triplicate tests). The data acquisition time for obtaining RCT and Log Z were only
3 min and 4 s, respectively, which means the proposed sensing approach is suitable for routine rapid screening
purpose.

1. Introduction
Honey is one of the most famous natural products with its unique
flavor characteristics, high nutritional value, and medical benefits that
has been widely consumed as food additive or traditional medicine in
our daily life for centuries (Khan, Abadin, & Rauf, 2007; Al-Waili,
Salom, & Al-Ghamdi, 2011; Eteraf-Oskouei & Najafi, 2013). In recent
years, the worldwide climate change and pesticide abuse have signifi­
cantly influenced honeybee colonies and led to a considerable drop in
honey yields (Le Conte & Navajas, 2008; Jung & Cho, 2015). Because the
supply of honey cannot meet market demand, it therefore has become an
attractive target of adulteration for commercial profits (Zábrodská &
Vorlov; Kendall et al., 2019). It has also been reported that the most
frequent way of adulteration is the addition of inexpensive sugar-based
sweeteners, such as corn syrup, invert sugar syrup, rice syrup, and high
fructose corn syrup (HFCS) (Siddiqui, Musharraf, Choudhary, & Rah­
man, 2017; Li, Huang, Xia, Xiong, & Min, 2020; Naila, Flint, Sulaiman,
Ajit, & Weeds, 2018; Song et al., 2020). Among these adulterants, HFCS
is relatively difficult to identify by conventional methods, since its main
chemical composition (e.g. fructose-to-glucose ratio) is very similar to
that of honey (Abdel-Aal, Ziena, & Youssef, 1993; Berriel & Perdomo,
2016; Wheeler & Robinson, 2014).
The most effective analytical technique for the issue of HFCS adul­
teration is stable carbon isotope ratio mass spectrometry by
distinguishing the isotopic δ13C feature from pure honey (Cabañero,
Recio, & Rupérez, 2006). Besides, low field nuclear magnetic resonance
spectroscopy (Ribeiro et al., 2014), Fourier transform infrared spec­
troscopy (Gallardo-Velázquez, Osorio-Revilla, Loa, & Rivera-Espinoza,
2009), near-infrared spectroscopy (Kelly, Petisco, & Downey, 2006),
Raman spectroscopy (Li, Shan, Zhu, Zhang, & Ling, 2012), ion mobility
spectroscopy (Aliaño-González, Ferreiro-González, Espada-Bellido,
Barbero, & Palma, 2020), laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy
(Peng et al., 2020), gas chromatography (Ruiz-Matute, Soria, Martí­
nez-Castro, & Sanz, 2007), high performance liquid chromatography
(Abdel-Aal et al., 1993), high performance anion exchange chroma­
tography (He, Lei, & Sun, 2013), and electronic tongue (Sobrino-Gre­
gorio, Bataller, Soto, & Escriche, 2018) have also been established to
assess the adulteration with such a ubiquitous sweetener. Although the
aforementioned methods were proven to be advantageous in high
sensitivity, precision, and accuracy; they are still too laborious, costly,
and need data interpretation which are inapplicable to routine screening
purposes.
During the last decades, electrochemical and electrical impedance
spectroscopy (EIS) has been demonstrated as a promising tool to be
widespread applied in food related areas as a result of its distinct merits
of simplicity, cost-effectiveness, and high-throughput. For example, the
evaluation of fruit ripeness (Rehman, Abu Izneid, Abdullah, & Arshad,
2011; Kuson & Terdwongworakul, 2013; Chowdhury, Bera, Ghoshal, &

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: hsiehpc@ntu.edu.tw (B.-C. Hsieh).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodcont.2021.108326
Received 3 October 2020; Received in revised form 27 May 2021; Accepted 7 June 2021
Available online 10 June 2021
0956-7135/© 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
T.-K. Huang et al. Food Control 130 (2021) 108326

