Ministry of Education

Secondary School Curriculum and

Instruction

2014

Addis Ababa

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 Ministry of Education

Module Title: Secondary School Curriculum and

Instruction
Prepared by: Mekelle University
Module Writers: Berhane Girmay & Beyene Baraki (PhD)
Editor: Yohnnes Gebretsadik
Technical Advisor: PRIN International Consultancy
& Research Services PLC
Technical Editor: Getnet Demissie (PhD, Assoc. Prof.)

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Course Title: SECONDARY SCHOOL CURRICULUM AND INSTRUCTION

Course Code: PGDT413

Credit hour: 4

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 Table of Contents
Content Page
Icons Used …………………………………………………………………………….. vii
Module Introduction …………………………………………………………………… 1
Module Learning Outcomes …………………………………………………………… 1

Unit One: Introductory Remarks on the Term Curriculum and Related Issues ………. 3
1.1 Definition of Curriculum …………………………………………………….. 4
1.1.1: Broad Definitions ………………………………………………….. 4
1.1.2: Specific Definitions ………………………………………………… 5
1.1.3: Definition Based on the Role Placed on Schools …………………… 5
1.2 Foundations of Curriculum ……………………………………………………. 8
1.3 Teachers Role and the Major Curriculum Views ……………………………… 17
1.4 The Need and Purposes of Knowledge and the Teacher ………………………. 19

Unit Two: Curriculum Development and the Planning Process ………………………… 24

2.1 Meaning of Curriculum Development and Design ……………………………. 24
2.2 Curriculum Development Models …………………………………………….. 28
2.3 Selection of Contents and Learning Experiences ……………………………… 34
2.3.1: Selection of Curriculum Contents and Learning Experiences ………. 35
2.3.2: Components of Curriculum Experiences …………………………….. 35
2.3.3 Selection Criteria for Contents and Learning Experiences …………… 37
2.3.4 Curriculum Organization ……………………………………………… 41
2.3.4.1: Definition of Curriculum Organization ………………….... 42
2.3.4.2: Organization of Contents and Learning Experiences …….. 43
2.3.4.3: Organizing Principles ……………………………………… 44
2. 3.4.4: Criteria for Organization ………………………………….. 45

Unit Three: Curriculum Implementation, Change and Evaluation ……………………… 51

3.1 Meaning of Curriculum Implementation ………………………………………. 51
3.2 Curriculum Implementation Approaches and Models …………………………. 52
3.3 Factors Affecting Curriculum Implementation ………………………………… 53
3.4 Curriculum Change, Resistance and Increasing Receptivity for Curriculum
55
Change ……………………………………………………………………….

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 3.4.1: Change Typologies in Curriculum ………………………………….. 56
3.4.2: Resistance to Curriculum Change …………………………………… 57
3.4.3: Improving Receptivity to Curriculum Change ……………………….. 58
3.5 Curriculum Evaluation …………………………………………………………. 59
3.5.1: Meaning of Evaluation ……………………………………………… 59
3.5.2: The Purpose of Evaluation ………………………………………….. 60
3.5.3: Evaluation Procedures to be Followed ……………………………… 61
3.5.4: Types of Evaluation ………………………………………………… 62
3.5.5: Criteria for Curriculum Evaluation …………………………………. 63
3.6 Teacher and Curriculum Relationship …………………………………………. 64

Unit Four: Teaching- Learning Process ………………………………………………… 69

4.1 Definition of Terms ……………………………………………………………. 69

4.1.1: Characteristics of Effective Teaching ………………………………. 70
4.1.2: Characteristics of Effective Learning ………………………………. 71
4.2 The Interaction between Teaching and Learning ………………………………. 71
4.3 Characteristics of Active Learning …………………………………………….. 74
4.4 Qualities of an Effective Teacher ……………………………………………… 74
4.5 Major Responsibilities of a Teacher …………………………………………… 75

Unit Five: Principles, Methods and Techniques of Teaching …………………………… 81

5.1 Definition of Terms …………………………………………………………….. 81

5.2 Major Kinds of Teaching Principles …………………………………………… 82
5.3 Major Categories of Instructional Methods ……………………………………. 84
5.3.1: Teacher-Centered Method ………………………………………….. 84
5.3.2: Student- Centered Method ………………………………………….. 85
5.4 Types of Instructional Methods ……………………………………………….. 86
5.5 Major Criteria Used for Selecting Instructional Methods ……………………… 96

Unit Six: Planning Lessons, Organization and Management ……………………………. 105

6.1 Definition of a Plan ……………………………………………………………. 106

6.2 Merits of an Instructional Plan ………………………………………………… 106
6.3 Major Criteria that a Quality Plan should Fit …………………………………. 107

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 6.4 Fundamental Questions of Instructional Planning ……………………………. 107
6.4.1: Types of Instructional Plan …………………………………………. 107
6.4.2: Types of Instructional Objectives ………………………………….. 108
6.4.3: Guidelines for Writing Instructional Objectives …………………… 108
6.5 Taxonomies of Behavioral Objectives ………………………………………… 109
6.5.1: The Cognitive Domain ……………………………………………… 109
6.5.2: The Affective Domain ……………………………………………… 111
6.5.3: The Psychomotor Domain …………………………………………. 114
6.6 Definition of Classroom Management ………………………………………… 116
6.6.1: Approaches to Classroom Management ……………………………. 117
6.6.2: Organizing the Classroom ………………………………………….. 118
6.7 Types of Sitting Arrangement …………………………………………………. 118
6.8 Effective Classroom Management …………………………………………….. 121
6.8.1: What Kind of Learning Atmosphere is Ideal? ……………………… 122
6.8.2: How Should you Approach Individual Differences? ……………….. 122
6.8.3: Principles of Class Discipline ………………………………………. 123
6.8.4: Leadership Styles …………………………………………………… 124
6.8.5: Guideline for Effective Classroom Management …………………… 127
6.9 Major Causes for Classroom Misbehavior …………………………………….. 130
6.9.1: Teacher-Related Problems …………………………………………. 130
6.9.2: Students-Related problems …………………………………………. 130
6.10 Preventive Techniques for Classroom Misbehavior ………………………….. 131

Unit Seven: Trends of Curriculum Development in Ethiopia 144

7.1 Traditional Education 144

7.2 Development of Modern Education in Ethiopia 147
th
7.2.1The History of Ethiopia Education Before the 20 century 147
th
7.2.2 The development of Modern Education During the 20 century 148
7.3 The Current Education and Training Policy (1994----) 154

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Icons Used

Dear Learner: the following icons are used throughout this module. Critically study what each icon
represents before using the module.

This tells you there is an introduction to the module, unit and section.

 This tells you there is a question to answer or think about in the text.

This tells you there is an activity to do.

This tells you to note and remember an important point.

This tells you there is a self-test for you to do

This tells you there is a checklist of the main points

This tells you there is written assignment

This tells you that these are the answers to the activities and self-test
questions.

 This tells you that there are learning outcomes to the Module or Unit

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Module Introduction

This module is a three credit hours module which is composed of five units. It is developed
with the intention of producing qualified primary school teachers in diversified field of
specialization. This module deals with different views of curriculum, teachers’ roles with
each view, the curriculum development and planning process, issues related to sound
curricular decision making, curriculum development phases and trends in curriculum policy
in Ethiopia. It also introduces trainees with the major instructional approaches/ methods that
are applicable to teaching different subjects in primary schools, classroom management social
relationship among students, and making students active participants in their learning,
management of time and making students motivated learners. The module will also equip the
trainees with instructional planning which is one of the major factors for successful
curriculum implementation. Finally, it is good to remind you that there must be consideration
of gender equity and equality in curricular materials as well as in classroom teaching-learning
process.

Module learning outcomes:

Up on successful completion of the course, you will be able to:

 Understand the term curriculum under various curriculum views

 Identify the expected roles of the teacher in relation to the views of curriculum

 Recognize the differences between curriculum development and curriculum planning

 Identify the steps involved in curriculum development and curriculum planning

process

 Participate in curriculum development and planning process

 Make appropriate curriculum decision as practitioners

 Appreciate the different historical periods in the history of Ethiopian formal school
curriculum.

 Explore the nature of secondary school curricula in the different periods of Ethiopian
Education

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 Recognize the different instructional methods applicable at secondary school level

 Apply the appropriate instructional methods in presenting their subjects under the
concrete school reality

 Plan lessons using varieties of active learning methods in ways that motivate students
for learning

 Organize and manage their classrooms effectively

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 Unit One: Introductory Remark on the Term Curriculum
and Related Issues (6 periods)

Introduction
Dear learner, welcome to the first unit of this module. This unit deals with different views of
curriculum, curriculum development and planning process, curriculum organization,
curriculum implementation, curriculum evaluation, teachers’ roles on curricular related
issues, and trends in curriculum development in Ethiopia. Thus, you will get essential
knowledge and skills which are mandatory for effective secondary school teacher. To this
end, you need to be committed throughout the unit so that you would be able to effectively
implement the designed curriculum in your area of specialization.

Learning Outcomes

At the end of this unit, you will be able to:

 Define the term curriculum using different views held

 Identify the expected roles of the teacher under the different perspectives

 Identify the major foundations in curriculum and the corresponding roles of the
expected roles of the teacher under the different perspectives

 Describe the reasons for the variations in the conception held on the term curriculum

 Relate the roles of the teacher with the different perspectives

Unit Contents
1.1 Curriculum: Definitions, Scope, and Discipline

1.2 Foundation of curriculum and curricular views

1.3 Teachers’ role and the major curriculum views

1.4 The need and purpose of curriculum knowledge and the teacher: final remark

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1.1: Definition of Curriculum
Introduction

Dear learner, you will be exposed to different definitions of the word

_ curriculum. The definitions are classified as broad and specific. Hence,
analyze the varied definitions in the light of secondary school curriculum and their
implications to the teaching-learning process.

Dear learner, you might have heard the word curriculum before. You have learnt various
subjects when you were a student at primary school and secondary school. Therefore, before
you read the definitions suggested by scholars, define the term curriculum by using your own
words and make a comparison.

Like many of the academic subjects, the word curriculum comes from a Latin word “currere”
meaning “race course”, and traditionally, the school’s curriculum has represented something
like that to most people. Indeed until quite recently even the most knowledgeable
professional educators regarded curriculum as the relatively standardized ground covered by
students in their race towards the finishing line to get certificate, diploma or degree. It should
not be a surprise, then to find that many current concepts of the curriculum are firmly
grounded in the notion that curriculum is a race course of subject matters to be mastered.
Although curriculum specialists have, in the interest of clarity, attempted to limit the meaning
of curriculum, disagreement still exists with respect to what constitutes legitimate definition
of the word. Within the twentieth century, the curriculum of schools and of colleges has been
defined in several ways.

Activity 2:

Why do you think the reasons for not having one agreed up on definition?

Generally, the various definitions of the term curriculum can be categorized in to three as
follows:

1.1.1: Broad Definitions

_ The board definitions are open to many interpretations. In other words, one
broad definition of the word curriculum contains different specific concepts.

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Ralph Tyler (1949): All of the learning of students which are planned and directed by the
school to attain its educational goals.

D. K. Wheeler (1967): By curriculum we mean the planned experiences offered to the learner
under the guidance of the school.

Lewis (1981): Define curriculum as a plan for providing sets of learning opportunities for
persons to be educated. Learning opportunity implies a planned and controlled relationship
between pupils, teacher, materials, equipment and the environment, in which it is hoped that
desired learning will take place.

Shilbeck (1984): The learning experiences of students, in so far as they are expressed or
anticipated in goals and objectives, plans and designs for learning and the implementation of
these plans and designs in school environments.

Glatthorn (1987): the curriculum is the plan made for guiding learning in schools, usually
represented in retrievable documents of several levels of generally, and the actualization of
those plans in the classroom, as experienced by the learners and as recorded by an observer;
those experiences take place in a learning environment which also influences what is learned.

1.1.2: Specific Definitions

_ The specific definitions imply activities, which are measurable and

observable. Examples:

Curriculum is an outline of a course of study (Print, 1987).

Curriculum is a set of subjects (Marsh, 2001).

Curriculum is a school timetable

1.1.3: Definitions Based on the Role Placed on Schools

Curriculum could also be defined based on the roles of schools as prescribed

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by society or educators. Here below are two of the many definitions:

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Subject Center: Consider the role of schools as “Promoting students’ intellectual capacity”.
Thus curriculum is defined as “the collection of subjects offered to students to train the
intellectual capacity”.

Experience Center: consider curriculum as a means to make students shape a new social
order and lead life in it, which involves everything that cover the planning process and the
instructional objectives.

Curriculum from Constructivist Point of View: Constructivist view on curriculum differs

from the definitions given above. The constructivist movement in recent cognitive
psychology has reemphasized the active role students’ play in acquiring knowledge and the
social construction of knowledge has been an important principle in socio-cultural theory.
Knowledge-acquisition is active and strategic, focused on many factors, including problems
of understanding, diversity of expertise, learning styles, thinking styles, and interests.
Curriculum, according to constructive view, is taken as ‘enacted’ between students and
teachers, and collaboration and reflection in a ‘community of inquiry. The results of these
programs seem promising in that they lead to an increasing growth in knowledge, a higher
degree of critical thinking, greater reading and writing skills, as well as improved skills in
argumentation. With competing forces such as a push for basics in the curriculum, higher
standards for achievement, and the value placed on the more robust understanding facilitated
by constructivism, deciding who should select instructional objectives becomes difficult.
From a constructivist perspective, learners should be heavily involved (in fact with their
teacher assistance) in determining objectives, learning opportunities, and evaluation
procedures.

Activity 3

1. Discuss on the various definitions of curriculum and justify why they can be considered as
broad, specific, subject-centered and experience-centered.

2. What similarities are there among the broad definitions of the word curriculum?

3. Why constructivism does differently define curriculum?

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Most educators agree that Curriculum refers to the means and materials with which students
will interact for the purpose of achieving identified educational outcomes. In fact, curriculum
is a means of communicating the essential principles and features of an educational proposal
that includes the goals, broad contents, methods and evaluation mechanisms in such a form
that it is open to critical scrutiny and capable of effective translation into practice.

The scope of Curriculum

Curriculum Scope denotes to the question what learning content, learning experience,
methods, etc should be included to and excluded from the curriculum. Curriculum is
delimited to the knowledge of curriculum development, curriculum planning and curriculum
design. Here below is brief definition of the three domains of curriculum as a subject:

Curriculum Development:- concerned with how curriculum evolved,

implemented, evaluated and what various people, process and procedures are
involved in the construction of the curriculum.

Curriculum Planning: - is a process of making the curriculum materials after

identified objectives, selecting contents and learning experiences, instructional
materials and developing evaluation mechanisms.

Curriculum Design: - refers to the way one conceptualizes a curriculum

arranges its major components to provide direction and guidance in
developing the curriculum.

Curriculum as a Discipline

• What is a discipline?

• According to Oliva (1982), a discipline has the following characteristics:

– A discipline should have an organized set of theoretical principles.

– A discipline encompasses a body of knowledge and skills pertinent to that

discipline.

– A discipline has its theoreticians and its practitioners.

• Can curriculum be considered as a discipline?

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 • The field of curriculum has its set of principles

– In curriculum planning, principles such as educational philosophy, curriculum

goals and learning objectives are applied in developing programs

– In curriculum design, the principles of scope, sequence and balance are used in
the organization of content to be taught.

• The field of curriculum has its own body of knowledge and skills

• Much of it drawn from other disciplines

– In the selection of content, curriculum has relied on the principles, knowledge

and skills from psychology, philosophy and sociology.

– In the organization of content, curriculum has drawn from the fields of

management and organizational theory.

– In the implementation of curriculum, various ideas from systems theory,

organizational behavior and communication theory have been used to enhance
effectiveness.

• The field of curriculum has its list of theoreticians and practitioners

• They include curriculum planners, professors of curriculum, curriculum developers

and so forth who are termed as curriculum specialists.

• The specialist:

– Is well-informed about how students learn, how teachers react to change and
obstacles to improvement.

– Generates new knowledge by recombining existing programs, adapting

approaches and constructing new curriculum.

1.2. Foundations of Curriculum

_ Curriculum foundations may be defined as those basic forces that influence
and shape the minds of curriculum developers and hence the content and structure of
the subsequent curriculum. The literature in the area of curriculum generally distinguishes
five categories of sources of curriculum foundations- namely philosophical foundation,
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Psychological Foundation, Sociological foundation, Science and Technology foundation, and
Historical foundation. The three sources of curriculum foundations constitute together the
principal areas of influence on curriculum developers in their consideration of curriculum.
These influences affect developers’ ways of thinking about curricula and, in the process,
produce conception of curricula. At some later time developers express these conceptions,
both explicitly and implicitly, when devising curricula.

Let us now examine these curriculum foundations in a little more depth to provide some
sense of perspective to the influence of each foundation up on the process of curriculum
development.

1. Philosophical Foundation

Philosophy and philosophical assumptions are basic to all curriculum foundations

_ as they are concerned with making sense of what we encounter in our lives. How
curriculum developers and implementers perceive the world, and hence education, may be
determined by posing the following three philosophical questions. These are:

What are real? Ontology: the inquiry into what is real as opposed to what is appearance,
either conceived as that which the methods of science presuppose, or that with which the
methods of science are concerned; the inquiry into the first principles of nature; the study of
the most fundamental generalizations as to what exists.

What is good? Axiology: the inquiry into the nature, criteria, and metaphysical status of
value.

Although the term "axiology" is not widely used outside of philosophy, the problems of
axiology include (1) how values are experienced, (2) the kinds of value, (3) the standards of
value, and (4) in what sense values can be said to exist. Axiology then is the subject area
which tries to answer problems like these:

How are values related to interest, desire, will, experience, and means-to-end?

How do different kinds of value interrelate?

Can the distinction between intrinsic and instrumental values be maintained?

Are values ultimately rationally or objectively based?

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What is the difference between a matter of fact and a matter of value?

There are two main subdivisions of axiology: ethics and aesthetics. Ethics involves the
theoretical study of the moral valuation of human action not just concerned with the study of
principles of conduct. Aesthetics involves the conceptual problems associated with describing
the relationships among our feelings and senses with respect to the experience of art and
nature.

What is true? Epistemology: the inquiry into what knowledge is, what can be known, and
what lies beyond our understanding; the investigation into the origin, structure, methods, and
validity of justification and knowledge; the study of the interrelation of reason, truth, and
experience.

Individuals will perceive and answer these questions in different ways and hence individual
philosophies emerge. In turn, differing philosophies will affect how individuals perceive and
relate to the curriculum.

Educational Philosophies

Within the epistemological frame that focuses on the nature of knowledge and
_
how we come to know there are four major educational philosophies, each related
to one or more of the general or world philosophies. These educational philosophical
approaches are currently used in classrooms all over the world. They are Perennialism,
Essentialism, Progressivism, and Reconstructionism. These educational philosophies focus
heavily on WHAT we should teach the curriculum aspect.

Perennialism

For Perennialists, the aim of education is to ensure that students acquire understandings about
the great ideas of Western civilization. These ideas have the potential for solving problems in
any era. The focus is to teach ideas that are everlasting, to seek enduring truths which are
constant, not changing, as the natural and human worlds at their most essential level, do not
change. Teaching these unchanging principles is critical. Humans are rational beings, and
their minds need to be developed. Thus, cultivation of the intellect is the highest priority in a
worthwhile education. The demanding curriculum focuses on attaining cultural literacy,
stressing students' growth in enduring disciplines. The higher accomplishments of humankind
are emphasized in the great works of literature and art, the laws or principles of science.

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Essentialism

Essentialists believe that there is a common core of knowledge that needs to be transmitted to
students in a systematic, disciplined way. The emphasis in this conservative perspective is on
intellectual and moral standards that schools should teach. The core of the curriculum is
essential knowledge and skills and academic rigor. Although this educational philosophy is
similar in some ways to Perennialism, Essentialists accept the idea that this core curriculum
may change. Schooling should be practical, preparing students to become valuable members
of society. It should focus on facts-the objective reality out there--and "the basics," training
students to read, write, speak, and compute clearly and logically. Schools should not try to set
or influence policies. Students should be taught hard work, respect for authority, and
discipline. Teachers are to help students keep their non-productive instincts in check, such as
aggression or mindlessness. This approach was in reaction to Progressivism approaches
prevalent in the 1920s and 1930s.

Progressivism

Progressivists believe that education should focus on the whole child, rather than on the
content or the teacher. This educational philosophy stresses that students should test ideas by
active experimentation. Learning is rooted in the questions of learners that arise through
experiencing the world. It is active, not passive. The learners are a problem solvers and
thinkers who make meaning through their individual experience in the physical and cultural
context. Effective teachers provide experiences so that students can learn by doing.
Curriculum content is derived from student interests and questions. The scientific method is
used by progressivist educators so that students can study matter and events systematically
and first hand. The emphasis is on process-how one comes to know. The Progressive
education philosophy was established in America from the mid 1920s through the mid 1950s.
John Dewey was its foremost proponent. One of his tenets was that the school should
improve the way of life of our citizens through experiencing freedom and democracy in
schools. Shared decision making, planning of teachers with students, student-selected topics
are all aspects of progressivism. Books are tools, rather than authority.