Chakraborty, 2017), the detection of artificial chemical additives in
juices (Nakonieczna, Paszkowski, Wilczek, Szypłowska, & Skierucha,
2016), the determination of herbicide in milk and tomato (Farahi et al.,
2015), the evaluation of fish freshness (Niu & Lee, 2000; Pérez-Esteve
et al., 2014), the assessment of cooking oil quality (Khaled, Aziz, &
Rokhani, 2014), the prediction of moisture content in fish (Chevalier,
Ossart, & Ghommidh, 2006), the determination of honey floral origin
(Scandurra, Tripodi, & Verzera, 2013), the assessment of beef meat
ageing (Damez, Clerjon, Abouelkaram, & Lepetit, 2008), the detection of
food hazards (Chai & Oh, 2020), the measurement of yeast propagation
during beer brewing (Brunauer, Spadiut, Gruber, & Slouka, 2020), and
the investigation of food-packaging interactions (Ciobotaru, Ciobotaru,
Vaireanu, & Benga, 2018) were extensively developed by EIS-based
techniques. Briefly, the principle of EIS is based on the application of
AC voltage (with a small sinusoidal perturbation at fixed frequency) to
an electrochemical cell (generally composed of two-, three-, or
four-electrode configurations) containing the analyte being investi­
gated, the corresponding AC current response at the same frequency is
monitored and converted it into complex impedance. The above process
is repeated throughout numerous frequencies for constructing a Nyquist
plot (where for each frequency, real part of impedance (ZRe) is plotted
versus imaginary part of impedance (ZIm)). By fitting the Nyquist curve
to an appropriate equivalent circuit model, the impedimetric charac­
teristics of the analyte could be resolved precisely (Grossi & Riccò, 2017;
Aguedo, Lorencova, Barath, Farkas, & Tkac, 2020; Strong, Richards,
Torres, Beck, & La Belle, 2021). However, honey is a viscous object with
its extremely high resistance, precise data acquisition is incapable of
reaching under conventional EIS system configurations mainly attrib­
uted to the impedance mismatching problem. Our previous study has
constructed an electrochemical cell with low cell constant composed of
two screen-printed carbon paste electrodes which was successfully
applied to measure the impedance of a high resistance sample, biodiesel,
for its quality control (Kung, Hsieh, Cheng, Huang, & Chen, 2012).
Similar strategies have also been adopted for impedimetric sensing of
honey-related issues (Scandurra et al., 2013; Paszkowski, Wilczek,
Szypłowska, Nakonieczna, & Skierucha, 2014).
In this paper, the moisture content (by moisture analyzer) and vis­
cosity (by rotational viscometer) of pure honey, blended honey, and
HFCS were firstly obtained for comparing the general physical charac­
teristics among three kinds of commercial products. The differences of
EIS characteristics (by electrochemical impedance analyzer) were then
extensively investigated with a low cell constant electrochemical
chamber consisted of two identical bare gold electrodes. To evaluate the
feasibility of utilizing EIS for examining honey adulteration, the in­
fluences of food additives included in the blended honeys were also
evaluated. Finally, a statistical analysis of the impedimetric sensing re­
sults was performed to assess the reliability of discriminating honey
adulterations.
colorant was from Chulientop Ltd. (Yunlin, Taiwan). All samples and
food additives were stored in a dark place at room temperature
(20–25 ◦ C) prior to use. Deionized water (conductivity < 1 μS cm− 1) was
produced by a RDI pure water system (Sunway Scientific Co., Taipei,
Taiwan).
2.2. Moisture content
A total of 1 g of honey or syrup sample was weighted and spread
evenly on the disposable aluminum sample pan (HA-D90, Mettler
Toledo, Zurich, Switzerland). The moisture content was measured by a
halogen moisture analyzer (HG63, Mettler Toledo, Zurich, Switzerland)
at 120 ◦ C for 10 min. Each sample was analyzed in triplicate and the
average value was reported.
2.3. Viscosity
A total of 20 g of honey or syrup sample was transferred into a small
sample adaptor with circulating water jacket for temperature control
(SSA-18/13 R, AMETEK Brookfield, MA, U.S.A.). Viscosity was
measured using a rotational viscometer (DV2TLV, AMETEK Brookfield,
MA, U.S.A.) with No. SC4-18 spindle at 25 ◦ C at a shear rate of 6 rpm for
10 min. Each sample was analyzed in triplicate and the average value
was reported.
2.4. EIS measurement
In a cylindrical glass vessel, a total of 20 g of honey or syrup sample
was mixed with 5 g of deionized water (80% sample solution, w/w) and
degassed under ultrasonic bath (T760DH, Elma, Germany) working at
40 kHz, 170 W for 30 s. As shown in Fig. 1, two bare gold electrodes (2.0
mm in diameter, embedded in a 6.35 mm outside diameter plastic rod;
CHI101, CH Instruments, Inc., TX, U.S.A.) were put in parallel and fasten
by a rubber O-ring to ensure a fixed cell constant of 13.9 cm− 1, the gold
electrode pair was then gently immersed into the sample solution to
avoid bubbles attached to electrode surfaces. EIS measurement was
scanned from 1 MHz down to 1 Hz with an unbiased 100 mV sinusoidal
signal by using an Autolab PGSTAT-30 system equipped with an FRA2-
module, data acquisition and equivalent circuit model analysis were
done with the NOVA 1.10.3 software package (Eco Chemie B. V.,
Utrecht, Netherlands). The temperature of sample solution was

2. Materials and methods

2.1. Samples and food additives

Seventy-one authentic unifloral honey samples including 48 pure

longan honeys and 23 pure litchi honeys were bought from local su­
permarkets in the springtime during the period from 2016 to 2018, all of
the 71 pure honey products have certified labels proven by Taiwan
Beekeepers Association (longan and litchi trees generally blossom be­
tween March and May in Taiwan, honey bees collect nectar from the
flowers and transform it into honey in few days, beekeepers harvest its
honey once or twice a week in general). Twenty-six commercial blended
honey samples (mainly mixed syrups with pure honey, honey flavor and
caramel colorant according to the ingredients labels) and 9 commercial
high fructose corn syrup samples were also purchased from local su­
permarkets during the period from 2016 to 2018. Honey flavor was
obtained from Shiono Koryo Kaisha Ltd. (Osaka, Japan). Caramel Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of the EIS measurement setup.

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T.-K. Huang et al. Food Control 130 (2021) 108326

controlled at 25 ◦ C throughout the experiment with a thermostatic water

bath (D-606, Deng Yng, Taipei, Taiwan). All the EIS tests were con­
ducted in triplicate and the average value was obtained.

2.5. Statistical analysis

A one-way ANOVA followed by Tukey’s post-hoc test (v.26 SPSS

statistics, IBM) was conducted to assess the statistical significance of the
impedimetric sensing results among pure honey, blended honey, and
HFCS. A p-value of less than 0.001 was considered statistically
significant.