Reconstruction / Critical Theory

Social Reconstructionism is a philosophy that emphasizes the addressing of social questions

and a quest to create a better society and worldwide democracy. Reconstructionist educators

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focus on a curriculum that highlights social reform as the aim of education. Critical theorists,
like social reconstructionists, believe that systems must be changed to overcome oppression
and improve human conditions.

For social reconstructionists and critical theorists, curriculum focuses on student experience
and taking social action on real problems, such as violence, hunger, international terrorism,
inflation, and inequality. Strategies for dealing with controversial issues (particularly in social
studies and literature), inquiry, dialogue, and multiple perspectives are the focus.
Community-based learning and bringing the world into the classroom are also strategies.

Information Processing

Information processing theorists focus on the mind and how it works to explain how learning
occurs. The focus is on the processing of a relatively fixed body of knowledge and how it is
attended to, received in the mind, processed, stored, and retrieved from memory. This model
is derived from analogies between how the brain works and computer processing.
Information processing theorists focus on the individual rather than the social aspects of
thinking and learning. The mind is a symbolic processor that stores information in schema or
hierarchically arranged structures.

Rationalism

Rationalism view reason as the chief source and test of knowledge or any view appealing to
reason as a source of knowledge or justification. More formally, rationalism is defined as a
methodology or a theory in which the criterion of the truth is not sensory but intellectual and
deductive. Rationalists believe reality has an intrinsically logical structure. Because of this,
rationalists argue that certain truths exist and that the intellect can directly grasp these truths.
That is to say, rationalists assert that certain rational principles exist in logic, mathematics,
ethics, and metaphysics that are so fundamentally true that denying them causes one to fall
into contradiction. Rationalists have such a high confidence in reason that proof and physical
evidence are unnecessary to ascertain truth – in other words, "there are significant ways in
which our concepts and knowledge are gained independently of sense experience".

The Rationalists have claimed that the ultimate starting point for all knowledge is not the
senses but reason. They maintain that without prior categories and principles supplied by
reason, we couldn't organize and interpret our sense experience in any way. Rationalists

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argue that there is innate knowledge; they differ in that they choose different objects of innate
knowledge. Rationalists see the curriculum as subject matter of symbol and idea.

Empiricism

Empiricism is a theory which states that knowledge comes only or primarily from sensory
experience. One of several views of epistemology, the study of human knowledge, along with
rationalism and skepticism, empiricism emphasizes the role of experience and evidence,
especially sensory experience, in the formation of ideas, over the notion of innate ideas or
traditions. Empiricists may argue however that traditions (or customs) arise due to relations
of previous sense experiences.

Empiricism in the philosophy of science emphasizes evidence, especially as discovered in

experiments. It is a fundamental part of the scientific method that all hypothesis and theories
must be tested against observations of the natural world rather than resting solely on priori
reasoning, intuition, or revelation.

Empiricism, often used by natural scientists, asserts that "knowledge is based on experience"
and that "knowledge is tentative and probabilistic, subject to continued revision and
falsification." One of the epistemological tenets is that sensory experience creates knowledge.
The scientific method, including experiments and validated measurement tools, guides
empirical research. The Empiricists believe that there is no such thing as innate knowledge,
and that instead knowledge is derived from experience (either sensed via the five senses or
reasoned via the brain or mind). Empiricists view the curriculum as a subject matter of the
physical world.

Both empiricists and rationalists view the learner as recipient of information. However, for
rationalists, the teacher is source of ideas, facts and information whereas for the empiricists
the teacher is the demonstrator of process. The method of teaching for rationalists is more of
drilling, lecturing and subject-based. For the empiricists, the method of teaching is lecturing
too and more teacher-centered.

Behaviorism

Behaviorist theorists believe that behavior is shaped deliberately by forces in the environment
and that the type of person and actions desired can be the product of design. In other words,
behavior is determined by others, rather than by our own free will. By carefully shaping

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desirable behavior, morality and information is learned. Learners will acquire and remember
responses that lead to satisfying aftereffects. Repetition of a meaningful connection results in
learning. If the student is ready for the connection, learning is enhanced; if not, learning is
inhibited. Motivation to learn is the satisfying aftereffect, or reinforcement.

Behaviorism is linked with empiricism, which stresses scientific information and observation,
rather than subjective or metaphysical realities. Behaviorists search for laws that govern
human behavior, like scientists who look for patterns in empirical events. Change in behavior
must be observable; internal thought processes are not considered.

Constructivism

Constructivists believe that the learner actively constructs his or her own understandings of
reality through interaction with objects, events, and people in the environment, and reflecting
on these interactions. Early perceptual psychologists (Gestalt psychology) focused on the
making of wholes from bits and pieces of objects and events in the world, believing that
meaning was the construction in the brain of patterns from these pieces.

For learning to occur, an event, object, or experience must conflict with what the learner
already knows. Therefore, the learner's previous experiences determine what can be learned.
Motivation to learn is experiencing conflict with what one knows, which causes an
imbalance, which triggers a quest to restore the equilibrium.

Activity 4

1. Discuss in-group how philosophical sources can contribute to the development

of curriculum.
2. Discover concrete examples that indicate philosophical foundation in the textbooks from
secondary school subjects.
3. Which philosophy is currently dominant in Ethiopia education system? And discuss your
justification in a brief manner.

2. Sociological Foundation

It is hardly surprising that society and culture exert enormous influences on the
_ formation of the school curriculum. After all as it was society that devised schooling
to ensure the survival of the cultural heritage, we would expect to see an extensive

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influence of society and culture upon curriculum in schools. Curriculum developers serve the
function of translating traditional assumptions, ideas, values, knowledge and attitudes into
curriculum objectives, content, learning activities and evaluation of these curriculum
elements, sociological sources have their greatest impact on content. In acting this way
curriculum developers both transmit and reflect the culture of which they are part. Thus, it is
not possible to talk about a culture free curriculum. Rather, one should consider a curriculum
as a situation where judgments are made as to what aspects of culture are to be included and
why.

Consequently, when developers devise curricula, the cultural background of those developers
will become evident in the content they select, the methods they include, the objectives they
set and so forth. Society and culture influence curriculum developers simply because they are
members of a particular society. When the process of curriculum development takes place,
the cultural traits within developers influence the very selection of objectives, contents,
methods and evaluations that constitute the curriculum they are devising. Alternatively,
curriculum developers may be well aware of societal and cultural influences and have the
deliberate intention in mind of reproducing aspects of that culture in the curriculum. The
issue then becomes whether the curriculum should mirror society or it should become a tool
for change.

Above all, curriculum developers, whether at systematic, local or school level within
educational enterprise, should not forget that they are a product of their culture and that every
decision that they make will be culturally related.

Self Test
1. Why we need to take sociology as one foundation of curriculum development?
2. How does culture play a role in curriculum development process? Discuss it in
group and prepare a report for the class.
3. Can we have culture free curriculum? Discuss the issue in group and produce a
report to be submitted for your teacher.

3. Psychological Foundation

The contribution of psychological sources to the foundation of curriculum is

_ significant and growing. Curriculum, therefore, can draw upon psychology,

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particularly educational objectives, student characteristics, learning processes, teaching
methods and evaluation procedures.

The study of psychology does not, at least for the moment, provide a source for content in a
secondary school curriculum. The curriculum workers’ opportunities to master the
psychological field are limited, but they definitely need to have general understanding based
on psychological theory and research.

Mental Discipline and Curriculum

Mental discipline is a theory of learning, which was also known as faculty psychology.
According to this theory, the mind was made up of series of faculties, each of which was
related to a particular function or ability of the mind. This discipline was the prevailing
theory during the long period when rote memory was the primary learning process.
Curriculum content was often chosen on the basis of how well it would discipline and
exercise the mind, rather than because of its value in the life of the student. The curriculum
designed to meet the needs of the philosophy, which supported the mental disciple theory of
learning, was often composed of subjects such as foreign languages and mathematics.

Connectionism and Curriculum

Connectionism is a theory of learning based on the connection of the various elements of the
nervous system in causing behavior. The curriculum dictated by connectionism has a great
deal of drill and repetition in it.

Behaviorism and Curriculum

Behaviorism developed along strictly scientific lines that are behavior was dealt with and
explained in terms of observable reactions. The curriculum implied by behaviorism differs
little from that for connectionism. Drill remained a prominent method of teaching but
experiences selected here so as to produce conditioned responses.

Gestalt Theory and Curriculum

The greatest contribution of the gestalt theorists was in the area of perception. Gestalt theory
leads to the development of a curriculum that offers the learner an opportunity to discover
processes and relationships. Emphasis is placed upon perceiving a whole in order to

16
understand the importance of a specific Generalities and principles are emphasized in
preference to isolated facts and meaningless drill.

4. Historical Foundation

Study of the history of the country, locality and the school system of the
country is important while the curriculum planning is in progress. This helps
the curriculum to be based on the socio-cultural and politico-economic development
of the country. Curriculum is created by people based on the circumstances and beliefs during
that period of time. The curriculum is reflective of the political ideologies, economic systems,
religious convictions and conceptions of knowledge at a particular point in time.

5. Scientific and Technological Foundation

Science and technology make things obsolete in a short period of time and it

_ demands a high level of efficiency from citizen as a must in every field.

The innovations, mechanics, mere benefits, etc are results of science and technology,
environmental pollution, degradation of resource, deterioration of human values, the
dissolving of religious sanctions, restructuring of political democracy, specializations,
psychological witness, etc are the negative results of science and technological developments.
The implications of these to curriculum planning are that:

 The need for the inclusion of many things to be learned and culture to be transmitted
 Updating the curriculum to satisfy the increasing demand of skilled manpower
 The unlimited demands for intercultural exchange
 Securing knowledge about what is going on around the world and making it part of
once life.

Activity 5
Discuss the relationship between curriculum development and the different
philosophies and present your understanding to your group members.

1.3 Teachers Role and the Major Curriculum Views

Most governments invest heavily in education as a proportion of their total budget since they
tend to see the educational process as a primary means of producing the sort of intelligent and

17
skilled workforce required to operate in this changing environment at all levels of the
economy. And formal education is led by well designed curriculum which is expected to be
implemented by teachers. Therefore, curriculum and teachers have strong relationship. The
role of the teacher in relation to curriculum could be explained as follows:

1. Work as an instructional designer:

Teachers may have focused on the learners’ developmental, emotional and affective needs in
their teaching. They may have focused on learner critical thinking, problem-solving and
collaborative skills. So can you identify yourself in one or more of the scenarios described
above? Research identified that teachers well-designed learning activities that foster language
use in authentic and real life settings, can support learner’s needs and facilitate deep learning.

2. Work as an intercultural practitioner (primarily for language and culture teachers):

it is helpful for teachers to ask what culture is, how we detect the nuanced cultural difference
in teaching, and how we lead students cross the boundaries of difference cultures. The role of
teachers, as an intercultural practitioner, is first to analyze a culture, its concepts and
keywords, and then to introduce and explain them to learners by way of paraphrase or
presenting the affective behavior within a situation-oriented approach, and finally to step
back and let learners discover and interpret the meanings for themselves. (It is at this point
that learners may show their positive or negative feelings.) Teachers are now in a position to
observe the extent of learners’ understanding and agreement, and so may lead learners into an
analytical comparison of the two cultures.

3. Work with their colleagues to adapt the curricular standards to their own teaching:
There are multiple standards for curriculum all over the world. How do we work effectively
under the mandated curriculum standards and test system? Researchers found that there are
two ways helpful for a teacher’s professional development under the mandated curriculum
standards and testing system: 1) careful study of the curriculum materials that were
authoritatively, specifically, and consistently structured; 2) and continuous and substantial
participation in the collaborative observations, discussions, and reflections on each other’s
lesson development, teaching, and lesson debriefing in schools.

4. Work as an effective room manager: Classroom management is not separated from

academic curriculum. A successfully designed and implemented curriculum cannot do
without effective classroom management strategies. Chinese researchers suggested teachers

18
 set explicit rules, give punishment and award appropriately, give students some control in a
limited range, set up teacher’s authority via respect, develop mutual trust and positive
relationships with students, and communicate with the parents. You can find more resources
on Gaining Ground and appropriate these resources for your own use in the room
management.

5. Work with parents and community in designing your schoolwork and homework:
classroom is not the only place that curriculum should be learn and mature to become adults.
So the schoolwork needs to be connected to what students can learn at home and make their
learning an integrated and consolidated daily experience. In that sense, homework needs to be
considered in our curricular design. And the parents’ involvement is vital for this process.
Teachers need work with parents and make use of varied and meaningful homework to help
students engage in goal-directed learning.

Here are some examples of how to involve parents in schoolwork and homework:

1. Objectives: explains the learning goals of the activity, if this is not clear from the title or
letter.
2. Prewriting: gives the student space to plan a letter, essay, story, or poem by outlining,
brainstorming, listing, designing nets and webs, or by using other planning strategies.
3. First draft: gives the student space to write and edit. A student who needs more space may
add paper. Some teachers ask the student to write a final copy on other paper at home or at
school.
4. Interactions: guides the student to conduct a family survey or interview, talk with a family
partner about ideas or memories, read work aloud for reactions, edit work, practice a
speech, or conduct other interactions. Other assignments include exchanges focused on
grammar, vocabulary, reading, and other language arts skills.

1.4 The Need and Purposes of Curriculum Knowledge and the Teacher

The knowledge of curriculum is important to make educational discussions and

decisions at different levels. Decision makers, officials and teachers need to know
and share experiences in order to provide quality, equity and relevant education for all.

There is a strong relationship between curriculum and instruction. This relationship between
curriculum and instruction could be explained in the following four different models.

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Dualistic Model: This model views the relationship between curriculum and instruction as
two independent entities with very minor interaction.

Inter-locking Model: View the relationship between curriculum and instruction as highly
intertwined.

Concentric Model: This model considers curriculum and instruction as system and sub-
system interchangeably.

Cyclical Model: this model considered the relationship between curriculum and instruction as
interdependent having significant impacts on each other.

Therefore, curriculum and instruction are related, interlocked and interdependent, which of
course can be studied and analyzed as separate entities. However, they cannot function in

20
mutual isolation. Therefore, teachers’ knowledge on curriculum will help them to implement
the curriculum on the actual ground effectively.

Activity 6

Discuss how society and culture influence curriculum development

As foundations of curriculum, list the major differences among philosophical, sociological

and psychological sources?

Find out evidences that represent psychological foundation and sociological foundations from
primary school subjects. In the case of sociological foundation, please, check that the
textbooks contain diversified cultures from the nations and nationalities of Ethiopia.

Summary

The term curriculum is defined in several ways since there is no a generally agreed definition.
The three generally distinguished categories of sources for curriculum foundations are
philosophical sources, sociological sources and psychological sources. How curriculum
developers perceive the world and education may be determined by the philosophical
questions such as what is real? What is good? And what is true? Moreover, the societal and
cultural influences can affect curriculum developers.

There is a significant contribution of psychological sources to the foundation of curriculum.

There is a strong teacher-curriculum relationship. Teachers can play a great role on the
curriculum being implementers, adopters, developers, researchers and evaluators where as
curriculum serves as the major source of valuable information for the teacher concerning the
overall purposes, objectives of instruction, contents, patterns of organization, methods,
techniques and strategies of instruction, etc.

Self-test Exercise

I. Fill in the following blank spaces with the most appropriate words or phrases

1. The immediate sources for Curriculum objectives are______________________.

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 2. The objective screening device that attempts to analyze learner’s characteristics is
known as______________________.
3. The process of putting the contents of a subject based on ranks is said to be ________.
4. The type of curriculum recommended by the rationalist theory is called ___________.
5. The criterion for the formulation of curriculum objectives that denotes having the
same meaning to different readers is called____________.

II. Choose the best answer from the given alternatives and circle the letter of your choice

1. Which one of the following highly reflects the relative emphasis on intended objectives?

A. integration B. utility C. learnablity D. compatibility

2. The major foundation of curriculum development that reflects highly the role of
technology is _____. A. psychological B. sociological C. philosophical D. historical

General Approaches/ Methods/ Strategies

 Gapped Lecture, small group discussion and questioning and answering methods shall
be employed.
 Reading assignment shall be given at the end of each period.

Facilitator’s activities
 Presenting the lesson and giving the highlights
 Preparing questions for questioning and answering sessions
 Organizing students for group discussion with clear instructions
 Making students present their discussion results
 Giving feedback and further explanation
 Giving reading assignment and relevant tasks for the next session.

Learners’ Activities
 Attend to the teacher’s lesson introduction (revision, topic orientation, objectives
stated or questions to be answered later) and take notes on the lesson treated.
 Participate actively in the small group discussions and presentations
 Present their discussion results in front of the class, etc.
 Keep records on the announcements related to assignments.

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Assessment Strategies and Techniques

 Continuous assessment shall be used to assess the participation of students and their
performance results.
 Students’ reading assignment and small group discussion and presentations shall be
collected and be given values.
 A quiz shall be given to check students’ level of performance and teachers’ methods
of presentation.

Instructional Resources (Materials & Equipment)

 Markers and flipcharts, scotch tapes
 LCD and laptop
 Module/selected reading books, articles, etc

Reading Materials
Derbessa Dufera 2004. Fundamentals of Curriculum Development: Addis Ababa
Printing Press, Addis Ababa University.
St. Mary’s College 2005. Curriculum Studies Module, (Handbook for Distance Material).
Addis Ababa, unpublished.
Taba, H. 1962. Curriculum Development: Theory and Practice. New York: Harcourt
Brace Jovanovich, Inc.
Tyler, R. 1949. Principles of Curriculum and Instruction. Chicago: Chicago University
Press
Wiles, J. and Bondi, J. 2002. Curriculum Development: A Guide to Practice. New Jersey.

23
 Unit-Two: Curriculum Development and the Planning Process

Introduction

Dear learner, you have learnt about the diversified definitions of the word curriculum
in the first section. This section deals with the concept curriculum development and
design, the three major curriculum development models, curriculum organization, selection
of contents and learning experiences using different criteria.

Learning outcomes:

After successful study of this unit, you will be able to:

 Define the concepts curriculum development and design

 Explain major qualities of curriculum design

 Identify the six major principles of effective curriculum design

 Elaborate the major curriculum development models

 Outline the major criteria used to select curriculum contents

 Explain the major elements used to organize curriculum contents and learning experiences

 Develop curriculum evaluation skills

 Provide Comments on the different curriculum development models.

2.1 Meaning of Curriculum Development and Design

Curriculum Development

Curriculum development describes the process of curriculum-making. It can also be

articulated as a series of steps, such as: define educational purposes; selection of contents
and learning experiences; organizing of contents and learning experiences; construct
activities/experiences that can meet these purposes; organize activities/experiences and
Evaluate whether the educational purposes have been met or not.

24
There are many models for curriculum development. Generally, as a process, curriculum
development is concerned with reviewing, planning, developing, implementing and
maintaining curriculum while ensuring that the stakeholders engaged in this process have a
high level of commitment to and ownership of the curriculum. In formulating policy, the
challenge lies in the discourse on the form, content, aims and goals of curriculum, often
referred to as curriculum orientations (Eisner & Vallance, 1974, as cited in Joseph, 2011).
These curriculum orientations have a profound impact on roles of stakeholders, parents,
educators and students as they relate to vision and practice, decision making, curriculum
planning, development, implementation and evaluation. These orientations or “cultures” of
curriculum, in turn, have an impact on the curriculum development process (Joseph, 2011).

Curriculum Design

Taba (1962) define curriculum design as a statement which identifies the elements of the
curriculum, states what their relationships are to each other, and indicates the principles of
organization and the requirements of that organization for the administrative conditions under
which it is to operate. A design, of course, needs to be supported with and to make explicit a
curriculum theory which establishes the source to consider and the principles to apply.

When curriculum are planned those who construct the curriculum may place different
emphases on these component parts of the curriculum. Usually more emphasis is placed on
the subject matter. Designs also deals with Horizontal and Vertical Organization of the
curriculum component parts. Whereas horizontal organization deals with scope and
integration: side-by-side arrangement of activities; vertical organization deals with sequence
and continuity: longitudinal placement of activities.

Summary of the Six Principles of Effective Curriculum Design

1. Big Ideas: Limit the number of new concepts introduced in a lesson, and focus first on the
most basic concepts before advancing to the more complex concepts. Be sure that students
understand one concept before introducing the second. For example, reserve teaching
synonyms until students are firm on the basic concept. The concepts of comparatives and
superlatives should be withheld until the basic concepts are clearly established. When
introducing comparatives and superlatives, introduce comparatives first; then, after
students consistently use comparatives, introduce superlatives.

25
2. Conspicuous Strategies: Use clear models to teach basic concepts. Use simple language.

3. Mediated Scaffolding: Limit the number of concepts introduced, and separate those that
are likely to be confused. To reduce the language demands, refrain from introducing two
new and unfamiliar labels in one day. It is also important to provide sufficient guided
practice for the group before progressing to individual turns.

4. Strategic Integration: When the basic concepts are reliably known by learners, introduce
comparative and superlative concepts strategically to build higher-order skills. Higher-
order skills will not be useful or reliable if the basic concepts are not firm.

5. Judicious Review: To really "know" a concept, students must use it frequently and in a
variety of concepts. Lessons following the initial lesson should apply new concepts to
build up the students' ability to remember and recall the concepts.

6. Primed Background Knowledge: A frequent limitation of early language programs is

using language that learners may not understand. If the objective of the lesson is to
introduce the concept big and little, then directions that tell children we will "compare"
objects may not be meaningful. Examine the instructional language carefully to determine
whether it will need to be simplified. It is also important to ensure that students have the
prerequisite knowledge before using that knowledge in more complex contexts.

Attributes of Curriculum Design

If designing curricula is like designing any object, process, or system in important respects, it
follows that it has these attributes:

Curriculum design is purposeful. It is not just to “have” a course of study. Its grand
purpose is to improve student learning, but it may have other purposes as well. Whether the
purposes are in harmony or in conflict, explicit or implied, immediate or long-range, political
or technical, curriculum designers do well to be as clear as possible about what the real
purposes are, so that they can respond accordingly.

26
Curriculum design is deliberate. To be effective, curriculum design must be a conscious
planning effort. It is not casual, nor is it the sum total of lots of different changes being made
in the curriculum over weeks, months, and years. It involves using an explicit process that
identifies clearly what will be done, by whom, and when.

Curriculum design is creative. Curriculum design is not a neatly defined procedure that can
be pursued in a rigorous series of steps. At every stage of curriculum design there are
opportunities for innovative thinking, novel concepts, and invention to be introduced. Good
curriculum design is at once systematic and creative—feet-on-the ground and head-in-the-
clouds.

Curriculum design operates on many levels. Design decisions at one level must be
compatible with those at the other levels. A middle-school curriculum design that is
incompatible with the elementary- and high-school designs will almost certainly result in a
defective K-12 curriculum, no matter how good each part is on its own. By the same token,
the middle-school curriculum itself cannot be effective as a whole unless the designs of its
grades are in harmony.

Curriculum design requires compromises. The challenge is to come up with a curriculum

that works well—perfection is not its aim. In developing a design that meets complex
specifications, trade-offs inevitably have to be made among benefits, costs, constraints, and
risks. No matter how systematic the planning or how inventive the thinking, curriculum
designs always end up not being everything that everyone would want.

Curriculum designs can fail. There are many ways in which curriculum designs can fail to
operate successfully. A design can fail because one or more of its components fail or because
the components do not work well together. Or, the people who have to carry it out may reject
the design because they misunderstand it or find it distasteful. In most cases, however,
curriculum designs are neither wholly satisfactory nor abject failures. Indeed, a key element
in curriculum design is to provide for continuous correction and improvement, both during
the design process and afterward.

Curriculum design has stages. Curriculum design is a systematic way of going about
planning instruction, even though it does not consist of some inflexible set of steps to be
27
followed in strict order. Curriculum decisions made at one stage are not independent of
decisions made at other stages, and so the curriculum-design process tends to be iterative,
various stages being returned to for reconsideration and possible modification. But
recognizing the different tasks and problems at each stage is important in making the process
work. The stages, which are considered in turn in the rest of this chapter, are establishing
curriculum-design specifications; conceptualizing a curriculum design; developing a
curriculum design; and refining a curriculum design.

Self Test
1. Why do curriculum experts need to have different steps in curriculum design
process?
2. Make an interview with secondary schools teachers concerning the seven attributes
while designing a curriculum and come with your own reflection.

2.2 Curriculum Development Models

The Objective Model

The objective model is also known as rational, classical models. Its root is the
behavioral psychology. This approach to the curriculum process emphasize the
fixed sequence of curriculum elements, beginning with objectives and following a
sequential pattern from objectives to content, method and finally evaluation. In this pattern,
objectives serve as a basis for devising subsequent elements, with evaluation indicating the
degree of achievement of those objectives. The two principal proponents of rational/
objectives models are Ralph Tyler and Hilda Taba.

Tyler’s Model

Tyler argued that to develop any curriculum, one had to pose the following four fundamental
questions. These four questions represented the major tasks and issues to be dealt with in the
process of curriculum development. These questions are:-

What educational purpose that schools seek to attain? (Objectives).

What educational experiences can be provided that are likely to attain these objectives?
(Instructional strategies and content)

28
How can these educational experiences be organized effectively? (Organizing curriculum
experiences)

How can we determine whether these purposes are being attained? (Assessment and
Evaluation)

Sometimes referred to as the father of the curriculum movement, Tyler sought to instill in
developers of curricula a more logical, systematic, meaningful approach to their task. His
work is now understood by many curriculum writers as a foundation for the objective model
though it is considered as rigid in its nature. However, over time much of his work has been
misinterpreted, treated superficially and even ignored. Tyler describes and analyses sources
of objectives that come from learners, studies of contemporary life, academic subjects,
philosophy and the psychology of learning. Certainly, Tyler has had significant effect upon
curriculum developers and writers for the past decades.

In general, Tyler has viewed curriculum planning as a four step process. These are:-

Step 1: Formulation of objectives

Step 2: Selection of contents and learning experiences

Step 3: Organization of contents and learning experiences

Step 4: Evaluation

According to Tyler, the identification and defining of objectives is crucially important in

developing an educational program for learning. To him, objective is given greater emphasis
and should be made the first area of concern for curriculum development and that is why the
Tyler model is referred to as objective model. He defines objectives as an intended reset of
learning outcomes. In the formulation of objectives, Tyler suggests three important sources of
information. These are:

Study of the learners: According to Tyler, before the formulation of educational objectives,
the needs, interests and background of the learners should be carefully investigated. Based on
the investigation, what the learners lack or do not have are made to be part of the educational
objectives.

29
Study of the contemporary life: Tyler recommends that major activities of the world of work,
significant problems, demands and trends of the society need to be systematically studied and
incorporated in the objectives of the school curriculum.

Suggestions from subject matter specialists: Since subject specialists are experts or
professionals, their suggestions could be utilized in the formulation of objectives.

Tyler suggests that the list of statements of objectives on the bases of the above three sources
need further screening. In this regard, he forwards two screening devices and these are the
philosophical screening and psychological screening.

Philosophical screening helps to select the objectives in terms of what is good and valuable to
learn. Whereas, psychological screening helps to select objectives that are appropriate in
terms of the nature and process of learning and in relation to the needs and maturity levels of
the learners. Many authors agree that Tyler’s model is simplified and linear. However, this
model served as the starting point for other models.

Taba’s Model:

In her book entitled Curriculum Development: Theory and Practice (1962), Taba outlined her
approach to the process of curriculum development. In this work, she modified Tyler’s basic
model to become more representative of curriculum development in schools. While it is
linear in approach, Taba argued for more information input at each stage of the curriculum
process.

In particular, she suggested a dual consideration of content (logical organization of the

curriculum) and the individual learner (Psychological organization of the curriculum). To
emphasize her point, Taba claimed that all curricula are composed of fundamental elements.
A curriculum usually contains some selection and organization of content: it either implies or
manifests certain patterns of learning and teaching. Finally, it includes a program of
evaluation of the outcomes. Therefore, Hilda Taba proposed a seven steps approach to the
process of curriculum design and development in 1962. The model proposed by her gives
priority to the needs of the students and the procedure of curriculum development begins with
the diagnosis of needs.

The orders (steps) as Taba perceives it are:

30
 Step 1: Diagnosis of needs
Step 2: Formulation of objectives
Step 3: Selection of content
Step 4: Organization of content
Step 5: Selection of learning experiences
Step 6: Organization of learning experiences
Step 7: Evaluation (Determination of what to evaluate and ways and means of doing it.)

The procedure of curriculum development proposed by Taba is basically the same as the
Tyler’s model except some difference like the following.

 Taba included diagnosis of needs

 She treated contents and learning experiences separately in terms of both the selection
and organization.

 Taba also capitalizes the interdependence and interrelatedness of the various elements
involved in the development of curriculum.

 Taba stressed the relationship among the factors of the model in contents and learning
experiences. In general, she included in her model the fundamental elements of
curriculum such as: objectives, contents, learning experiences, organization and
evaluation. Tyler’s influence is also clearly seen in a diagram model offered by D. H.
Wheeler.

Wheeler’s Model:

This model had five basic stages as follows. Basically, Wheeler used the fundamental
elements of the curriculum processes as suggested by Tyler. But, Wheeler considered Tyler’s
approach is linear and argues that curriculum development is a continuous process. Thus, the
activities involved in the planning need to be interrelated in a continuous and cyclical form.

31
 Fig. 1.6 Wheeler’s Model

According to Wheeler, the process of curriculum development begins with

_ the treatment of objectives at various levels. The treatment begins with the
aims from which intermediate goals are derived. Wheeler goes to state that further
specific behavioral outcomes are defined to be attained at a shorter period including at a
specific instructional level.

The Process Model:

It was developed by Lawrence Stenhouse. He argues that, a process model is more

appropriate than an objective model in areas of the curriculum which center on knowledge
and understanding. The root of this model is in philosophy of education. Stenhouse believes
that it is possible to design curricula rationally by specifying content and principles of
procedures rather than by pre-specifying the anticipated outcomes in terms of objectives. The
justification for choosing such content rests not on the pupil behavior to which it gives rise,
but on the degree to which it reflects the field of knowledge. In this design the process is
specified; that is, the content studies, the methods employed and the criteria inherent in the
activity. The end product produced by pupils is not specified before hand in terms of
behavior but can be evaluated after the event by the criteria built in to the art form. In this
model behavioral objectives are absent. In the place of objectives, the emphasis is on defining
acceptance of procedure for dealing with such issues.

32
It is concerned with teaching content. It does not presuppose a linear treatment of its
component, it is sensitive to differences in subject matter and it assumes the autonomy of the
individual teacher. However, the process model is still concerned with ends, though
admittedly not behavioral in character, and that is emphasis on content and principles of
procedure trends to obscure this necessary feature of curriculum planning. There are a
number of practical objections to it, the most important being the difficulties associated with
assessing pupils work and the problem of teacher competence, since the model assumes that
teachers will be refining and deepening their understanding and judgment of the concepts,
principles and criteria inherent in their subjects. Stenhouse admits that a process model is far
more demanding on teachers and thus far more difficult to implement in practice, but it offers
a higher degree of personal and professional development.

The Situational Model:

This model has its roots in cultural analysis as developed by Shilbeck. The model puts
curriculum design and development firmly within a cultural framework and it views such
design as a way in which teachers modify and transform pupils’ experience through
providing insights into cultural values, interpretative frameworks and symbolic systems. This
model is based on the assumption that the focus for curriculum development must be the
individual teachers; that school-based curriculum development is the most effective way of
promoting genuine change at a school level. Curriculum experts will go to individual school
and work with the teachers to develop the curriculum to improve the teaching of a subject.
According to Shilbeck the model has five major components. These components are:

Situational Analysis: This involves a review of the situation and an analysis of the interacting
elements constituting it. External factors that to be considered are broad social changes
including: ideological shifts, parental and community expectations, the changing nature of
subject disciplines, and the potential contribution of teacher support systems such as colleges
and universities.

The internal factors include: pupils and their tributes, teachers and their knowledge, skills,
interests, etc…, school ethos and political structure, materials resources and felt problems.

Goal Formulation: with the statement of goals embracing teacher and pupil activities (though
not necessarily expressed in behavioral terms). Such goals are derived from the situational

33
analysis only in the sense that they represent decisions to modify that situation in certain
respects.

Program Building: this comprises the selection of subject matter for learning, the sequencing
of teaching, learning episodes, the development of staff and the choice of appropriate
supplementary materials and media.

Interpretation and Implementation: where practical problems involved in the introduction of a

modified curriculum are anticipated and then hopefully overcome as the installation proceeds.

Monitoring, Assessment, feedback and reconstruction: Which involves a much wide concept
of evaluation than determining to what extent a curriculum meets its objectives.

Shilbeck’s situational analysis model is not an alternative to the other two. It is a more
comprehensive framework which can encompass either the process model or the objectives
model, depending on which aspects of the curriculum are being designed. This model is
flexible, adaptable and open to interpretation in the light of changing circumstances. The
model outlined does not presuppose a means-end analysis at all; it simply encourage teams or
groups of curriculum developers to take into account different elements and aspects of the
curriculum developments process, to see the process as an organic whole, and to work in a
moderately systematic way. The curriculum models in general are prescriptive in that they
recommend how the activities of curriculum design out to be conducted.

Activity 7: Discuss the major difference among the objective model, the process and
situational models.

 Discuss in group how these models can be used in the practical aspect of curriculum
development.

 Identify the strengths and weakness of the objective, process and situational models.

2.3 Selection of Contents and Learning Experiences

Contents:

34
Contents or subjects matters are facts, principles, formulas, theories, etc which are selected
from the accumulated knowledge of the society and it is only part of the total culture of the
society. Contents are not an end for themselves, but they are a means to the end.

Learning Experiences:

Learning experiences are the interactions of the learners with their environment in their effort
to acquire the contents with purposeful support of the teacher. They are mental operations
and exercises of the learners that would enable them to develop the desired learning
outcomes; that is the changes of behaviors expected at the end of the various levels of
instruction. Learning experiences include the different techniques, strategies and methods that
are used for the purpose of teaching and learning.

 Learning experiences are the activities the learners’ exercise and develop in order to
meet the expected changes of behaviors by way of acquiring the contents.

2.3.1 Selection of Curriculum Contents and Learning Experiences

_
Since contents are the vehicles or means through which objectives are attended,
they have to be given due consideration at the time of selection. If irrelevant or inappropriate
contents and learning experiences are selected, then the students’ time will be wasted and the
intended learning outcomes will not be attained. That is, the selection of contents and
learning experiences is as important as that of the formulation of objectives.

Activity 8: Before you study the following topic, try to define the term content
by using your own words. Please discuss with your friends to develop your
understanding on the content.
 What is the difference between subject knowledge approach and process approach?
Discuss.

2.3.2 Components of Curriculum Experiences

The components of curriculum experiences are contents and learning

_ experiences.

35
Contents: ‘Content’ is equated directly with ‘knowledge’. Many educators believe that
content consists only of the facts, concepts and generalization, or the knowledge related to a
particular subject or theme. Content is defined as the subject matter of the teaching-learning
process and it includes the knowledge (facts, concepts, generalizations, principles and so
forth), processes or skills associated with that knowledge base and the values associated with
subjects or whatever is being learnt.

Content Selection

One of the first tasks facing a curriculum developer, armed with a set of objectives and
recommendations from a situational analysis is to select appropriate contents to meet those
objectives. Contents or subjects matter is only part of the total culture.

It includes what men know and believe and their ideas and loyalties, but not everything they
have created. When curriculum developers undertake the actual selection of contents, the
stand they take on what contents to include may be seen in terms of a continuum. It is
suggested that the approach towards selecting content varies between, one emphasizing a
knowledge-based approach where the learning of factual materials is of paramount
importance, and another emphasizing the process approach where skills are highly valued and
seen as integral to effective understanding.

Learning Experiences: are the interactions of the learners with their environment in their
effort to acquire the contents. They are mental operations and exercises of the learners that
would enable them to develop the desired learning outcomes; that is the changes of behaviors
expected at the end of the various levels of instruction. Learning experiences include the
different techniques, strategies and methods that are used for the purpose of teaching and
learning. They are the activities the learners’ exercise and develop in order to meet the
expected changes of behaviors by way of acquiring the contents.

In reality, content and learning experiences do not exist apart. If students are thinking, they
are usually thinking about something - some content. If they are engaged in some experience,
such as reading a book, they are combining both a learning experience and content. Content
and learning experiences always comprise curriculum unity. Students cannot just engage in
learning, or in studying, without experiencing some activity and some content.

Reflection

36
 1. Let say that you have requested your students to compute the sum of two vectors A
and B in your physics class and they are following your instruction. Please, describe
clearly the content and the learning experiences in which these students are expected
to be involved in the computation.

2. You are now studying this learning material. Which part of the material is the content
and which part of your involvement in the study is the learning experience?

2.3.3 Selection Criteria for Contents and Learning Experiences

When selecting content specifically for a curriculum, the developer requires

_ guidelines to ensure that the content is appropriate. The following criteria

provide a framework for facilitating the selection of content. They are not
presented in their order of merit or worth, and not all would be applied equally. Nevertheless,
they provide a useful guide for the selection of appropriate content.

Significance: The criterion of significance applies where content is judged in terms of how
essential or basic it is to the discipline or theme under study. Where content is considered to
be of value to the subject area, it is deemed to be significant and thus worthily of inclusion in
a curriculum. For most curriculum developers this criterion involves an appropriate balance
between concepts, ideas and facts. Nevertheless, this criterion is somewhat problematic when
we pose the question “significant for whom?”

Validity: Content may be regarded as valid when it is authentic or true, and to a large
measure this means whether the content is accurate. Accurate or true information says what it
is supposed to say. A significant test of the validity of content is to determine the degree of its
obsolescence. In this rapidly changing world, the obsolescence of content is a continual
problem faced by curriculum developers and those who implement curricula. Some school
subjects, such as mathematics, science and social studies, appear to be in a state of almost
constant flux.

The criterion of validity of content may also be measured in terms of the relationship between
content and objectives. For content to be valid, it must reflect the stated objectives. If
objectives claim one thing while the content selected for the curriculum teaches something
different then it is regarded as invalid. For example, if an objective seems to achieve student

37
understanding of Ethiopia’s political structure, and the ensuring content deals only with one
political party, then the content would be invalid.

Social Relevance: if the curriculum is to be a useful prescription for learning, its content and
the outcomes it pursues need to be in tune with the social and cultural realities of the times. A
somewhat controversial criterion for content selection is that of social relevance. This
criterion suggests that content for inclusion in a curriculum should be selected on the grounds
of its relevance to the social development of the individual, but within the context of a
community-oriented perspective.

Thus, this criterion is concerned with content relating to moral values, ideas, social problems,
controversial issues, democratic principles, understanding of cultural groups, social
awareness and criticism, the facilitation of social change and so forth that would assist
students to become more effective members of their society.

Utility: this criterion appears similar to the criteria of significance and social relevance but
the term is defined in rather specific manner in terms of individual learners. When employed
to select content for a school curriculum, the criterion of utility applies to the usefulness of
content in preparing students for adult life. As such it implies a very correctly relevant and
functional approach to the selection of content that will lead to a desired outcome on behalf
of the learner. This criterion is also individually oriented reflecting the concept of the value or
usefulness of the content to individual learners experiencing the proposed curriculum. A
recent adaptation of the curriculum criterion suggests that content should be selected to meet
students’ present needs. This criterion is particularly appropriate for curricula devised for
non-tertiary-bound students.

Learnability: Those contents have to meet the needs of large numbers of students with
diverse backgrounds and a wide range of ability (Young, 1989; Kennedy, 1990). In these
cases, if the content is to be acquired by all students, then consideration must be made not to
make the content too difficult for this group of learners. To lessen this problem and make
content suitable to the ability levels of all students involved could reduce the content to the
level of the lowest common denominator. This in turn, would create an insane, pointless
curriculum for many students. The answer to this problem lies, in part, in creating multiple
content material or variations of the basic content materials by adding more advanced content
for abler students, in order to meet differing student abilities or levels within a single
curriculum.

38
An associated aspect on the learn-ability criterion is student readiness. It is extremely difficult
for curriculum developers to predetermine it. The classroom teacher as curriculum
implementer and curriculum adapter is in an appropriate position to consider learner
readiness. Thus it is a professional judgment by the teacher which will determine whether or
not certain contents should be included in the presentation of the curriculum based upon the
readiness of the learners to accept that content.

Interest: The interest of learners in the curriculum’s content is generally considered to be an

important criterion in the selection of that content by curriculum developers. After all this is
good sense. However, it appears to be one of those criteria more valued in the theory than in
the reality. Certainly curriculum developers have accorded this criterion the lowest priority in
practice. The problem associated with the student interest criterion is the dilemma it causes
when determining just how significant a role this criterion should play, at one extreme,
curriculum developers could ignore student interest as a selection criterion. They could argue,
perhaps justifiably so, that they know what content students should learn. However, this
extreme position loses the potential of a strong student motivational force and hence may be
counterproductive. Alternatively, curriculum content selected largely upon a student interest
criterion possibly suffers from whim, immature development, and individualistic emphasis.
The range of students’ interest may appear to be unlimited and they are frequently of a
transitory nature.