3. Results and discussion

3.1. Moisture content and viscosity

The moisture contents found in the certified 71 pure honeys ranged

from 15.73% to 18.43% which were well within the quality criteria
(≤20%) according to the European Union Council Directive (European
Commission, 2014). Although the 9 HFCS samples possessed generally
higher values of 21.14–22.19%, the 26 blended honeys still showed a
consistency (16.09–17.89%) similar to the pure ones. This phenomenon
suggested that the manufacturers well imitated the rheological behavior
of pure honey to achieve a natural pouring characteristic and a satis­
factory mouthfeel with some post-concentration processes for the
Fig. 2. (a) Nyquist diagram of the experimental EIS result of one pure honey
commercial blended products. A positive correlation with viscosity data
sample (open circle, Pure#47, Table S1) with a simulated spectrum fitted by the
also indicated the aforementioned conjecture, where the average vis­ conventional Randles model (dashed line) and another simulated spectrum
cosities of pure honeys, blended honeys, and HFCS samples were 4468 fitted by a modified Randles model (solid line); (b) conventional Randles
± 958, 3856 ± 713, and 855 ± 121 cP, espectively (see Supplementary model; (c) modified Randles model in which the Warburg impedance (W) is
Tables). For further understanding of the features of honey samples used replaced by a constant phase element (CPE). Each datum is the average of three
in this work, other physicochemical properties including sugar content, repetitive experiments with relative standard deviation less than 2%.
pH value, electrical conductivity, color intensity, turbidity, proline
content, and gluconate content of the same honey samples can be found 3.3. EIS characteristics of pure honey, blended honey and HFCS
in the documented article (Chen et al., 2018).
Fig. 3 demonstrates the typical Nyquist spectra of three types of
3.2. Selection of equivalent circuit model samples, in which pure honey (○, Pure#47, Table S1) exhibited much
smaller size of semicircle than both blended honey (■, Blended#12,
Fig. 2a shows a typical Nyquist curve of one pure honey sample Table S2) and HFCS (△, HFCS#5, Table S3). Because honey is well-
(open circle, Pure#47, Table S1), which consists of a semicircle pattern known to be abundant in natural antioxidants such as phenols, flavo­
at high frequency region with an oblique line at low frequency region. noids, and vitamins (León-Ruiz, Vera, González-Porto, & San Andrés,
Such experimental impedance spectra are generally explained by the
conventional Randles equivalent circuit model (Fig. 2b) which consists
of a solution resistance (RS), a double layer capacitance (CD), a charge
transfer resistance (RCT) and a Warburg impedance (W). However, an
unacceptable fitting (dashed line in Fig. 2a) between the simulated and
experimental spectrum was observed, especially in the low frequency
Warburg diffusion area. It may be attributed to the non-ideal diffusion
behavior of ionic species in such a viscous medium, like honey
(54.8–75.6 cP for 80% (w/w) honey). Contrarily, a satisfactory fitting
(solid line in Fig. 2a) was achieved by introducing a constant phase
element (CPE) into the Randles model instead of the Warburg imped­
ance (Fig. 2c). CPE is a frequency-dependent component which has been
widely used in simulating the non-ideal properties of electrochemical
interfaces. The impedance of a CPE is given below:

ZCPE = 1 / Y(jω)n

where Y is the magnitude of CPE, n is an empirical constant (typically

ranging from 0 to 1). The CPE behaves as a capacitor, a Warburg
element, and a resistor when n = 1, 0.5, and 0, respectively. (Hsu, Yen,
Jeng, & Chien, 2006). For obtaining a more accurate fit of experimental
data, the modified Randles equivalent circuit model (Fig. 2c) was
selected for the following experiments. To our best knowledge, this is the
first work to propose the simply modified Randles model for solving the
inaccuracy of impedimetric sensing of honey which possesses a
non-ideal diffusion manner.
Fig. 3. Typical Nyquist diagrams of pure honey (○, Pure#47, Table S1),
blended honey (■, Blended#12, Table S2), and HFCS (△, HFCS#5, Table S3).
Applied voltage: 0 V; amplitude: 100 mV; frequency range: 1 MHz - 1 Hz. Each
datum is the average of three repetitive experiments with relative standard
deviation less than 3%.

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T.-K. Huang et al. Food Control 130 (2021) 108326