Obviously some accommodation of both arguments must be taken into account when
constructing curriculum. Curriculum developers would do well to certain a greater
understanding of student interests and perceived needs. While maintaining the role of arbiter,
curriculum developers must take greater cognizance of student interests.

Scope/Balance of Breadth and Depth: curriculum should represent an appropriate balance

of breadth and depth. Yet depth of understanding and a breadth of coverage are two
contradictory principles. One cannot practice both of them to an extreme.

They are especially contradictory when subject matter or content is viewed as an

accumulation or collection of specific descriptive facts rather than a disciplined way of seeing
the important relationships between facts and central ideas. The followers of this view see
depth as an extension of coverage.

39
This view of depth leads to a broader coverage which practically prevents spending time on
the necessity of concentration on a few fields, which prevents sufficient scope for the
broadening of perspective or for serving a greater variety of needs. According to the second
view, depth means understanding fully and clearly certain basic principles, ideas, or concepts,
as well as their application- To achieve depth of understanding, one needs to explore ideas
fully enough and in sufficient detail to comprehend their full meaning, to relate them to other
ideas and to apply them to new problems and solutions. To begin with, one could study the
concept of light in sufficient depth without necessarily covering all phenomena of light.

Activity 8

 Define the phrases content and learning experience.

 What is the difference between learning experience and content? Explain using
concrete examples from primary school subjects.

It might be possible to achieve a reasonable balance of breadth and depth by

selecting sufficient range of ideas to study which have the greatest applicability
and the greatest power to transfer, and by spending enough time on studying each.
Such an approach to depth of understanding permits the student to penetrate into the way of
thinking sufficiently to acquire the discipline of the subject.

The crux of the matter lies in teaching for transfer, in developing the capacity to apply
whatever is learned in one context to other areas and problems. This suggests that the
problem of balance of depth and coverage cannot be solved by consideration of the selection
of content alone. It involves also parallel plans for designing learning experiences which
cultivate the process essential to transfer.

Provision for wide range of objective: Curriculum should provide for the achievement of a
wide range of objectives. Mastery of content is only one of the many possible outcomes of
learning. Various other types of behaviors are both possible and necessary educational
objectives. An effective curriculum provides acquisition of significant new knowledge and
for the development of increasingly more effective ways of thinking, desirable attitudes and
interests, and appropriate habits and skills.

40
Potentially rich subject matter can be implemented with learning experiences which provide
opportunities for practicing either a wider or a limited range of behavior, and hence serve
either a wide or a narrow range of objectives. One can, for example, learn geographic facts
and principles simply by memorizing them. But it is possible also to learn the same facts by
examining the maps contrasting geographic areas to locate them, to use the fact of latitude,
rainfall, and altitude to predict what is grown and produced in these areas in order to develop
generalizations about the relationship to geographic conditions to resources, production, or
way of life. These experiences will produce the same knowledge of facts and principles, but
in addition encourage the cultivation of many other behaviors at the same time.

Durability of the elements of content: determining how long an item of content will last as a
desirable element is difficult. Subject matter has changed so rapidly in fields like physics and
chemistry that prediction of its durability has sometimes seemed impossible. In general,
however, the closer an item of content is to a main idea or a concept, the greater is its chance
of being durable. Where possible, all criteria should be considered, although it appears that
the criteria of significance, validity and utility are accorded greater priority.

2.3.4 Curriculum Organization

Introduction

Following the selection of contents and learning experiences, there is a need to

put them in to a meaningful and systematic pattern or order. This is referred to as
organization. Organization requires the arrangement of contents and learning
experiences in to some kind of continuity and sequence. This helps for a better and deeper
understanding that is instrumental for the successful realization of educational objectives. It
is usually believed that a curriculum should be organized properly in order to meet its
objectives satisfactorily. Whatever desirable objectives are formulated, and relevant contents
are selected if the material is presented in a haphazard way, that is, if the organization of this
material is overlooked, then the expected objectives may not be achieved adequately. To
accomplish this goal (to have a better organization of a material), the designer should have,
not only a thorough understanding of the curriculum content and his/her objectives but also,
principles for organizing the needs and problems of the content. Principles are basic
generalizations that are accepted as true and that can be used as basis for reasoning or
conduct.

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 2.3.4.1: Definition of Curriculum Organization
Some educators take curriculum organization and curriculum design as
synonymous. For instance, in the Dictionary of Education, both are defined as:
“the way in which the component parts of the curriculum have been arranged in
order to facilitate learning and teaching and to enable schools to formulate feasible daily and
weekly schedules.” This definition emphasizes on the means of putting together the
objectives, content, methods, learning experience, and evaluation techniques systematically
according to their suitability in leading a better teaching-learning process.

Similarly, curriculum organization is defined by other educators as the arrangement of the

components or elements of a curriculum into a substantive entity. It refers to the way in
which curricula are treated. Here, the components or elements of a curriculum are similar
with the above explanation. These include aims, goals, objectives, subject matter or content,
learning activities and evaluation. The nature of these components and the manner in which
they are organized in the curriculum plan comprise what we mean curriculum design or
organization. Hence, curriculum organization deals with the pattern or the arrangement of
these elements; that is, it focuses on how these elements can be brought together to form a
systematic unity. Moreover, curriculum organization is an activity which is usually done at
the time of either planning a new curriculum or revising the existing curriculum.

Although most curriculum plans within their design the above essential elements, often they
are not given equal weight. Frequently, content or subject matter receives the primary
emphasis. But, sometimes schools do create designs that stress primarily on objectives and
evaluation approaches. Some designs give primary emphasis to learning experiences and
activities. The curriculum designer’s curriculum approach and philosophical orientation
influences which design does he or she actually select.

Activity 9

1. Define curriculum organization

2. Mention the elements that should be organized
3. List the current patterns of curriculum organization

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 2.3.4.2: Organization of Contents and Learning Experiences

To make contents learnable and to bring about the slow but profound change
_
in behavior there is a need to organize contents and learning experiences in
such a way that they reinforce one another. The reinforcement of contents and learning
experiences at different levels is assumed to bring a cumulative effect. Furthermore, as noted
by Taba “what makes learning in schools is different from learning in life since learning in
school is organized”. According to this notion, if contents and learning experiences are not
organized, learning becomes something done disorderly and incidentally. The selection of
contents and learning experiences could be adequate enough but the outcome could be a
failure due to lack of proper organization.

As noted by Taba “curriculum organization poses many questions and requires an application
of all we know about the nature of knowledge, about child growth and development and
about theory of learning because of its complexity and difficulties.

In order to achieve maximum results from the selected contents and learning experiences
advocates of the objective model advice curriculum workers and teachers to examine the
relationship of the experiences over time and also from one area to another. These two kinds
of relationships are referred to “the vertical and horizontal relations respectively”. Vertical
relation is characterized by the criterion of level and the horizontal by the criterion of relation
across subjects. In considering these two kinds of relationships, Tyler’s assumption is that
attainment of objectives usually takes a long time and single learning experiences which does
not recur at different levels and across subjects may have very little effect on the learner.

Organizing contents and learning experiences enables to maintain relationship between

subjects both in case of vertical and horizontal directions. It enables also to employ theories
of learning in organizing the contents and learning experiences, that is, deciding what should
come first and what comes next, considering the capacity, interest, motivation, readiness,
need, etc. of the learners, and also enables to maintain order and coherence. The process of
organizing contents and learning experiences demand to base organization on certain criteria
and principles.

Activity 10
1. What is the importance of organizing contents and learning experiences in
curriculum development? Discuss in detail.

43
 2. Discuss with your class mates as what will happen if contents and learning
experiences may not be organized.
3. List the organizing principles and make a detail discussion by using your own
examples.

2.3.4.3: Organizing Principles

Tyler identified some organizing principles upon which the continuity, sequence
_
and integration of learning experiences are attained among them the major elements
identified to serve as threads for the learning experiences.

These organizing principles are:

Extending the concept by increasing the range of experience that provides for the
development of the concept: To illustrate, in social study programs, being with the child’s
immediate environment the home and school, and expand to the community, state, nation and
world. In reading, the student should first recognize letters of the alphabet and then proceed
to reading words, sentences, paragraphs and novels. To determine sequence psychologically,
consider the maturity of the learner, his interest, readiness, motivation, relative difficulty of
the item, and the relationship between the item and the prerequisite skills.

Extending the concept by broadening the range of respects in which the experiences occurs:
For instance, to recognize inter-dependence in respect of economic matters, social matters,
inter-dependence in aesthetic matters and the like.

Chronological principles: This enables learners see the development of events over time. It
demands organizing in order of time of happening.

In using this principle there is a need to see to it whether it is providing the psychological
organization, which broadens and deepens the learner’s command of the elements involved in
the organization.

Other Organizing Principles commonly used include increasing the breadth of application,
increasing the range of activities included. In the subject, the use of description followed by
analysis, the development of specific illustrations followed by broader and broader principles

44
to explain these illustrations, and the attempt to build on increasingly unified world picture
from specific parts which are first built into larger and larger wholes.

2. 3.4.4: Criteria for Organization

_ Organizing contents and learning experiences as Tyler showed help to relate

various experiences, which together comprise the curriculum to produce the
important effect in attaining the objectives of the program. In this line curriculum specialists
identify four major criteria to be met in building effectively organized group of contents and
learning experience. These are:

Continuity: is the planned repetition of content at successive levels, each time at an increased
level of complexity. Continuity also refers to the vertical reiteration of major curriculum
elements. By this Tyler means that recurrent and continuing opportunity must be given for
the skill to be learned, to be practiced and developed. Of course the recurrence of concepts,
ideas and learning experiences becoming deeper and broader as the level increases.
Therefore, the purpose of continuity is to provide for a cumulative learning to take place, it is
to provide for a greater depth and breadth of understanding to all varieties of learning:
thinking, skills and attitudes.

However, this cumulative progression need not necessarily be tied up with a shift in content.
It is conceivable that the same content can be studied on two levels, one requiring a more
mature understanding, more penetrating analysis, and a deeper insight than the other. For
instance, the child may learn notions of interdependence at grade one level by studying the
way in which the activities and the need of the family are dependent on the activities of other
people. A third grade may examine the concept in relation to interdependence among the
community services. A twelfth grade student may encounter the same concept, but with
reference to the interdependence of nations.

Sequence: sequence is putting the content and materials into some sort of order of succession.
Sequencing in curriculum can be in terms of the content or learning experience. The content
sequencing is done on the basis of the subject matter logic while the learning experiences are
sequenced using psychological approaches.

Logical Sequencing: the logical sequencing approach of content organization puts the content
of the materials into some order of successions in answering the question “what is to follow

45
what”. Logical sequencing is a matter of specifying the learning structure of any subject. In
this process of acquisition of knowledge every new capability builds on established
foundation previously learned knowledge. In this way a student is only ready to learn
something when he has mastered the prerequisite knowledge required to be a base for the
new content. In logical sequencing, the important organizing principle used in putting the
content is chronological order. Chronological principle is arranging facts and ideas in relation
to time sequence. This sequencing usually is particular to history; and courses in literature
can also be arranged based on this principle in selection of literatures. Example: The battle
fields in Ethiopian history can be arranged in chronological order.

Psychological Sequencing: the learning experiences are arranged based on principle of

psychological sequencing by giving more attention to the learning activities in relation to the
learner’s abilities, interests, aspirations and backgrounds rather than the course and content
coverage. The designers should select learning experiences based on the developmental levels
of the learners taking into account their individual differences in many aspects like interest,
intelligence, level of aspiration and background. Accordingly the activities and assignments
given and the leaner’s performance and expectations also differ. In this sequencing approach
learning experiences can be arranged following certain organizing principles like:

Establishing Scope: refers to breadth or latitude of the curriculum and it shows what must be
provided to students in different grade levels in a school. That is it reflects the type of
educational experiences that are believed by planners to be relevant or appropriate for
learners at particular stages of development so that the educational objectives can be realized.
Scope shows that curriculum horizontally by identifying common curriculum experiences
that could involve all students from all cultures in a given country’s educational system to be
provided in a given semester or year. It facilitates the teachers’ work by showing the content
of a semester’s or year’s work that is appropriate for the students to learn. Scope could be
achieved if and when it fulfills the following criteria:

 if it provides for all the demands of a society;

 if it meets the common needs and problems of children at all grade levels;
 if it basis on basic principles, values, and issues;
 if a particular society considers it worthy;
 if it gives room to continuity of learning experiences; and
 if it focuses upon life situations and help children to solve problems in the society.

46
 Activity 11

1. Explain the difference between continuity and integration

2. Discuss the difference between sequence and scope.

3. Elaborate logical and psychological sequencing and show clearly the difference
between the two.

4. Evaluate the application of the organizing criteria in the primary school textbooks
based on your major areas.

Summary

Some of the curriculum development models are the objectives model, process model and
situational model. To develop a curriculum, need diagnosis from the society using different
data collection techniques such as questionnaires, interview, public hearings, analysis of
social indicators and observation should have to be conducted. A Hierarchical relationship
exists between aims, goals and objectives where the first two are regarded as abstract,
vaguely worded statements of program intent, while objectives are specific teacher prepared
statements of what learners will experience. Objectives provide a sense of direction to anyone
interested in the educational process. Objectives can be general and specific and behavioral
and non-behavioral process. The sources of aims, goals and objectives are empirical sources,
philosophical sources, subject matter sources, curriculum conceptions, situational analysis
and educational forces. Contents and learning experiences are the two major components of
curriculum experiences.

Self-test Exercise

I. Fill in the following blank spaces with the most appropriate words or phrases
1. The type of curriculum change which can be made by a school manager is ________.

II. Choose the best answer from the given alternatives and circle the letter of your choice
1. Identify the concept that indicates the process of monitoring the achievement of the pre-
determined objectives:
A. Curriculum change B. Curriculum evaluation
C. Curriculum development D. Curriculum organization

47
2. The selection criterion that depicts strong linkage between curriculum contents and
objectives is______. A. reliability B. significance C. utility D. validity

3. Identify the type of curriculum change that is introduced without consensus among the
participants. A. interaction B. value-orientation C. planned D. coercion

4. Identify the resistance factor for curriculum change that is caused by scarcity of
information. A. lack of support B. inertia C. lack of knowledge D. insecurity

5. As a process, curriculum development is not concerned with:

a. Planning b. Implementing c. Changing d. none

6. All are principles of effective curriculum design, except

a. Big ideas b. mediated scaffolding c. Hidden strategies d. Judicious review

7. Which one of the following curriculum development models does not belong to the objective model
a. Tyler’s model b. Taba’s model c. Stenhouse’s model d. Wheeler’s model

II. Match content selection criteria concepts stated under column “B” with explanations given under
column “A”
Column “A” Column “B”
1 Content is judged in terms of how it is essential to the discipline A. Scope
2 Its relationship with social reality B. Validity
3 Usefulness of contents in preparing students for adult life C. Significance
4 To the level of students learning capability D. Interest
5 Content should represent an appropriate balance between depth and breadth E. Relevance
6 More valued in theory than in practice F. Learnability
7 Focuses on accuracy of the content G. Utility
H. Sequencing
I. Durability

III. Write TRUE if the statement is correct and FALSE if it is wrong

1. Prepared background knowledge could not be taken as one of the principles of effective curriculum
design
2. Situational curriculum development model rejects any form of setting objectives
3. Continuity is one of the criteria used in content organization

48
Unit Delivery Approaches/ Methods/ Strategies
You will learn this unit through conducting small scale case study on a field individually
and in group base and you will present it for discussion in your class. Besides, this unit
also requires Presentations and debate pedagogy as one of the major once.

Activities of Learners and Facilitators in the learning-teaching Process

Learners’ activities

You are expected to be active participant within class and out-of class activities by
reflecting your ideas freely. Besides, you are also responsible to work group and
individual assignments given by your facilitator.

Facilitators’ activities

The Facilitator plan ahead of time how the students will be active participants on the
ongoing class interaction by selecting appropriate pedagogy and teaching materials so as
to create conducive learning environment that enables the whole learner be beneficiary.
Besides, the vacillator will design and make follow up about the learning progress of the
students.

Assessment Strategies and Techniques

 Continuous assessment shall be used to assess the participation of students and
their performance results.
 Students’ reading assignment and small group discussion and presentations shall
be collected and be given values.
 A quiz shall be given to check students’ level of performance and teachers’
methods of presentation.

Instructional Resources (Materials & Equipment)

 Markers and flipcharts, scotch tapes
 LCD and laptop
 Module/selected reading books, articles, etc

49
Reading Materials

Derbessa Dufera 2004. Fundamentals of Curriculum Development: Addis Ababa

Printing Press, Addis Ababa University.

St. Mary’s College 2005. Curriculum Studies Module, (Handbook for Distance Material).
Addis Ababa, unpublished.

Taba, H. 1962. Curriculum Development: Theory and Practice. New York: Harcourt
Brace Jovanovich, Inc.

Tyler, R. 1949. Principles of Curriculum and Instruction. Chicago: Chicago University

Press

Wiles, J. and Bondi, J. 2002. Curriculum Development: A Guide to Practice. New Jersey

50
Unit Three: Curriculum Implementation, Change and Evaluation
(6periods)
Introduction
This unit focuses on the definition of curriculum implementation,
curriculum change and curriculum evaluation, curriculum implementation
process, factors that affect curriculum implementation, types of curriculum
change, resistance factors for curriculum change, the purpose of curriculum evaluation, types
of curriculum evaluation, and core criteria for curriculum evaluation.

 Learning Outcomes:

After successful study of this unit, you will be able to:

 Define the concepts curriculum implementation, change, and evaluation

 Explain about the nature and process of curriculum implementation
 Identify the possible factors that facilitate or hinder the effective implementation of
secondary school curriculum
 Elaborate the major approaches and models of curriculum implementation
 Analyze the causes, dimensions and type of curriculum change and relate to the
Ethiopian secondary school realities
 Outline the factors of resistance to curriculum change
 Plan mechanisms to increase receptivity of people to curriculum change
 Evaluate the quality of secondary school textbooks in your major area

3.1. Meaning of Curriculum Implementation

Curriculum implementation is a process of putting newly planned or changed
curriculum into practice. Implementation in curriculum involves changing the
status quo by accepting and utilizing a newly created curriculum or part of a
curriculum. That is taking a curriculum document as devised in the development phase of the
model and putting it into practice. If the curriculum is accepted and utilized successfully, we
say that it has become institutionalized.

51
Change is the process of transforming phenomena in to something different. Therefore,
curriculum change can be defined as any alteration in the aspects of curriculum such as
educational philosophy, values, objectives, organizational structures and material, teaching
strategies, student experiences, assessment and learning outcomes.

3.2. Curriculum Implementation Approaches and Models

In the short term, any newly implemented curriculum will be expected to

experience some difficulties. To a large degree this will reflect the
effectiveness of the curriculum developers in meeting the needs of the curriculum’s
clients. Thus, implementation is a short-term phenomenon that attempts to integrate the new
curriculum into existing practice. To some degree, the problems experienced in implementing
curricula reside with a lack of systematic implementation procedures.

It is important for teachers to know that a new curriculum can be implemented more
successfully in a school when cognizance and action are taken on the following points:

Planning: A deliberate strategy is developed to implement the curriculum in the school.

Communication: The curriculum is presented in terms of its favorable characteristics.

Cooperation: Support is obtained at a systematic level for the innovation.

Support: The characteristics of the school are disposed towards the innovation.

For the implementation process to be successful, it needs to consider planning,

communication, and cooperation and support processes.

Curriculum Implementation Models

Curriculum implementation can be done using different models. The three

common once are discussed below in a brief manner:

Fidelity Model: curriculum implementation model that requires the curriculum to be

implemented without any modification as it is, that is, as it is prescribed by the curriculum
experts. The teacher has no right to make any form of change in all aspects of the curriculum.

52
Mutual Adaptation Model: Teachers are allowed to make some modification by considering
the reality of the context.

Enactment Model: the curriculum implementer participates in all curriculum development

process at all levels. Teachers are the most active participants in curriculum creation. This
model goes up to school based curriculum development under the national framework.

Activity - 12

1. How do you understand what curriculum implementation means? Do you think that all
teachers implement the endorsed curriculum in a similar way? Please! Give strong
justification for your answer.

2. Dear learner examines the three curriculum implementation models and discusses the
merits and demerits of each model. Your discussion should be based the current
curriculum implementation orientation for secondary schools of Ethiopia.

3.3Factors Affecting Curriculum Implementation

Factors Related with the Characteristics of the Change:

Need and Relevance: Need and relevance refers to the perceived need to
the part of implementers. It would seem that the greater the recognized need for change,
the greater the degree of implementation.

Clarity: refers to understanding of goals and means of an innovation by users. The greater
the understanding of goals and what is to be gained from their adoption, the greater the
degree of implementation.

Complexity: has to do with the difficulty and extent of change required of users. The greater
the complexity in innovations with differentiated components incrementally introduced, the
greater the degree of implementation.

Quality and Practicality of Program: refers to the quality and availability of materials.
Users must perceive that materials are going to meet important needs as well as be practical
and usable. Unavailability of required materials acts as inhibitors of implementation.

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 Factors Related with the Characteristics of the School District Level

Previous History of Innovation Attempts: the more positive the previous

history with innovation, the greater the degree of implementation.

The Adoption Process: the higher the quality of planning to meet problems, the greater the
degree of implementation.

Administrative Support: the greater the “real” administrative support, the greater the degree
of implementation.

Staff development and Participation: The greater the quality and quantity of sustained
interaction and staff development, the greater the degree of implementation.

Time-line and information systems/ evaluation/: the greater the extent to which timing or
events is guided by an understanding of implementation, the greater the degree of
implementation. The greater the linkage between evaluation data and school/class level
improvement needs, the greater the degree of implementation.

Board and Community Characteristics: the greater the board and community interest and
support without controversy, the greater the degree of implementation.

School Level Factors

The Role of the Principal: the greater the active support of the principal, the greater the
degree of implementation.

Teacher-Teacher Relationship: the more collegiality, trust, support, interaction and open
communication between teachers, the greater the degree of implementation.

Teacher characteristics and orientations: The greater the sense of teacher efficacy, the
greater the degree of implementation.

External Environment Factors

Government Agencies: The greater the congruence between local needs and
the reform and the greater awareness of subjective realities, the greater the
degree of implementation.

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External Assistance: The greater the interaction with local district, the greater the degree of
implementation.

As a whole, curriculum implementation can be affected by the following variables:

 The nature of the curriculum itself

 The situation of the learners
 The professional competence of the teacher
 Availability of resources
 The school environment
 The out of school environment
 The school-community relationship
 The management practices in the school.

Activity 13

Curriculum implementation in secondary schools of Ethiopia is affected by different

factors and you are expected to mention some of the factors and to support it with tangible
examples from your own school life experience.

3. 4. Curriculum Change, Resistance and Increasing Receptivity for Curriculum

Change

Change is a phenomenon which we experience continuously. It seems that

features of our society are changing daily. Indeed, some changes are so
frequent and substantial that we may find them difficult to keep abreast with these
developments so, it is with schooling and education; substantive and frequent change appears
to have become something of a norm, a continuing reality of schools. Curriculum change may
be considered as a subset of educational change and as such is affected by the same type of
factors affecting change within education in general. Much of curriculum is concerned with
planned change, which may be defined as a deliberate and collaborative process involving a
change agent and a client system which are brought together to solve a problem or more
generally, to plan and attain an improved state of functioning and applying valid knowledge,
most of what we address in curriculum is some form of planned change.

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 3.4.1 Change Typologies in Curriculum

Some educators classify changes into different types. Warren Bennie has
identified the following types of changes:

Planned Change: It is a change in which those involved have equal power and function in a
prescribed fashion. People identify and follow precise procedures for dealing with the activity
at hand. Planned change is taken to be an ideal one.

Coercion: one group determining the goals and intentionally excluding others from
participating characterizes this type of change. The group in control has the major power and
works to maintain the unequal power balance.

Interaction Change: In this type of change, mutual goal setting and fairly equal power
distribution among groups take place. But those involved often lack deliberateness of effort;
they are uncertain how to follow through with the plans of development and implementation.

Changes have also been classified according to their complexity. John McNeil has identified
five types of changes as described below.

Substitution: This depicts alteration in which one element is replaced for another. By far,
this is the easiest and most common type of change.

Alteration: This type of change exists when someone introduces into the existing materials
and program new content, items, materials, or procedures that appear to be only minor and
thus are likely to be adopted readily.

Perturbations: These changes could first disrupt a program, but can then be adjusted
purposefully by the curriculum leader to the on-going program within a short time span.

Restructuring: These changes lead to modification of the system itself-that is, of the school
or school district. New concepts of teaching roles such as differentiated staffing or team
teaching would be a restructuring type of change.

Value-Orientation Change: These are shifts in the participants’ fundamental philosophies or

curriculum orientations. Major power brokers of the school or participation in the curriculum
must accept and strive for this level of change for it occurs. However, if teachers do not
adjust their value domains, any changes enacted are most likely going to be short lived.

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Although the change that occurs in the schools cannot be fit into precise categories,
curricularists need to realize that types do exist and that planned change could be an ideal
one.

Activity 14

1. What do you understand by the phrase “change typology”

2. Discuss the difference among planned, coercion and interaction changes.
3. Identify changes that are classified based on complexity and rearrange them either
from the least to the most complex or from the most to the least complex.

3.4.2: Resistance to Curriculum Change

People are the key to curriculum implementation effort but not always are
people ready to accept change curriculum change. The people’s resistance to
change can be attributed to various factors.

a. Inertia: many people think it is easier to keep things as they are. Wanting to keep things as
they exist is often mixed with believing that things do not need to be changed or that change
being suggested is unwise and will thus be unproductive in meeting the objectives of the
school.

b. Insecurity: People feel instance about the uncertainty of things to happen. Those who are
comfortable with the present are reluctant to change for a future which they cannot
comprehend or see clearly.

They prefer to stay with certain known deficiencies than venture forth to uncertain futures,
even if the changes most likely would be improvements.

c. Rapidity of change: This refers to the factor which makes people to resist change by
anticipating another change in curriculum soon. Many people feel that if something is
implemented this year, it will most likely be abandoned when another innovation appears and
this will thus make all their efforts useless.

d. Lack of knowledge: Sometimes people resist innovation and its implementation because
they lack knowledge. They either do not know about the innovation at all or they have little
information about it.

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e. Lack of Support: People also resist change if financial or time support is not given to the
effort. Resistance to change is sometimes perceived as good, because it calls upon the change
agents to think carefully about the innovations and to consider the human dynamics involved
in implementing programs.

f. Self Interest: People also resist to curriculum change when they feel that the change may
result in a loss in their current position which is related to their personal interest.

Activity 15

Do you think that all people resist or accept curriculum change? Why? Discuss the
reason.

3.4.3: Improving Receptivity to Curriculum Change

Curriculum implementation requires face-to-face interaction or person-to-

person contact. It is also a group process involving individuals working
together. Not only does the group enable certain actions to occur, it also serves to change its
individual members.

Curriculum leaders can also increase the person’s willingness to change by “linking” the need
and expectations of the individuals with those of the organizations. Brue Joyce and his co-
workers have identified the following guidelines that help individuals to increase their
receptivity to curriculum innovations.

Curriculum activity must be Cooperative: if any program is to be implemented and

institutionalized, it should be perceived by all parties as their program.

This sense of ownership is achieved by involving people directly and indirectly with the
major aspects of curriculum development and implementation.

Consider as some people do not like change: Resistance to any new idea is often natural.
Curriculum leaders should anticipate it, and should prepare procedures for dealing with it.
They must also identify well in advance of the action questions that will arise about the
innovation being implemented: how will people feel about the change? What worries will
people have? What are some likely points of conflict? What can be done to lessen the anxiety
levels of individuals who will be affected by the change?

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Innovations are subject to change: Nothing should be viewed as permanent. A new
curriculum is presented as a response to a particular time sometimes even new programs, will
be required. Change is a constant, and people need to realize that all programs will be
constantly reviewed to determine if they should be continued.

Proper timing: it is a key factor that increases peoples’ receptivity to an innovation. If the
school community is demanding that a new program to be created to respond to a perceived
national need, then a new program addressing that need is likely to meet with success and
acceptance.

Activity 16

Explain the guidelines suggested by Bruce Joyce and his co-workers and try to
suggest some others that can improve people’s receptivity to curriculum change.

3.5 Curriculum Evaluation

Evaluation is a term used more and more in educational decisions and it is

taken as one of the important steps of curriculum development. New curricula
are being developed on every hand, these curricula have to be evaluated to
understand the success and failure of the educational plan and to see whether the designed
curriculum is effective or ineffective in the implementation process.

3.5.1: Meaning of Evaluation

Evaluation is a process that helps the planners or other concerned authorities
to see the difference between what is intended or expected and how much
is accomplished.

In doing so it provides valid and reliable information that could help to decide about the
failure or success of an educational program.

Activity 17

1. Define the term evaluation in relation to curriculum

2. How do you know whether the newly designed curriculum is effective or not?
Discuss in group

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 3. List the possible purposes of evaluation. What is the use of evaluation in relation
to a curriculum document? Discuss in group.

3.5.2: The Purpose of Evaluation

Modern educational evaluation began with the work of Ralph Tyler in 1930s
by asking random questions to learners about the contents of their courses. In
his works Tyler showed the importance of evaluation in education promoting idea that
evaluation is necessary to see whether the educational objectives are mastered. In this view,
evaluation process does not only be conducted after implementing the plan but it starts when
the planner checks learning experiences against various criteria derived from educational
psychology and general principles of learning and from practical experience and when these
learning experiences have been checked to see that how much they are related to the
objectives. Hence, the importance of curriculum evaluation is to make a more inclusive check
as to whether the plan or choice for learning experiences actually function to guide the
teacher in producing the sort of outcomes desired. In addition, it assesses the curriculum
development and the appropriateness in relation to the educational goals. It also helps to
check the validity of the basic hypothesis upon which the effectiveness of the particular
instruments being used in the implementation process. Generally from Tyler’s practices of
curriculum evaluation we can understand that the process makes possible to note in what
aspects the purpose for curriculum evaluation and the reason why a process of evaluation is
necessary after the plans themselves are developed. For this Tyler was called the father of
modern program evaluation.

The important function of evaluation is helping the planner to see whether the educational
plans developed for learning experiences practically function to guide teachers in showing
clear objectives and appropriate means to achieve them. In addition to this, evaluation is
regarded as having functions to identify the strengths and weakness of the plan and to find
out how far a curriculum is effective and in what respect it needs modification. Therefore, in
the evaluation process data are gathered and interpreted for the sake of deciding on the
modification of the program after answering these questions. The curriculum should be
judged in relation to the culture of the society it is serving. In general, evaluation can be done
for the following purposes:

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  Evaluation provides information to improve curricula. Effective data collected
during a unit of study, will provide the bases for changes that will make the
curriculum more effective in meeting objectives.

 Evaluation provides useful information to curriculum developers to clarify the

stated objectives. Feedback obtained through evaluative procedures indicates how
realistic and effective the original objectives were and where change is required.

 Those interested (such as students, parents, educational systems, employers,

universities, development planners, and so forth) to know how well students
perform in their learning, they need constructive information on student
performance to enhance their decision making effectiveness. Curriculum developers
should ensure that provision is made for evaluative information that is meaningful
and valid.

 It enables to see what has been achieved (impact evaluation).

 It is used to document what has been done and what progress has been made
(process or implementation evaluation).

 It is used to determine cost-benefit accountability for expenditures.

 It used to share experiences (professional development).

 Used to determine the effectiveness of a program in light of the attainment pre-set
priorities and goals. Therefore, evaluation can be undertaken for one or more
purposes listed above.

3.5.3 Evaluation Procedures to be Followed

Evaluation procedure could be devised in accordance with the educational

level it is meant to check. It could be organized to evaluate total educational
program or a given curriculum or certain instruction. Anyhow, the purpose of evaluating total
educational program is to find out its validity to the society it is planned. To do so, it requires
substantial judgment and this substantial judgment could be achieved if the following, steps
are followed as evaluation procedures.

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Step 1: Identifying the Objective: the process of evaluation begins with the identification of
educational objectives. Since the main task of evaluation is to see how far the objectives are
achieved, they have to be clearly defined in order to have a clear conception of the sort of
behavior implied by them. Unless it is clearly defined the evaluator cannot tell what kind of
behavior to look for in the students in order to see to what degree these objectives are being
realized.

Step 2: Identifying the Situations: This step refers to the identification of the situations which
will give the student the chance to express the behavior that is implied by the educational
objectives. We must find situations that give opportunity to the learners to acquire the
expected types of behavior. For example, if we’re looking for the evidences of development
of interest, situations giving the opportunity for free choice of activity have to be provided.
Generally, Tyler suggests that evaluation situation is the kind of situation that gives an
opportunity for the students to express the type of behavior we are trying to appraise.

Step 3: Establishing Evaluation Instruments: Here, we identify particular tests and examine
them to see how far they fit into the type of objectives that are appraised and how far they
agree to the learning situations meant to produce the expected behavior.

3.5.4: Types of Evaluation

There are several types of evaluation. Among them, three major types of
curriculum evaluation are commonly used in education. These are formative
evaluation, diagnostic evaluation and summative evaluation.

Formative Evaluation: is undertaken to improve an existing program. Hence, this evaluation

must provide frequently detailed and specific information to guide the program being
developed. However, this does not mean that formative evaluation is only used at the
implementation stage. Formative evaluation can be used at each of the three stages of
program development: planning/designing, disseminating it to other users and implementing
the program.

Diagnostic Evaluation: is directed towards two purposes, either for placement of students
properly at the outset of the instructional period (such as secondary school), or to discover the
underlying cause of deficiencies in student learning as instruction unfolds. The essential
feature of diagnostic evaluation, therefore, is to provide useful information on student

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performance in order to address a problem. It can be conducted before commencing a unit of
learning and during instruction when a student reveals repeated inability to profit from the
learning experiences.

Summative Evaluation: is concerned with evaluating the overall program after it is in

operation. Summative evaluation is often based on tests of all sorts, students’ reaction to the
instruction, teachers’ view concerning the effectiveness of instruction, parents’ reaction,
employer ratings of graduates, and reports from college examination bureau, etc.

3.5.5 Criteria for Curriculum Evaluation

 Establishing evaluation instruments should be based on the following

evaluation criteria.

Criterion 1- Curricular Structure:

Is the curriculum sufficiently complete? What are the current education elements? What is
missing?

Criterion 2 - Curricular Sequence:

Is the sequential logic of the curriculum optimal? For example, are curricular elements
optimally sequenced for learning clinical method and related topic areas? This involves the
idea of learner readiness.

Criterion 3 - Curricular Element Proportionality:

Does curricular content proportionally reflect the objectives of medical education, the
elements that are required for the student to develop a general and balanced preparation?
How is the time allotted in the curriculum? Are learning experiences of sufficient duration for
a student to learn what is intended?

Criterion 4 - Curricular Integration:

Is the curriculum sufficiently integrated /linked in terms of educational elements so that
optimal learning is facilitated and curricular redundancy minimized?

Criterion 5 - Curricular Balance/Learner Outcomes:

Is the curriculum and its evaluative components (objectives) balanced in terms of learner
outcomes? Is there an educationally sound balance between knowledge, skill, and attitude
development? To what level of competency are learners prepared?

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 1. Knowledge
2. Comprehension
3. Application
4. Analysis
5. Synthesis
6. Evaluation

Criterion 6 - General Preparation:

Does the curriculum prepare all students broadly enough? How well does the curriculum
achieve a base of general preparation compared to specialized preparation?

Criterion 7 - Curricular Evaluation

Are evaluation mechanisms systematically in place in order to identify intended learner
outcomes (knowledge, skill, attitude across the spectrum of expected competencies)? This
includes evaluation by learners, teachers and 'outside' resources.

Criterion 8 - Faculty Development:

Is there sufficient recruitment, training, evaluation and nurturing of faculty teachers in order
to achieve and maintain excellence in the accomplishments of the intended educational
process?

Activity 18

1. Discuss in detail how the criteria of curriculum evaluation can be applied to evaluate a
curriculum document. At the time of discussion use your own examples.

2. State the three types of evaluation and discuss their purpose on the learning of
students

3. Discuss the difference between assessment and evaluation

4. Discuss the difference between assessment for learning and assessment of learning

3.6: Teachers and Curriculum Relationship

Clearly teachers participate in a multiplicity of curriculum activities at a

classroom level. These are very essential for their daily teaching tasks and


64
include such activities as selection of specific content, selection of teaching strategies, and
use of audio-visual media and so on. In recent years, teachers are participating more in
curriculum decision-making at the school level. The nature of this participation may be seen
in the various roles that teachers adopt in the decision-making process. It is suggested
curriculum decision-making roles at the school level. These are as implementers, adopters,
developers, researchers and evaluators.

As implementer or receiver, the teacher’s role is to apply curriculum developed elsewhere.

Most curriculum writers specializing in curriculum change would argue that teacher support
is essential for the effective implementation of any curriculum innovation. Alternatively, the
teacher could adopt the role of adapter or modifier. Here, an externally developed curriculum
is interpreted and changed to meet the needs of a particular school population. This
modification has occurred because teachers on the schools staff perceive that the curriculum
concerned does not adequately meet the needs of their students.

The curriculum developer role involves the teacher in designing and developing, usually as a
member of a group, a curriculum to meet student needs. Through the use of techniques such
as situational analysis and needs assessment, teachers are able to determine the nature of
students’ needs. Using this database they are able to develop an appropriate curriculum to
meet those needs. Finally, teachers may undertake the role of curriculum researcher. Here,
the staff may be involved in improving one’s own practice, testing curriculum materials,
evaluating new curricula, testing teaching strategies and collecting data on student needs.
Teachers can conduct action research.

Thus, from the above two points of view, there is an intimate relationship and inter-
dependence between the professional teacher and the curriculum.

Activity 19

1. Discuss in-group about the existing relationship between primary school teachers
and curriculum.
2. List the major duties of teachers’ in relation to curriculum?
3. What are the advantages of curriculum to teacher? Discuss in group and present
your results to the class.

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Summary

The types of changes in curriculum include planned change, coercion, interaction change,
substitution, alteration, perturbation, restricting, and value orientation changes. Peoples’
resistance to curriculum change can be attributed to factors such as inertia; insecurity;
rapidity of change; lack of knowledge; lack of support; and self interest. Receptivity to
curriculum change can be improved by making the curriculum activity more cooperative,
preparing procedures that make the implementation process easier, making people to realize
that all programs will be reviewed to determine if they should be continued and by using
proper timing. The success or failure of the newly developed curriculum can be determined
by evaluation and then measure can be taken based on the result. Formative and summative
evaluations are the two major types of evaluation in which the former can be used to improve
an existing program where as the latter is concerned with evaluating the overall program after
implementation.

Continuity, objectivity, validity, consistency and comprehensiveness are criteria for

curriculum evaluation. The instruments of evaluation includes standardized test, teacher-
made tests, work samples, oral tests, systematic observation, interviews, questionnaires,
checklists and rating scales, anecdotal records, socio-grams and self-report. Validity and
reliability are the criteria to be utilized in checking whether an evaluation instrument is
proper or not.

Self-test Exercise
I. Match curriculum evolution criteria concepts stated under column “B” with
explanations given under column “A”
Column “A” Column “B”
Focus on answering the question: A. Specific preparation
1 “is the curriculum sufficiently complete?” B. Curriculum sequence
2 “is the sequential logic of the curriculum optimal?” C. General preparation
3 “is the curriculum sufficiently linked in terms of educational D. Curriculum integration
elements?”
4 “does the curriculum sufficiently make the students capable?” E. Curriculum evaluation
5 “are assessment mechanisms systematically in place F. Proportionality
6 “how is the time allotted in the curriculum G. Curriculum structure

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7 “Is there sufficient staff recruitment?” H. Curricular Balance
8 “Is the curriculum and its evaluative components balanced in I. Faculty Development
terms of learner outcomes?

II. Discussion Part

1. Disuses with your friend on the meaning of what curriculum evaluation mean and reflect
to your class about the discussion.
2. Do you think that teachers need to know and understand the nature of curriculum? Give
justifications for your answer.
3. Discuss briefly the difference between evaluation of learning and evaluation for learning in
a brief manner.

Unit Delivery Approaches/Methods/Strategies

You will learn this unit through group discussion and visit to secondary schools found
around you and you will present it for discussion in your class. Besides, this unit also
requires Presentations and debate pedagogy as one of the major once.

Activities of Learners and Facilitators in the Learning-Teaching Process

Learners’ activities

You are expected to be active participant within class and out class activities by reflecting
your ideas freely. Besides, you are also responsible to work group and individual
assignments given by your facilitator.

Facilitators’ activities

The Facilitator plan ahead of time how the students will be active participants on the
ongoing class interaction by selecting appropriate pedagogy and teaching materials so as
to create conducive learning environment that enables the whole learner be beneficiary.
Besides, the facilitator will design and make follow up about the learning progress of the
students.

Reference Books

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Aguilando, H. B. and Parungao, J. 2012. Implementing the Curriculum: The Roles of
Stakeholders. http://www.slideshare.net/PHILLMURP/implimenting-the-curriculum-the-
roles-of-stakeholders-hazel-and-jeric

Brennan, J. & Williams, R. 2004, Collecting and Using Student Feedback: A Guide to Good
Practice, Learning and Teaching Support Network, UK.