2013; Ciulu, Spano, Pilo, & Sanna, 2016), some of these compounds are
electrochemically active species which are prone to generating ex­
change currents at electrode interface by means of a small perturbation
potential of 100 mV in the present work (e.g. myricetin, quercetin,
fisetin, etc. (Yang, Kotani, Arai, & Kusu, 2001)), and thus the lowest RCT
value was obtained (80 ± 23 kΩ in Table 1, N = 71). everal studies also
showed that honey has a rich organic acids profile, mainly consists of
gluconic, formic, lactic, acetic, citric, and malic acid (Cherchi, Spa­
nedda, Tuberoso, & Cabras, 1994; Mato, Huidobro, Simal-Lozano, &
Sancho, 2006); these components can act as supporting electrolytes to
reduce the Ohmic drop effect and to suppress the migration of electro­
active substances towards the polarized electrodes that resulted in an
increase of electrochemical current density (Tsierkezos & Ritter, 2012).
Consequently, the lack of both electrochemically active species and
supporting electrolytes in HFCS severely hampered the interfacial
electron transfer process, which led to its high RCT nature (refer to
Table 1).
As displayed by the simulated impedance data in Table 1, the values
of n performed in the three types of sample solutions were all slightly
greater than 0.8 which again implied the non-ideal diffusion behavior of Fig. 4. Nyquist diagrams of honey (Pure#47, Table S1), adulterated honeys
the electrochemically active species in such viscous environments. In with HFCS, and HFCS (HFCS#5, Table S3). Adulteration ratio: 0% (○); 25% (■);
50% (+); 75% (◆); 100% (△). Experimental conditions are the same as Fig. 3.
addition, RCT was found to be the most recognizable equivalent circuit
Each datum is the average of three repetitive experiments with standard de­
element to pure honeys, where the average RCT values of blended honey
viation less than 3%.
(629 ± 175 kΩ, N = 26) and HFCS (718 ± 154 kΩ, N = 9) were 7.9 and
9.0 times higher than that of pure honey, respectively. The nearness
between the RCT values of blended honey and HFCS further suggested Table 2
that the major ingredient of blended honey is highly possible to be HFCS. Effect of adulteration ratio on the simulated impedance results.
Adulteration ratio (%) 0 (honey) 25 50 75 100 (HFCS)
3.4. Effect of adulterated honey with HFCS on impedimetric sensing
RCT (kΩ) 78 101 164 342 770
Log Z at 101 Hz 5.20 5.30 5.41 5.63 5.94
As from Fig. 4, the size of semicircle increased gradually by elevating Log Z at 102 Hz 4.94 5.04 5.23 5.53 5.90
the adulteration ratio of HFCS. This phenomenon was in accordance Log Z at 103 Hz 4.89 5.01 5.20 5.51 5.89
with the aforementioned inference: the higher the adulteration ratio, the Log Z at 104 Hz 4.89 5.01 5.20 5.51 5.89
Log Z at 105 Hz 4.86 4.96 5.13 5.34 5.53
lower the content of electrochemically active species and supporting
electrolytes in the sample solution which caused an obvious rise in the RCT and Log Z values were obtained from Figs. 4 and 5, respectively.
RCT value (refer to the simulated impedance results in Table 2). The
significant difference of RCT value between 75% adulterated honey (342
kΩ in Table 2) and blended honey (629 kΩ in Table 1) further indicated
the commercial blended honeys might contain no more than 25% pure
honey. Fig. 5 illustrates the Bode plot (corresponding to the data of
Fig. 4) of logarithmic impedance magnitude (Log Z) versus frequency,
there were evident Log Z differences for discriminating the adulteration
ratio even in a such wide frequency range of 101–105 Hz (detailed data
are presented in Table 2).

3.5. Effect of honey flavor and caramel colorant on impedimetric sensing

The addition of 2% and 4% honey flavor into HFCS sample (HFCS#5,

Table S3) led to a slight rise in the RCT value of 22 kΩ and 63 kΩ,
respectively. The more the honey flavor added, the larger the difference
in RCT value between pure honey and adulterated sample was per­
formed. It is therefore advantageous to our EIS-based system for

Table 1
Impedance analysis of pure honeys, blended honeys and HFCS samples based on
the modified Randles equivalent circuit model of Fig. 2c. Detailed data are
Fig. 5. Bode plots of honey (Pure#47, Table S1), adulterated honeys with
shown in the Supplementary Tables.
HFCS, and HFCS (HFCS#5, Table S3). Adulteration ratio: 0% (○); 25% (■); 50%
Sample type RS (Ω) RCT (kΩ) CD (pF) CPE (+); 75% (◆); 100% (△). Experimental conditions are the same as Fig. 3. Each
Y n datum is the average of three repetitive experiments with standard deviation
(nMho) less than 3%.
Pure honey (N = 680 ± 80 ± 23 7.47 ± 270 ± 0.84 ±
71) 181 0.22 20 0.01 checking adulteration with the existence of this artificial ingredient.
Blended honey (N 751 ± 629 ± 7.30 ± 246 ± 0.84 ± With gradually spiking caramel colorant into HFCS sample (HFCS#5,
= 26) 209 175 0.21 29 0.01
Table S3), it was revealed that 0.02%–0.15% were appropriate amounts
HFCS (N = 9) 803 ± 718 ± 6.98 ± 187 ± 0.82 ±
249 154 0.25 26 0.02
to mimic the appearances of 71 collected pure honey samples (between