Debin, F. and Olshtain, E. 1986. Course Design: Developing Programs and Materials for
Language Learning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Fink, L. 1995. "Evaluating your own teaching", in P. Seldin (ed.) Improving College
Teaching, Anker Publishing, Bolton, MA.

Scriven, M. 1973. The Methodology of Evaluation. In B. R. Worthen and J. R. Sanders

(Eds.), Educational Evaluation: Theory and Practice. Worthington, OH: C. A. Jones.

Tanner, D. and Tanner, L. 1995. Curriculum Development: Theory into Practice (3rd ed.).
Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Merrill.

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 Unit Four: Teaching-Learning Process (4 periods)

Introduction

Dear learner, do you remember the major points from the previous two
chapters? I hope you would mention some of the following: the definitions of terms such as
curriculum, curriculum development, organization, teaching, and learning. Moreover, you
learnt about foundations of curriculum, models of curriculum development, curriculum
implementation, change, evaluation and the trends of curriculum development in Ethiopia.
Now, in this unit you will learn a lot about varied definitions of terms like teaching, learning,
active learning method, method and principles. In addition, you will be equipped with the
characteristics of effective teaching and learning, core qualities of an effective teacher,
different types of instructional methods and their application, principles of teaching and the
major criteria for selecting instructional methods. It is worth noting that you should invest
your time and energy on planned basis.

Learning outcomes:

After the completion of this unit, the trainees will be able to:

 Define the terms, “teaching”, “learning”, “principles” and “methods”;

 List down the major features of teaching, learning, and the actors’ roles;
 Identify the responsibilities and the expected qualities of primary school teachers;
 Identify the major principles of teaching;
 Write active learning methods that are suitable to primary school students;
 Apply the active learning methods in their respective fields of specialization;
 Discuss the advantages and limitations of each method of teaching;
 Select the appropriate method of teaching using specific criteria.

4.1 Definition of Terms

Teaching is defined as:

• “Any form of interpersonal influence aimed at changing the ways in which other persons
can or will behave" (Gagne, 1963a)
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• “An interactive process, primarily involving classroom talk, which takes place between
teacher and pupils & occurs during certain definable activities" (Amidon & Hunter, 1967)

• “Teaching denotes action undertaken with the intention of bringing about learning in
another" (Robertson, 1987)

Teaching denotes:

 An activity or action: You can see teaching taking place

 A process: It involves a series of actions and decisions of the teacher
 An interpersonal activity: Interpersonal refers to the fact that teaching involves
interactions between a teacher and one or more students
 Intentional: There is some purpose or set of purposes for which teaching occurs. This
purpose is bringing about learning on the part of the learner.

4.1.1: Characteristics of Effective Teaching

• Clarity of the teacher’s explanations and directions.

• Establishing a task-oriented classroom climate.
• Making use of a variety of learning activities.
• Establishing and maintaining momentum and pace for the lesson.
• Encouraging students’ participation and getting all of them involved.
• Monitoring pupils’ progress and attending quickly to pupils’ needs.
• Delivering a well-structured and well organized lesson.
• Providing pupils with positive and constructive feedback.
• Ensuring coverage of the educational objectives.
• Making good use of questioning techniques

Learning is defined as:

1. A persisting change in human performance or performance potential . . . (brought) about as

a result of the learner’s interaction with the environment (Driscoll, 1994).

2. The relatively permanent change in a person’s knowledge or behavior due to experience

(Mayer, 1982, p. 1040).

70
3. An enduring changes in behavior or in the capacity to behave in a given fashion, which
results from practice or other forms of experience (Shuell, 1986, p. 412).

4. It is the lifelong process of transforming information into knowledge, skills, behaviors and
attitudes.

Activity 20

 Argue in group on the following two statements through citing tangible examples
and share to the whole class.

1. There can be teaching without learning.

2. There can be learning without teaching.

4.1.2: Characteristics of Effective Learning:

• It is meaningful to the students.

• Students can use it, connect it to their lives, or actively participate in it.
• It allows students to move further than memorization of facts and bits of knowledge.
• It prepares the students to understand and participate in a complex world.
• It encourage students to investigate, to understand the world around them, to analyze, to
draw conclusions & to communicate – in other words, TO THINK.

4.2 The Interaction between Teaching and Learning

Effective interactions between teachers and students are essential for promoting long-term
school success across grades. The Classroom Assessment Scoring System offers an evidence-
based approach to defining and measuring effective interactions in school classrooms. The
class also provides aligned professional development support to give targeted feedback to
districts, schools, and teachers, with the overarching goal of improving outcomes for
students.

I. What Constitutes Effective Teacher-Student Interactions?

Past attempts at defining and measuring quality in education have yielded limited results. We
now know that many of the more commonly debated regulations intended to improve the

71
impacts of classrooms (i.e., class size, teacher education, and credentialing) are not sufficient
to ensure that students make academic and social progress. Likewise, the implementation of
different curricula has done little to improve student achievement because it is teachers’
facilitation of learning objectives, not simply having the curriculum box on the shelf that
determines whether students benefit from instruction. Consistent evidence suggests that to
improve students’ academic achievement and social skill development, we need to focus on
the nature and quality of teacher-student interaction.

Effective teacher-student interactions create:

 Emotional Support – Positive relationships among teachers and peers
 Classroom Organization – Well-managed classrooms that provide students with
frequent, engaging learning activities
 Instructional Support – Interactions that teach students to think, provide ongoing
feedback and support, and facilitate language and vocabulary.

II. Evidence on Effective Teacher-Student Interactions:

To improve the effectiveness of teacher-student interactions, we must first know how to
assess them. Research provides evidence about the types of teacher-student interactions that
promote positive social and academic development. The Classroom Assessment Scoring
System provides a reliable, valid assessment of these interactions. The class instrument
assesses three broad domains of effective interactions—Emotional Support, Classroom
Organization, and Instructional Support—that characterize students’ classroom experiences.
Each domain is comprised of multiple dimensions of effective interactions known to
contribute to students’ success in school, such as Teacher Sensitivity, Behavior Management,
and Quality of Feedback.

Research conducted in over 6,000 classrooms in UK concludes that in grades PK-5, students
in classrooms with higher CLASS ratings realize greater gains in achievement and social skill
development. Selected studies demonstrate:
• Higher levels of instructional support are related to preschoolers’ gains in pre-
reading and math skills.
• High levels of emotional support contribute to preschoolers’ social competence in
the kindergarten year.

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 • High levels of emotional support are associated with growth in reading and math
achievement from kindergarten through fifth grade.
• High levels of classroom organization are associated with gains in first graders’
literacy.
• Kindergarten children are more engaged and exhibit greater self-control in
classrooms offering more effective teacher-child interactions.
• First-grade children at risk for school failure perform on par with peers, both
socially and academically, when exposed to classrooms with effective teacher-
student interactions.

In sum, the link between effective interactions and improved social and academic outcomes
for students has been replicated in numerous studies across the prekindergarten and elemen-
tary years.

III. Teacher-Student Interactions in Secondary Classrooms

Adolescents in middle school and high school characterize their interactions with teachers as
frequently unsatisfying and unmotivating. They report that their experiences in the classroom
lack meaningful challenges, supportive relationships, and competence- and motivation-
building experiences. Yet, engagement and intrinsic motivation are pivotal in adolescence, as
these students have the means to not only withdraw energy from educational pursuits but to
drop out altogether. Engagement in school begins to decline early in adolescence, and by
entry into high school this decline is so pronounced that half of high school students report
that they do not take their school or their studies seriously. Studies of large-scale testing
programs indicate that teachers are the greatest source of variation in what students learn in
schools.

What is Active Learning?

 A situation where students are active participants in their own learning rather than
passive receivers of knowledge
 Students engage in some activity that forces them to think about and comment on the
information presented.
 The focus in active-learning is on generating knowledge through a process of inquiry,
observation, analysis and problem solving.

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  Active learning is defined as learning in which the child, by acting on objects and
interacting with people, ideas, and events, constructs new understanding.
 No one else can have experiences for the child or construct knowledge for the child.
Children must do this for themselves.
 Active Learning refers to techniques where students do more than simply listen to a
lecture.
 Students are doing something including discovering, processing, and applying
information (McKinney, 2007).

4.3: Characteristics of Active Learning

Generally, active learning methodology is an instructional approach that helps students to

learn through thinking and doing. More specifically, active learning:

 Engages students beyond reading, listening, and note-taking;

 Promotes deep learning, not just acquisition of facts;
 Develops higher order thinking skills (e.g. analysis, synthesis, evaluation) through
intentionally designed activities;
 Often involves interaction among students;
 Requires students to take greater responsibility for their learning;
 Teachers help students to monitor their own learning and discover what they do and
do not understand;
 Helps students build competencies (e.g., problem-solving, critical thinking,
communication) as well as content knowledge.

4.4 Qualities of an Effective Teacher

• Has excellent subject knowledge or mastery.

• Provides work that is challenging for students.
• Has a smooth relation with students.
• Manages the class well.
• Plans his/her lessons well.
• Adopts a variety of teaching methods and media.
• Considers the needs of the different ability groups within the class.

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 • Makes good use of a variety of questioning techniques.
• Is friendly, with a sense of humor.
• Gives feedback within an appropriate timescale.
• Is confident, open to suggestions and other viewpoints.
• Remains a student all his/her life.
• Knows his/her world.
• Combines adaptability with courage, etc.

4.5 Major Responsibilities of a Teacher

1. The teacher guides his students and learning activities: the most important
responsibilities of teachers are to plan, organize and direct the activities, which will result
in learning and guiding the students. That is to say:

 Development of instructional objectives

 Identifying and motivating learning and learners
 Employing appropriate materials and methods of preparation and presentation.

2. The teacher participates in the construction of the curriculum: the teacher participates
in the preparation of curriculum, syllabus, teachers guide and textbooks and other
instructional manuals.

3. The teacher measures and evaluates the students’ progress: Measurement and
evaluation are used to determine the effectiveness of learning and teaching process.
Evaluation requires the following tasks:

 Identification of instructional objectives.

 Selection and construction of valid, reliable and practical instrument.
 Knowing to what extent the instructional objectives are achieved
 Use of basic statistical techniques to interpret and appraise the results

4. The teacher leads extra-curricular activities: the teacher is expected to participate in

different extra-curricular activities such as clubs, committee, department head, etc.

5. The teacher gives guidance and counseling to students concerning academic and
personal problems. The teacher has regular contact with large number of students and is

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 in a position to observe the changes in behavior. He/she is responsible to assist students
with various problems such as health, social life, educational affairs and sexual relations.

6. The teacher makes use of research findings and social resources: The teacher should
use results of research and conduct research concerning his/her profession that can
improve the quality of the profession. The focus must be on action research so as to
improve the instructional process.

7. The teacher participates in community activities: the teacher is responsible to

participate in at least some of the social organization of the society.

8. The teacher acquaints himself/herself with the rules and regulations of the school
and works accordingly: the teacher is expected to understand and abide by the rules and
regulation that are in place at the schools.

 Activity 21

1. Identify one female and one male model teachers either from your primary or secondary
school who fit into the above mentioned qualities and responsibilities of a teacher.

2. Discuss on the degree of interaction between teachers and students at secondary schools.

What are the issues for both the teacher and the learners and suggest possible solutions?
Reflect for each case in terms of effective teaching and learning.

Case study 1: A class of 60 students has been divided randomly into 6 groups. You have
prepared one sheet of instructions for each group. It takes a long time for students to start
working. By the end of the session, no-one has completed the task.

Case study 2: Students have been allocated to groups. It takes a long time to move the
furniture. There is a great deal of noise. After the furniture has been moved, most groups are
sitting and talking about the research they have done, but there is very little new activity
taking place.

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Case study 3: Groups have been formed and instructions given. Most groups seem to be
working well, but only one or two group members seem to be contributing effectively to
discussion. One group calls you over and says that they do not understand what they are
expected to do.

Case study 4: Groups are working on a 30 minute task. One group seems to have finished
after only 15 minutes, while another group has hardly started. The group that has nearly
finished is looking bored.

Case study 5: When groups are asked to report back, nearly every group has only one group
member contributing. The contributions from most groups are identical. This is time
consuming and students are looking bored. One group gives ideas that you think are incorrect
and contrast with what others are saying. (Source: HDP handbook, 2011).

Unit Summary

Teaching is the activity of causing students to learn something; that is, facilitating learning.
Teaching is an activity or action; it is a process; an interpersonal activity; and it is intentional.
Some of the major characteristics of effective teaching include clarity of what is being
learned; making use of a variety of learning activities; encouraging students’ participation and
getting all of them involved; monitoring pupils’ progress; and ensuring coverage of the
educational objectives.

Learning is defined functionally as changes in behavior that result from experience or

mechanistically as changes in the organism that result from experience. It is also defined as
ontogenetic adaptation; that is, as changes in the behavior of an organism that result from
regularities in the environment of the organism. The major characteristics of effective
learning include: meaningfulness to the students; usefulness; and its capacity in encouraging
students to investigate and think.

Active learning is a process whereby students engage in activities, such as reading, writing,
discussion, or problem solving that promote analysis, synthesis, and evaluation of class
content. Active learning methodology is an instructional approach that helps students to learn
through thinking and doing. Cooperative learning, problem-based learning, and the use of
case methods and simulations are some approaches that promote active learning.

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Effective interactions between teachers and students are essential for promoting long-term
school success across grades. Effective teacher-student interactions create emotional support;
classroom organization; and instructional support.

Some of the qualities of an effective teacher include being able to interact with students and
help them understand a new way of looking at the world. They are prepared, set clear and fair
expectations, have a positive attitude, are patient with students, and assess their teaching on a
regular basis. They are able to adjust their teaching strategies to fit both the students and the
material, recognizing that different students learn in different ways. As a teacher, you are a
role model who sets the tone for the class. If you are able to show enthusiasm and
commitment, your students are more likely to reciprocate. Effective teachers are well
organized; they are clear of what they are teaching; active; patient; and fair in treating their
students. The major responsibilities of a teacher include guiding his students and learning
activities; participating in the construction of the curriculum; measuring and evaluating the
students’ progress: leading extra-curricular activities giving guidance and counseling to
students concerning academic and personal problems; making use of research findings and
social resources; participating in community activities; and acquainting himself/herself with
the rules and regulations of the school and working accordingly.

Self-test exercises

Instruction: Answer the following questions shortly and precisely.

1. Write the major qualities of an effective secondary school teacher in any of the
subjects given.
2. How do we know that there is effective teacher-students interaction in a classroom?
3. What do we mean by active learning?

General Approaches/ Methods/ Strategies:

Teaching methods that involve active learning methods shall be employed. These include, but
not limited to:

 Gapped lecture, buzz group discussion, case studies, field observation, role playing,
Mind map, Games, debating, panel discussion, Dramatization, Experimentation,
Jigsaw, storytelling, etc.

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  Facilitator’s activities

 Makes brief presentations on the daily topic(s)

 Groups students and make them discuss on selected items
 Makes a follow-up while they are doing their tasks
 Helps students present their discussion results group by group
 Provides short notes on selected contents
 Assesses each group’s presentation and gives feedback as well as a summary .

 Learners’ Activities
 Attend the presentation and taking notes
 Participate in group discussion and presentation
 Make self-assessment and peer-assessments
 Ask questions for elaboration while they are working in small group or whole
class.
 Receive feedback and take action for improvement.

Modes of Assessment:
Continuous assessment and summative assessment will be implemented.

 Every student needs to attend for not less than 80% of the course work. Project work
at individual level (20 %), Group work and presentation (10%), At least two tests
(20%), Individual’s contribution in the presentation and discussion session response
(10%) and Final written exam (40%).

 Grading System: Criterion referenced

References

Aggarwal, J. C. 1996. Principles, Methods and Techniques of Teaching. New Delhi: Vikas
Publishing House Pvt. Ltd.

Borich, C. D. 1988. Effective Teaching Methods. London: Macmillan publishing company.

Briggs, L. J et al. 1981. Hand book of Procedures for the Design of Instruction, (2 nd ed).
New Jersey: Educational Technology Publications. .

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Callahan, J. F. and Clark, L. H. 1988. Teaching in the Middle and Secondary Schools:
Planning for Competence (3rd ed., New York: Macmillan publishing company

Farrant, J. S. 1980. Principles and Practices of Education. (2nd ed). London: Longman
Groups UK Ltd.

Fullan, M. E. 1991. The New Meaning of Educational Change. London: Cassel Educational
Ltd.

Sharma, Y. K. 2006. Sociological Philosophy of Education. New Delhi: Kanishka Publishers.

Tom, V. and Armstrong, D. G. 1987. Effective Teaching in Elementary School Studies. New
York: Macmillan publishing company.

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 Unit Five: Principles, Methods and Techniques of Teaching (16
periods)

Introduction

Dear learner, do you remember what you learnted in unit four? You are right! The
core points were about definition of terms such as teaching, learning and active learning.
Moreover, you learnt about characteristics of effective teaching and learning, qualities of an
effective teacher, major responsibilities of a teacher, and the interaction between teacher and
students.

Unit five will share you pertinent information regarding variety of teaching principles,
instructional methods and techniques. Whatever you study in this unit, you are expected to
create a linkage between the theoretical knowledge and the actual teaching-learning situation
in the classroom.

Learning outcomes:

After successful completion of this unit, you will be able to:

 Identify the major principles of teaching in the context of classroom tasks.

 Write active learning methods that are suitable to primary school students
 Apply the active learning methods in their respective fields of specialization
 Discuss the advantages and limitations of each method of teaching
 Select the appropriate method of teaching using specific criteria.

5.1 Definition of Terms

Principles are defined as fundamental norms, rules, or values that represent what is desirable
and positive for a person, group, organization, or community and it helps in determining the
rightfulness or wrongfulness of its action. Principles are more basic than policy and
objectives, and are meant to govern both.

Teaching Method is defined as: A systematic order imposed up on teaching activities. These
teaching activities can be expressed in terms of the teacher activity and students’ activity in a
given lesson. Methods are ways by which the teacher imparts (conveys) the facts, ideas,
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concepts, etc. to the learners to help them acquire the necessary knowledge, develop skills
and values. They are how teachers transmit lesson content to facilitate information to
students. They are the means by which the teacher attempts to bring about the desired
learning.

Instructional methods are not ENDS by themselves but MEANS to achieve the intended
objectives of instruction. The different methods that are available to teachers are varied and
many in their nature and values.

5.2 Major Kinds of Teaching Principles

There are nine principles of teaching as discussed below:

1. The principle of uniting instruction with the political, economic and social policy of
the country: This indicates that instruction must be related with the life of the learners.
The curriculum of a country will not be different from a reflection of the socio-political
realities in the society. Hence the teacher has the responsibility to create the link between
the contents of instruction and the political, economic and social expectations sought to be
developed.

2. The Principle of connecting instruction with social life: The main purpose of this
principle is preparing students for productive work. This is in other words interested in
linking theory with practice like for instance; extracurricular (clubs) activities at schools.

3. The Principle of integrating instructions of different subjects: The main objectives of

school instruction are to enable the students to use facts of the different subjects
(horizontal relationship) jointly in social life. Subject integration leads to students’ unity
of thinking, outlook, skills, attitudes etc. the application of the principle requires analysis
of the syllabus in their points of contact with other subjects (their interrelations) and using
the relations to elaborate basic terms, concepts and ideas of general importance. This
principle assists students develop a unified view of the issue under discussion.

4. The Principle of guiding the activities of learners (the principle of teacher’s leading
role and students’ independent work): The leading roles of the teacher are planning,
organizing, guiding students, encouraging, stimulating, facilitating, which are the basic

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 for successful learning. Learners’ self-activity is so important for the development of
initiation, creativity, etc. the principle tells us that the learners in our classrooms are not
passive recipient of knowledge. The application of the principle requires:
 Proper planning, organizing, directing, controlling and evaluating students’ tasks;
 Conscious guidance of students learning (motives, attitudes, knowledge, capacity,
conviction etc.)
 Initiating and stimulating students’ activities/practice.
 Developing step-by-step students-self activity.

5. Principle of making instruction comprehensive: The main educational aim of this

principle is to make the instructional process suitable for student’s demands, knowledge,
capacity, abilities, will power etc. Some of the rules in making instruction comprehensive
are to proceed from concrete to abstract, from known to the unknown, from easy to
difficult, from nearer to further, etc.

6. The principle of vividness in instruction (the principle of giving clear ideas in

instruction): Successful learning always depends on the learner’s clear perception of all
important parts of the content. Instruction should be clear so that knowledge is based on
sufficiently clear and lively perception and conception. It takes into account the
connection between sensual and theoretical and between cognition and practice in the
organization of the instructional process. This is because the elements of cognition
(sensation, imagination/ thinking) are fundamentals of man’s understanding. Its
application requires the use of instructional media as much as demonstrating to students
the concrete parts, aspects, problems or phenomenon by means of real objects, models,
charts, maps or explanations and descriptions etc.

7. The principle of understanding individual difference in instruction (the principle of

approaching students personality based upon collective activity): The teacher should
know the cognitive abilities and physical maturity of students. Its application requires
considering students’ individual difference (ability to perform a certain task or operate a
given machine) and applying different approaches to address the difference. Remember
individuals greatly differ in comprehending the same thing.

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8. The principle of applicability and durability of the results of instruction (the
principle of stabilizing the results of instruction permanently): The quality of
instruction is measured by its results and these results must be applicable and durable.
Instruction requires planned repetition, summary, exercise and various applications of
knowledge, abilities and skills. Its application requires keeping in mind the importance of
stabilization (repetition, summarizing, applying) to gain a solid and applicable knowledge
and to prevent forgetting. And this influences all steps of teaching like having interesting
beginning, planned repetition, and summary, intensive exercise, checking and evaluation,
etc.

9. The principle of shaping instruction systematically according to the curriculum: The

implementation of this principle requires the study of the curriculum materials (the
syllabus, textbook, teacher’s guide and instructional aides), the development of clearly
defined objectives in all levels of planning, organization of the subject matter in line with
the students ability, maturation interest and background.

5.3 Major Categories of Instructional Methods

There are two major categories of instructional methods. These are teacher-centered and
student-centered.

5.3.1: Teacher-Centered Method

This is a teacher-dominated approach. The teacher monitors both their rate of classroom
activity and the pattern of classroom interaction, which will result in the immediate
disappearance of the knowledge acquired. Some educators call this method as the
authoritarian method for one person, the teacher, set the task, prescribes procedures and judge
results without permitting others to share in the decision process. In other words, free time for
independent work is given no room, as the teacher’s presentation of new information is a
highly monitored and governed session.

In sessions of this sort, the student is an individual who passively absorbs the learning and the
teacher pours into her/him. That is to mean, in such an approach in lieu of creating situations
where by students will find answers for themselves and do their own learning. We are likely
to create situations where by we think we can direct and control and be sure they learn what

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they are supposed to. The teacher will do most of the talking and it is the student’s duty to
listen to what the teacher has to say, commit into memory and repeat it during recitation
periods or in examinations.

 Some characteristics of the teacher-centered methods

 There is high percentage of academic learning time;
 The teacher engages the students on the task promptly and keeps them on the activity
until its completion;
 The teacher is active in explaining, monitoring and describing;
 Interaction and socializations among or in between students is kept to the minimum as
the students are awfully busy with the tasks given by the teacher;
 Mastery learning is highly stressed;
 Use of extrinsic reward-praise, good grade;
 Use punishment-usually hard punishment;
 Use of assessment and feedback-terminal or summative

5.3.2: Student- Centered Method

In the student-centered instructional method, students are active participant in their own
learning instead of passive receivers of information. Their previous knowledge and
experience are so crucial and valued since they help to construct new knowledge. And the
role of the teacher is creating conducive environment for learning and offering a guide, stage
settings facilitating, observing and evaluating his/her students in a more objective way. In
other words, the teacher as a facilitator and co-worker is not expected to only give
information, but also to design instructions that would lead students learning for
understanding through debating, interrogating, discussion, creating exploration, etc.

In general, the guiding principle of the student- centered instructional method adheres that
learning should be focusing on quality rather than on quantity and on understanding rather
than on memorization.

 Some Characteristics of the Student-Centered Methods

 Learners are actively engaged in solving problems in lieu of being receivers of
knowledge;
 Teachers produce conducive environment to learn via facilitation and guidance;

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  Prior knowledge and experience of learners is integrated to the learning process;
 Students learn through the integration of theory and practice;
 Use of intrinsic reward; that is, students motivate themselves which in turn helps to
have effective learning;
 Use of some punishment – using reasons rather than power;
 Use of assessment and feedback – any assessment is formative.

In reality, however, most lessons are neither purely either student nor teacher-centered. In
fact, the majority of the lessons could be more teacher-centered with a combination of few
active learning methods (student-centered).

Activity 22

Bring to your mind your primary and secondary school teachers. How many of them
used more of teacher –centered or student-centered methods? Reflect first individually and
then in pair, lastly in group. Your reflection should consider different subjects. In addition,
make a comparison among female teachers and male teachers.

5.4 Types of Instructional (Active Learning) Methods

1. The Lecture Method

A face-to face teaching approach where the teacher explains, elaborates, tells the facts,
events, ideas, etc. It refers to one way flow of information (from the teacher to the student). It
is a verbal presentation about materials to be learnt.

Conditions necessitating the use of lecture method

1. The need to explain, elaborate, simplify materials, which the students are not familiar.
2. The need to cover a lot of material in a short time.
3. When there is no sufficient material for students and if it is to be covered by teacher’s
detailed preparation.
4. When there is lack of teachers.

Types of lecture methods:

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 a. Formal (Unmodified): This is characterized by the lack of discussion or interaction in
between the teacher and the students. The teacher lectures continuously for a long time
being uninterrupted. This method is not suitable for first and second cycle students
because the students have less retention power and cannot concentrate for a long time.
b. Informal (Modified): Takes into account the participation of students like asking,
giving suggestions and answering to questions. Here, there is an interruption. It is
possible to use such an approach in the lower grades together with other methods. When
we use other methods to support our lecture, it is referred as augmented lecture.

2. The Demonstration Method

It is carried out by showing some natural phenomena, real objects, models, and processes to
the learner. The method combines a verbal explanation with practical illustrations, handing or
operation of equipment or materials. It develops both mental and motor skills of the learners
for it involves observation, participation and practice.

The demonstration method has the following steps:

1. Explanation
2. Demonstration
3. The Students Performance
4. The Instructor’s Supervision, and
5. Evaluation of the Demonstration Process.

To make this method effective, the teacher needs to:

 Determine the right time for demonstration;

 Prepare the necessary materials in advance;
 Make students clear with the aim of the demonstration;
 Make sure that the sitting arrangement is in order all students can see and hear;
 Be certain that the safety rules are observed; and
 Summarize what she/he has demonstrated.

Types of demonstration method:

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a. Formal demonstration: This is the case where the teacher demonstrates the lesson to his
students. It is used:

1. When there is lack of materials for each student; and

2. When the materials are dangerous to be handled by students.

b. Students’ Demonstration: In such a method the learners do the demonstration

themselves. The role of the teacher will be supervising the demonstration conducted by the
learners and offering some help when the need arises.

3. The Group Discussion Method

It is a method that encourages students’ active participation in exchanging their views. It is

used for gaining new knowledge, solving problems, forming attitudes, developing the ability
of arguing, interpreting, discussing gaining linguistic abilities and skills.

There are four methods of grouping students as listed below:

 Arbitrary  according to lists of names or sitting arrangements.

 Ability  students having similar abilities sit together.
 Mixed  deliberately composed group.
 Compatibility  students who like each other or one another and work well.

The type of discussion could be in large group or small group. In the case of small group
discussion, the students are divided into small groups and make a brief discussion of a certain
issue. It helps to get the view of every student without any hesitation.

Procedures:

 Divide the class in to small groups of 3-6 pupils.

 Arrange the chairs in circle to face each other.
 Ask them to elect a chairperson and a secretary.
 Tell them the question for discussion (it should be understood).
 Tell the amount of time they will have for discussion possibly 5-10 minutes.
 Inform them that “X” minutes are left before the time is up.
 The secretary must summarize and report the main points on the chalkboard.

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  Avoid repetition.

4. Panel discussion method: It is discussion between a group of people who have a special
knowledge and interest in the topic to be discussed. It has a chairperson, panel members and
the audience. And there is a give and take with the class. It helps in facilitating learning
through sharing of knowledge and experience.

5. Debating method: Debate is a very formal approach consisting of sets of speeches by

participants of two opposing teams and a rebuttal by each participant.

Debating requires skills of:

 Critical analysis
 The art of persuasion
 Rapid rebuttal

6. Brainstorming Method

This is a discussion in which the members of the group are encouraged to generate different
ideas on a given problem or a topic. The members relax and give their opinions freely and
without self-censoring.

Four basic Rules for Brain Storming Session:

i. Criticism is forbidden and adverse judgments of ideas must be held until the end.
ii. No matter how unworkable and unacceptable the idea may seem it should be accepted.
iii. Quantity is wanted. That is the greater the number of ideas; the greater will be devising
solutions for a problem.
iv. Combination and improvements are sought. Besides to contributing ideas of their own,
participants should suggest how others ideas could be improved. A secretary (other than
the teacher) notes all suggestion that are advanced and later the judging committee
screens.

7. The Questioning Method: It is a method, which is conducted by asking questions. The

students ask and the teacher responds or redirects the questions. This method can be used at

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any grade level if it is planned and conducted properly. The classification of questions
could be:

a. Cognitive memory questions- these are narrow and need little or no thinking e.g. when
operation sunset’ was started?

b. Convergent questions: they are narrow though they may require some thinking. But, ones
thought out; there is a correct answer and usually one correct answer.

E.g. If the area of a triangle is 12cm2 and one of the sides is 4cm, find the other side.

c. Divergent question- these are wide open questions. No one can predict what the answer
will or should be. They do not have one best answer. E.g. what are the advantages of learning
in one’s mother tongue language?

d. Evaluative Questions- these are questions that ask students to put a value on something.
These are questions in which students pass judgments on some actions.

E.g. how do you evaluate the implementation of the new curriculum in Ethiopia?

Factors that are to be considered during questioning are:

i. The question to be asked should be as precise and clear as possible

ii. The question should be thought provoking and involve vital aspect of the lesson.
iii. It should be in line with the level of the knowledge of the students.
iv. It should not be of the type to be answered by a ‘yes’ or ‘no’
v. Prepare the question to be asked in advance.
vi. Ask the question before naming the student.
vii. Give time for thought. Do not use a machine gun approach.
viii. Involve as many students as possible.

8. Dramatization: refers to the acting out of any situation either spontaneously or with a
prepared script. The situation may be real or fictitious. It can be divided into Miming and
Acting.

 Miming: In this form of dramatization, the actor or actress speaks no word but
communicates to his/her audience thoughts and actions through movement of his/her
body gesture with his/her hands, face, and head.

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  Acting: In here, there is movement and dialogue. The actor or actress utters
something accompanied by his/her physical movements in order to convey his/her
message effectively.

9. The Role Playing Method: is a deliberate acting out of a role in a classroom. It is

unrehearsed dramatization but differs from dramatization in that it does not require the study
of a script and memorization of the parts of the play. In role playing the spontaneous action
comes directly from the actor’s or actress’s creative use of his/her own experience. This
method enables the learners see the reality through the eyes of others and is followed by
discussion. The role-playing method enables the learners to see the reality through the eyes of
others.

Prerequisites for Good classroom Role-playing:

1. The class should have a common interest in the issue or the problem under discussion.
2. The participant’s/ actor’s knowledge of the issue.
3. It should be regarded as a means of learning, not as an entertainment.

10. The Problem Solving Method: encourages students to learn through finding solutions
for problems. Individuals or group of students can do it. Problem solving involves:

1. Identifying the problem.

2. Thinking of possible solutions (hypotheses or approaches to take in solving the
problem).
3. Testing (verifying) the tentative solutions or approaches.
4. Rejecting the tentative solution or approaches that do not meet the requirements and
trying other new ones till the solution is achieved and this is the reason why this
method is called trial and error learning. The problem should be higher than the
present levels of the students’ knowledge so as to make students fill the gap.

11. The project Method: is an assigned activity in which a student or group of students
work on some specific task so as to produce tangible product. It is a natural and life related
learning activity that involves investigation and problem solving. This method is more
applicable in the practical fields such as technical education, agriculture and etc.

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12. The Field Trip Method: In this method, students are taken out to visit places, historical
sites, factories, farms, workshops, service giving institutions, geological areas, etc. and get
knowledge. It requires pre-visit arrangement (plan), the visit and after trip discussions. It
helps students to get acquainted with the actual environment.

13. Active Listening method: You give your students an activity or “job” to perform as they
listen. Sometimes this may involve an activity they need to complete as they “listen”, or it
could be a handout to fill in, a series of questions to answer, or objectives to target. Basically,
the teacher guides the students to what they should be listening for, and prepares them for
what they are about to hear, so they can listen actively.

14. Balloon Game method: The students are given the names of a number of important
people who are in an imaginary “balloon”. The balloon is sinking, so the only way to keep it
from falling to the ground is to throw out one of the people. They have to discuss which
person they would throw out first, which second, and which third…etc. You can do this with
famous scientists, modern inventions, historical figures, formulas, medicines…whatever you
can think of! This forces the students to make a decision and argue their position.

15. Experimentation method: An experiment is when students put a hypothesis to the test.
Basically, an experiment involves taking a theory or idea, and testing to see if it is true. It
usually involves a very specific and controlled method of procedure, and results are usually
recorded. From these results, a conclusion is derived. An experiment can also answer the
question “What if?” Experiments can take many forms. They can be scientific explorations,
laboratory experiments, behavioral experiments, educational experiments, pilot projects, and
field experiments. Sometimes it can just be trying something new and seeing if it works.

16. Goldfish Bowl method: This is a very useful exercise to use when you want to discuss a
“hot topic”. Select two students (one male and one female if possible) to sit back to back in
the center of the room with other students grouped around. Each student is assigned a
particular view (or side of the issue). They have to debate the view. If another student wants
to join in, he/she goes to the center and taps the person they want to replace on the shoulder
and takes their seat. Each person should be replaced in turn. The teacher can also intervene to
get other students involved. Sometimes it is good to let the students know the topic before so
that they have time to form opinions and arguments.

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17. Hot Seating method: Either one member of the class is assigned to be a character or one
member of each small group. These can be from literature, a person from history, a famous
scientist, or a famous politician…any famous personality! The member is placed in the center
of the room/ group to role play the character. Other members of the class/ group direct
questions to the person in the center who has to respond as that person. After 10 minutes,
change the person in the center and the character.

18. Interview method: This is a great way to get experts into your classroom. Invite a guest
speaker to attend your class who is an expert in your field of study. Tell the students ahead of
time, and have them research that topic and prepare questions to ask the guest speaker. Then,
when the guest arrives, allow the guest to do a short introduction about their area of expert.
Following this, allow the students to intensively interview the person. This is a great way of
connecting the actual reality of your subject to enter the class. You can interview scientists,
historians, politicians, personalities within the school surrounding!

19. Investigation method: To investigate is to search. With this activity, you give your
students a topic, theory, issue, or idea to “investigate”. They then spend some time
researching this subject in detail. You might guide them and push them to look at the issue
from every angle. Then after, they can provide feedback about their investigation in a number
of ways: an essay, a presentation, a demonstration, a report, or any other idea they can come
up with.

20. ICT method: This is simply allowing the students to use computers to either complete an
activity or to find information. You may give them an internet search as an activity. Or you
may design resource materials for your class, with an assignment and put it on the university
network so they can complete it.

21. Jigsaw method: You divide the class into groups. Letter name is assigned to each
member. Each group is given a “specialist” topic and each member of that group has to
become an expert in that topic. You can do this as a homework activity, or as a multi lesson
activity. After they have become an expert, you separate the “specialist” groups and form new
groups. The new groups are made up of one specialist from each of the original groups. They
then work together to teach each other the information they learned in their original group.

22. Mastery Learning method: Mastery learning is when the instructor pushes the students
to master or perfect the learning. You are designing activities that push the students to

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perfectly know the information, skills, or attitudes you are teaching. In a way, you are setting
the students an achievable challenge that will make them think and master the concept.

23. Microteaching method: This is when the students model or try out different teaching
methods with a small group. There is usually a time limit of 10 to 15 minutes for the teaching
to take place. The students then give the “teacher” feedback on their mini lesson and the
methods used. The feedback includes some positive points about the teaching, as well as
constructive feedback. This can be done in any subject and is ideal to use with students
training to be teachers.

24. Mind Map method: A mind map is a visual representation of ideas on any given topic.
The students write the topic to be explored in the centre of the page, using three colors and an
image attached to the topic. Then, they branch out on sub topics, which are then broken down
into smaller sub topics. Each branch should be a separate color, with one word written above
indicating the sub topic. From these main branches, smaller branches will go off in different
directions, each with a different piece of information about that subtopic. Mind maps should
be colorful and can include pictures to help the students remember the information.

25. Pair Discussion method: This is an activity when you put your students into pairs. This
can be done with the person they are sitting beside, or you can put them in pairs with people
they haven’t worked with before. In the pair, they will complete a task, discuss a topic, and/or
prepare feedback to the large group. This is a good activity to do before a large group
discussion because it will give shy students a chance to voice ideas with a friend before they
speak in front of the whole group. It also leads nicely into a pyramiding activity.

26. Peer Assessment method: Peer assessment is when you have your students assess each
other. This may involve them marking each other’s work, giving feedback on teaching,
editing or checking work before submission, grading presentations, and giving comments on
each other’s performance.

27. Presentation method: A presentation is an activity where students present a topic in front
of their class. This can be done individually or as a group. Students need good public
presentation skills. With a presentation, you are not just teaching the topic, but are also
teaching the students HOW to present. When giving the presentation assignment, also give
clear criteria about what makes an effective presentation. Explain about the WAY they are to
deliver the information (organization, visual aids, voice, clarity of expression, and body

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language). Also, give criteria about the content of the presentation (evidence of research,
originality of ideas, effectiveness of argument, ability to answer questions.

28. Reflection method: Reflection is a great activity because it allows the students to take
some quiet, personal time to “reflect” or think over what they have learned in the lesson. This
can take many forms. Reflection can be done as a thought bubble, where they write one or
two things they’ve learnt from the class on a piece of paper or yellow stick to be put on a
bubble. It can also be done as a diary entry with questions supplied by the teacher. It might be
done as a brainstorm, or as a mind map. In any case, a reflective activity should allow the
students 5 – 10 minutes to quietly look at themselves and what they learned in your lesson.

30. Self Assessment method: Self-assessment is when learners evaluate themselves what
they have learned. One way to do this is to have the students mark their own work. The
purpose of doing this is to make the students aware of what they know and what they don’t
know! They become owners of their own learning. Another way to do self-assessment is to
have them complete a questionnaire about themselves and their learning. Lastly, you can also
have your students grade their own performance in your lessons. Have them grade their work
and then compare it with the mark you give them.

31. Storytelling method: Storytelling can take two forms: either the instructor tells a story, or
the students tell a story. In some cases, the instructor might start the story, and have each
student contribute to the tale. It is a great way to practice language, and make the students use
their listening skills! Another way to use storytelling is for the instructor to read a story and
then ask the students questions after to test understanding and listening.

32. Pyramiding method: Pyramiding is a method of teaching where you start with the
individual and move to the whole group. Give your students a task to finish, a problem to
solve, an assignment to complete, or an issue to think about. They are to do this individually
for a specified amount of time. Next, have them get into pairs and compare what they have
written.

As a pair, the students come up with a new answer together or verify that they have the same
answer. Have the students move into groups of four. Again, they compare their answers and
discuss. Last, get feedback from the whole class. You do not have to get every group to give
an answer. Instead, pick specific students to share important points their group raised. If it is
a problem that is solved, have one, two or three groups put their answer on the board. This

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can be a great introductory activity, taking 20 minutes, or it can be expanded to last an entire
class. You can also do stages of it as homework.

33. Case Studies method: You provide the students with two or more different situations or
scenarios and the students have to study the situation and describe how they would deal with
that situation. These studies should be based on real life, and force the students to make a
decision on how they would deal with the situation.

34. Creative Writing method: Creative writing is when the students use their imagination to
create a piece of writing. This can take the form of story writing, drama presentations, poetry,
imaginary newspaper articles, magazines, creative research papers, and other fiction and
nonfiction forms of writing. It is a good way for students to put knowledge into a creative
context.

35. Crossover method: Students are divided into groups to discuss a specific topic (in any
subject). After 5 minutes, 2 members of the group move to another group to share ideas from
their original group. From their sharing, more discussion is developed. After 5 minutes, they
will cross-over or “move” to another group. This will ensure that the information you want
the students to learn, travels through the entire class. This avoids the need for a lot of
feedback.

Remember that all the various active learning methods discussed above may not necessarily
be used at the same time in one subject by one teacher. Their applicability depends on the
type of the lesson/ topic, the subject, the students, and the situation. However, using two or
more of the above active learning methods in one lesson is usually recommended in several
subjects.

5.5 Major Criteria Used for Selecting Instructional Methods

 Objectives of the lesson;

 Content of the lesson;
 Time of the lesson;
 Availability of instructional media;
 Background of the learners, etc.

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Read the following case studies carefully and identify whether the used teacher-centered
methodology or student-centered methodology. In addition, discuss the skills to be
developed and the expected objectives for each case study.

Case Study 1: Session Observation – Pedagogy

Diploma, 45 students, 21 of them are females. The teacher educator is a young man. He has a
psychology degree. This is his first year teaching at the CTE. He is finding the change from
high school teaching challenging, but feels he is beginning to teach well.