4
T.-K. Huang et al.
pale yellow and dark brown). Excess amounts of caramel colorant were
then adopted for EIS measurements, where 0.2% and 0.25% of spiking
resulted in a RCT decrease of 126 kΩ and 166 kΩ, respectively. However,
the RCT level of overly stained HFCS (604 kΩ for the 0.25% of spiking)
was still far higher from that of all the pure honeys (the highest RCT of
pure honey was 139 kΩ in this study, Pure#71, Table S1), the influence
of such food additive is not evident to the proposed impedimetric
sensing method.
3.6. Statistical analysis
The group comparisons among pure honey, blended honey, and
HFCS were analyzed by a one-way ANOVA followed by Tukey’s post-hoc
test. The RCT values of pure honey samples were significantly different
(p < 0.001) as compared to both of the blended honey and HFCS sam­
ples, contrarily, there was statistically similarity to the groups of
blended honey and HFCS (P > 0.05). These phenomena showed that the
reliability of utilizing impedimetric sensing approach for discriminating
honey adulteration with high fructose corn syrup. Besides, the loga­
rithmic impedance signal (Log Z, for example at 103 Hz) also demon­
strated sufficient resolution in discriminating pure honeys from blended
honeys. However, not only the composition of natural honey but also the
adulterants existed in blended honey are highly changeable, it is still
necessary to collect more pure and blended samples for further reli­
ability test.
3.7. Reusability
The reusability of the constructed impedimetric sensing system was
conducted after sequentially rinsing with deionized water and ethanol to
remove the non-specific adsorption of honey proteins on the surface of
gold electrode. It was exhibited that this system can be reused with
relative standard deviations of both RCT and Log Z values less than 3%
(n = 3 for all pure honeys, blended honeys, HFCSs, and HFCS-
adulterated samples). Moreover, the data acquisition time for obtain­
ing full impedance spectrum was about 3 min (scanning frequency range
in this work: 1 MHz - 1 Hz), it could be effectively reduced to only few
seconds (1–4 s) if a single frequency between 101 - 105 Hz was desig­
nated for employing EIS measurement.
4. Conclusions
This study demonstrates a label-free and reagentless impedimetric
sensing approach for identifying HFCS-adulterated honeys by a very
simple electrochemical cell configuration only composed of two tightly
parallel bare gold electrodes. A modified Randles equivalent circuit
model is also presented to acquire more accurate impedance data by
substituting a constant phase element for the commonly used Warburg
impedance. Both of the RCT and Log Z values are proven to be potential
indices for rapid screening fake honeys within few minutes. The pro­
posed EIS-based sensor is suitable for high viscous and high resistance
sample, further applications in other food industrial areas are also ex­
pected. Besides, our experimental setup is very simple which is therefore
readily available to develop a miniaturized device by incorporating a
commercial integrated circuit chip designed for complex impedance
measurement to achieve real-time field analysis of honey adulteration.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Ta-Kang Huang: Investigation, Writing – original draft. Min-Chieh
Chuang: Resources, Writing – review & editing. Yi Kung: Methodology,
Writing – original draft. Bo-Chuan Hsieh: Conceptualization, Project
administration, Supervision, Writing – review & editing.
5
Food Control 130 (2021) 108326
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgements
This research was financially supported by the Ministry of Science
and Technology of Taiwan under Contract No. MOST 106-2311-B-002-
024.
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.foodcont.2021.108326.
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