When you go in to observe the lesson, he welcomes you and directs you to a seat at the back
of the room. He continues to talk to the students about a task he wants them to do. He
reminds them of a previous lesson about Bloom’s Taxonomy and asks them to write learning
objectives for ‘knowledge and understanding in the cognitive domain’. He tells the students
to get into groups. The students are sitting on seats attached to desks, but they manage to
arrange themselves into groups of about six by alternate rows turning round to work with the
people behind. This happens with a minimum of fuss and the students begin discussing.
There is an animated ‘buzz’ in the room which subsides after about five minutes and then
gradually returns.

The students in all groups are able to take turns in speaking and they seldom interrupt each
other. Females take an equal and active part in the groups’ discussions. The discussions are
animated, thoughtful and students seem well motivated. While the students are engaged in
discussion the teacher educator moves around the room. He listens to what the groups are
saying, encourages, answers questions, clarifies points, and joins in discussions. There was a
good working atmosphere in the room, the teacher and students had a relaxed and friendly
relationship, and the students showed respect and promptly did as they were asked. After
about half an hour of discussion the noise level rose and the group discussion stopped. The
students were talking in smaller groups and were no longer on task, having finished what they
were asked to do. The teacher educator continued to move among the groups and brought
individual groups back on task, checking what they had done, reminding them of things they
had forgotten, and asking questions. The class was called to attention and groups were asked
to report back. The students quickly faced to the front and were attentive. As the first group
began, the lesson ended and the class was dismissed.

Case Study 2: Session Observation – Chemistry

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Diploma, 43 Second Year students, 14 of them are females. The teacher educator is a tall,
imposing man with considerable experience. He has been teaching at the College of Teacher
Education for 10 years. He has an MSc in Chemistry for which he studied in Europe. His
subject knowledge is excellent.

When you go in to observe the session, he acknowledges your presence and indicates where
you can sit, with no break in his lecture. The students all have some typed sheets, stapled
together and many of them are making notes on these sheets as the teacher educator is
speaking. He talks as he writes formulae on the blackboard. His voice is loud enough for the
students to be able to hear him and he writes high enough on the board for all the students to
be able to see. He pauses occasionally to look at his own typed copy of the sheets the students
have and sometimes tells them to follow as he reads out a sentence to them. At no time does
he have any eye-contact with individual students. As he talks, he looks over their heads. He
asks two questions, but does not wait for an answer; a few students murmur a response. At
the end of the session he asks whether anyone has any questions. The students look at their
sheets and avoid eye-contact with him. No-one asks a question.

The students all appear to be listening throughout and many of them write many notes as he
speaks, or copy formulae from the board. This is an organic chemistry session and he cites
examples where the chemical effects he is describing are used.

Case Study 3: Lesson observation – Biology

Degree; 30 third year students; 24 males and 6 females. The teacher is an enthusiastic young
woman with a Masters degree in Genetics. Her students are arranged at random in the classroom,
where there is adequate space and light, and an LCD projector. She has excellent subject knowledge
and has planned a very well structured session on the crossing over of chromosomes. She starts by
reminding the students of the work they covered in the previous session. Students are attentive and
ready to work.

Most students write notes as she is speaking, using the key points that she has written on the
blackboard as a guide. She uses a power point presentation. These are projected onto the wall
so they are quite difficult to see. From the back of the room it is difficult to make out the
number of chromosomes and the number of cross over points. Students try to copy the
diagrams into their notebooks. Her explanations are generally clear, and she pauses
occasionally to ask a question. The questions are usually answered by the same young man in

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the front row. She asks for student opinion about the significance of crossing over; several
students are able to contribute.

She finishes with a question for them to think about before the next session about why Gregor
Mendel did not come across linkage.
 Read the descriptions of active learning methods below. These may be
new for you. Read the descriptions carefully and write the correct name
from the list below in column 2.

Buzz Group; Microteaching; Jigsaw Groups; Hot Seating; Decision Line; Cooperative
Learning; Case Study; Balloon Game; Crossover Group

Description of active learning method Name of

method
Student teachers have been asked to prepare a lesson on teaching an aspect of the grade 4
Environmental Science curriculum. You ask them to prepare a 15 minute lesson, with
objectives, activities and resources using materials easily found in the surrounding
environment. They present this lesson to their peers. You and their peers evaluate the
effectiveness of the lesson and provide feedback on the quality of the teaching. This
method can be used in any subject.
You have divided the class into 10 groups. The topic for the next 4 sessions is child
psychology. Each group is given a different aspect of child psychology to research over
the next 3 sessions. In the fourth session, each group brings the materials that they have
collected and you help to bring all the pieces of the topic together. This method can be
used in any subject.
During your session on curriculum, you stop every few minutes and ask students in a
group of 4 sitting closely together to brainstorm their ideas on a particular aspect of the
topic; e.g. their understanding of the word curriculum, which subjects are essential in the
school curriculum, the relative value of different subjects, the abilities developed through
different subjects. They are allowed a short period of time for each period of discussion
(about 2 minutes). There is a ‘hum’ of activity in the room during these periods. This
method can be used in any subject.

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In History, students are given the names of 10 important characters in Ethiopia who are
floating in the basket of a hot air balloon in the sky above the Indian Ocean. The balloon
is sinking, and the only way to keep it from falling into the sea is to ‘throw out’ one of
the characters. Which character would you throw out first? Second? Third? Etc. This
method can be used in any subject, for example with famous scientists, modern
inventions, characteristics of good teachers etc.
Students are divided into groups to discuss a given topic in any subject. After 5 minutes,
2 members of each group move to the next group to share ideas from the first group and
to join a new discussion. After another 5 minutes they move again, so that during the
course of the lesson all students have been able to share information. This avoids the
need for a lot of feedback.
One member of the class is assigned to be a character from literature, history, science etc.
This member is placed in the centre of the room to role play the character. Other
members of the group direct questions to the person in the centre who has to respond in
role. After 10 minutes, change the person in the centre and the character.
You organise students into groups for a particular topic, give clear instructions and
explain how you want them to work together. You may assign different group behaviours
to each member of the group eg facilitator, note taker, time keeper, leader, observer,
reporter. Students are expected to interact, share ideas and ask their peers first if they
need help. They are all responsible for the outcomes, which are evaluated against agreed
criteria. Over a series of sessions, each group member can be asked to take on different
responsibilities so that all students are encouraged to develop different skills.
You are planning a lesson on the characteristics of good teaching. Instead of giving
students a list of these characteristics, you provide a description of six different teachers
and what they do in their classrooms. The students have to identify the positive and
negative characteristics of each teacher. The whole class then comes to an agreement of
the characteristics of good teaching.
You want to encourage students to think about a topic and form an opinion that they can
defend. E.g. genetic engineering can help in food security. Students are asked to
physically move an stand in a line that represents a continuum from strong agreement
with the statement to strong disagreement with the statement. Students then have to find
a partner and explain why they chose to stand at a particular point on the line.

Source: HDP handbook, 2011

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 Dear learner, analyze the following concepts critically. Insert tick mark in
the following table to indicate your level of understanding. Finally, go back

to the literature part whenever you feel less mastery of any concept.

S. no Main points Yes No

1 Teacher-centered method
2 Student-centered
3 Active learning method
4 Intrinsic reward
5 Extrinsic reward
6 Effective teacher
7 Jigsaw method
8 Brain storming method
9 Methods of grouping students
10 Micro-teaching
11 Demonstration method
12 Effective learning
13 Principles of teaching
14 Game method
15 Pyramiding method

Unit Summary

There are nine principles of teaching. These are:

1. uniting instruction with the political, economic and social policy of the country;
2. connecting instruction with social life;
3. integrating instructions of different subjects;
4. guiding the activities of learners (the principle of teacher’s leading role and students’
independent work);
5. making instruction comprehensive;
6. vividness in instruction (giving clear ideas in instruction);

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7. understanding individual difference in instruction (approaching students personality based
upon collective activity);
8. applicability and durability of the results of instruction (stabilizing the results of
instruction permanently); and
9. shaping instruction systematically according to the curriculum.

Instructional methods are classified as Teacher-Centered and Student- Centered methods. In a

teacher-centered method, the teacher monitors both the students’ rate of classroom activity
and the pattern of classroom interaction, which will result in the immediate disappearance of
the knowledge acquired. However, in the student-centered instructional method, students are
active participant in their own learning instead of passive receivers of information. The
guiding principle of the student centered instructional method adheres that learning should be
focusing on quality rather than on quantity and on understanding rather than on
memorization.

Some of the types of instructional methods are lecture method, demonstration method, buzz-
group discussion method, debating method, dramatization, role playing, field trip, project,
problem-solving, active listening, jigsaw, brainstorming, goldfish, reflection, presentation,
storytelling, game, etc.

Self- test Exercise.

I. Instruction: I. Write “True” if the statement is correct and “False” if the
statement is incorrect.

1. Instructional methods are ends to achieve educational objectives.

2. Miming as type of dramatization method expresses communication using dialogue.
3. Cognitive memory questions require higher thinking.
4. Field trip method implies journey to historical sites.

II. Choose the best answer from the given alternatives and circle the letter of your choice

1. Identify the wrong idea. A. Lecture method solves shortage of teachers

B. Questioning method is helpful when the topic is new
C. Brainstorming method develops verbal skills
D. Student-centered method uses formative assessment

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2. Which one of the following instructional methods refers to experimental activities?
A. Dramatization B. Questioning C. Goldfish D. demonstration

3. The grouping of students based on their potential is called__________.

A. Mixed B. Ability C. Arbitrary D. Compatibility

4. Identify the concept that is not characteristics of teacher-centered methods:

A. It integrates theory with practice B. It uses hard punishment
B. It focuses on mastery learning D. It makes students passive

III. Give short and precise answers to the following questions.

1. List five major characteristics of active learning methods.

2. Explain “the Principle of making instruction comprehensive” using three different topics
from your major area.

General Approaches/ Methods/ Strategies:

Teaching methods that involve active learning methods shall be employed

 Gapped lecture, buzz group discussion, case studies, field observation, role playing,
Mind map, Games, debating, panel discussion, Dramatization, Experimentation,
Jigsaw, storytelling, etc.

 Instructor’s activities

 Makes brief presentations on the daily topic(s)

 Groups students and make them discuss on selected items
 Makes a follow-up while they are doing their tasks
 Helps students present their discussion results group by group
 Provides short notes on selected contents
 Assesses each group’s presentation and gives feedback as well as a summary.

 Learners’ activities

 Attend the presentation and taking notes

 Participate in group discussion and presentation
 Make self-assessment and peer-assessments

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  Ask questions for elaboration while they are working in small group or whole class.
 Receive feedback and take action for improvement.

References

Aggarwal, J. C. 1996. Principles, Methods and Techniques of Teaching. New Delhi: Vikas
Publishing House Pvt. Ltd.

Aren, G. 1978. Evangelical pioneers in Ethiopia. Uppsala, Sweden offset center.

Berhane Girmay and Haile G. 2005. Module: General Methods of Teaching. Mekelle
University (unpublished).

Borich, C. D. 1988. Effective Teaching Methods. London: Macmillan publishing company.

Briggs, L. J. et al. 1981. Hand book of Procedures for the Design of Instruction, (2 nd ed).
New Jersey: Educational Technology Publications. .

Callahan, J. F. and Clark, L. H. 1988. Teaching in the Middle and Secondary Schools:
Planning for Competence (3rd ed., New York: Macmillan publishing company

Farrant, J. S. 1980. Principles and Practices of Education. (2nd ed). London: Longman
Groups UK Ltd.

Fullan, M. E. 1991. The New Meaning of Educational Change. London: Cassel Educational
Ltd.

Kasambira, K. P. (1993). Lesson Planning and Class Management. London: Longman

limited.

McNeil, J. D. 1990. Curriculum: A Comprehensive Introduction (4th ed.) USA: Harper

Collins publishers.

MOE 2011. HDP Handbook. Addis Ababa (unpublished)

Sharma, Y. K. 2006. Sociological Philosophy of Education. New Delhi: Kanishka Publishers

Savage.

Tom, V. and Armstrong, D. G. 1987. Effective Teaching in Elementary School Studies. New
York: Macmillan publishing company.

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 Unit Six: Planning Lessons, Organization and Management

Introduction

Dear learner, welcome to the fourth unit. One of the essential factors that determine
the quality of education is an instructional plan. Therefore, school teachers should prepare a
plan and use it effectively so that there will be successful teaching as well as learning. In this
unit, you will be exposed to what-ness of plan, merits of instructional plan, fundamental
questions of instructional plan, types of objectives, and types of lesson plans. This unit also
deals with the definition of classroom management, indicators of effective teaching, major
causes of classroom misbehavior, and types of seating arrangement and preventive techniques
of classroom misbehavior. Generally, discussions on the aforementioned contents will
definitely make you good classroom manager.

Learning outcomes:

After completing this unit, the trainees will be able to:

 Discuss why teachers need to plan.

 Relate the fundamental questions of instructional planning to the actual lesson plans
 Identify the core levels of instructional planning
 Plan their lessons at different level
 Design appropriate lesson plans in their respective fields of specialization
 Assess the merits of instructional planning
 Implement lesson plans effectively
 Define classroom management
 Demonstrate some indicators of effective teaching at secondary schools
 Organize their classroom for different tasks
 Identify the major causes of classroom misbehaviors
 Assess the classroom management techniques
 Major types of seating arrangements
 Manage their classes using appropriate classroom management techniques
 Apply preventive techniques of classroom management.

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6.1 Definition of a Plan

Some of the definitions of the term “plan” are:

 A plan is a guide map for action;
 A plan is an experience in anticipatory teaching;
 A plan is a blue print;
 A plan is a direction for future activities, etc.

Thus, instructional planning is a process of the teacher using appropriate curricula,

instructional strategies, and resources during the planning process to address the diverse
needs of students. It is a preparation for teaching and learning, including construction of
goals, objectives, and instructional and assessment methodology. Instructional planning is a
systematic planning, developing, evaluating, and managing the instructional process based on
principles of learning and instruction.

Activity 23

 1. Create your own definition for the word Plan.

2. What would be the challenges of teaching in the classroom without lesson plan?

6.2 Merits of an Instructional Plan

Different scholars have forwarded some of the following merits of having a plan
 Helps ensure subject mastery;
 Enables to select appropriate instructional methods;
 Avoids crisis in the classroom;
 Develops more confidence;
 Enables to use different instructional media;
 Realizes wise usage of time;
 Fixes the direction of teaching-learning process;
 Helps avoid needles repetition;
 Gives substitute teachers a basis for presenting real lesson;
 Gives outline to follow as one teaches a lesson;
 Enables to anticipate the implementation of activities;
 Assures the attainability of instructional objectives, etc.

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6.3 Major Criteria that a Quality Plan Should Fit

A. Objectivity: denotes that a lesson plan should be based on the existing reality of the
country;
B. Logical Sequence: implies that contents and activities in a lesson plan should be arranged
in logical order. In other words, lesson contents should proceed from simple to difficult,
from near to far, from known to unknown, from concrete to abstract, etc.
C. Flexibility: expresses that a lesson plan should be open to make necessary amendments
when unpredictable problems face and when there is transfer of teachers.
D. Comprehensiveness: a lesson plan should include the major elements such as objectives,
contents, methods, media, time, activities, evaluation mechanisms, etc.
E. Clarity and Simplicity: an instructional plan should be written in clear and simple
languages.

6.4 Fundamental Questions of Instructional Planning

There are seven fundamental questions of instructional planning as recommended by Ralph

Tyler (1949).

 Why to teach? Understanding the objectives to be achieved.

 What to teach? Knowing and mastering the contents to be taught.
 How to teach? Selection of appropriate methods and media.
 Whom to teach? Identifying the grade level and background of the learners.
 When to teach? Knowing the solid number of working days and total allotted periods
for the subject.
 How much to teach? Checking the harmony among the contents in the textbook and
the total number of periods.
 Where to teach? Understanding the environment such as climate, location of the
school and the reality of the country.

6.4.1: Types of Instructional plan

There are different types of instructional plans as mentioned below:

 Annual lesson Plan;

 Semester plan;

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  Unit plan;
 Course plan;
 Weekly plan
 Periodic (daily) plan

6.4.2: Types of Instructional Objectives

General Objectives: are used in preparing the annual plan. We use some of the following
action verbs:

 To know, understand, comprehend, devote, grasp, enjoy, appreciate, have faith in,
believe in, admire, develop, be familiar with, be aware of, acquire, etc.

Examples: At the end of this unit, the students will be able to know the English alphabets.

Specific Objectives: are used in preparing periodic lesson plan. They clearly show what
type of learning outcomes are expected from the learners. Some of the action verbs used here
are listed below:

 To compare, design, infer, identify, differentiate, construct, write, debate, define,

solve, select, evaluate, draft, change, list, arrange, practice, locate, match, plan,
separate, draw, measure, express, perform, calculate, explain, etc

Examples: At the end of this lesson, the students will be able to write the first six English
alphabets.

At the end of this lesson, the students will be able to pronounce the first six English
alphabets.

6.4.3: Guidelines for Writing Instructional Objectives

 Objectives should be stated in terms of students’ performance;

 Objectives should be written in terms of the learning outcome, not in terms of the
learning process;
 Statements of objectives should be an amalgamation of subject matter and desired
behavior;
 Avoid the use of more than one objective in one statement.

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6.5: Taxonomy of Behavioral Objectives

Several decades ago, as interest in defining educational objectives was increasing, a group of
experts in education led by Benjamin Bloom studied the idea of defining objectives very
systematically. They developed a taxonomy, or classification system in to ordered group or
categories, of educational objectives. Based on this classification educational objectives are
divided in to three domains such as cognitive domain, affective domain and psychomotor
domain. Each domain is comprised of hierarchical levels which proceed from basic to more
complex learning. In real life, of course, behaviors from these three different domains occur
simultaneously. While students are writing in a psychomotor domain, they are also
remembering or reasoning cognitive, and they are likely to have some emotional response to
the task as well (affective). Therefore, many objectives are an amalgam of cognitive,
affective and psychomotor. But it often makes senses to recognize a given objective as falling
primarily into one category or another. One reason for considering these areas separately is to
accentuate the affective and psychomotor areas, because schools often focus on cognitive
changes alone.

Activity 24

  What is taxonomy and why is it important in education?

6.5.1: The Cognitive Domain

Work on the cognitive domain was completed in 1956 and is commonly referred to as
Bloom’s Taxonomy of the cognitive domain. This domain refers to behavioral objectives
which involve intellectual or mental abilities ranging from simple remembering of learnt
materials to highly creative way of combining (synthesizing) new ideas and evaluation. This
is the most common type of instructional objectives since it focuses on the transmission of
knowledge and intellectual skills, which is the most prevalent view of the role of school both
today and in the past (Jacobsen et al., 1989:85). The same authors have mentioned their
intimacy that 80 to 90% of the average elementary and secondary students’ school time is
devoted to the achievement of cognitive goals, of course, to the lowest level of cognitive
learning. The cognitive domain has six components.

Knowledge: is the lowest level of the cognitive domain. At this level students are expected to
remember, recall recognize, retrieve information such as facts, terminologies, problem
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solving strategies, rules, etc. Knowledge is the easiest of thinking levels, where we need to
describe and identify things to show as we have remembered or learned. It is distinguished
from the remaining five which are together called intellectual abilities for the simple reason
that the latter requires organized mode of operations and generalize techniques for dealing
with materials of problems. Some action verbs that describe learning outcomes at this level
include define, list, tell, describe, identify, show, label, collect, examine, tabulate, quote,
name, select, outline, state, recite, match, recall, etc.

Example: The students will be able to define terms such as diffusion and osmosis.

Comprehension: This level requires that students not only remember information, but also
understand it and be able to explain or express it in their own words. At this level, students
are expected to be able to change the form of communication; translate and restate
(paraphrase) what has been read, seen, etc, connecting or making relationships among parts
of a communication, interpret, see consequences from information (inference) and extrapolate
a piece of communication.

Action verbs that can be used at this level include: summarize, interpret, associate, predict,
convert, estimate, infer, defend, explain, paraphrase, discriminate, distinguish, generalize,
contrast, discuss, differentiate, etc….

Example: the student will be able to give his/her own examples of recent Supreme Court
decisions on man’s protection under the law.

Application: refers to the ability to use learnt material in new and concrete situation. At this
level, students are expected to use previously acquired information in a setting other than the
one in which it was learnt. Some of the action verbs are: change, modify, solve, demonstrate,
organize, transfer, develop, prepare, use, apply, produce, implement, construct, conduct,
perform, etc.

Example: when provided with known numbers, the students will be able to apply the formula
necessary to solve geometry problems.

Analysis: refers to the breaking down of informational materials in to their component parts,
examining such information to develop divergent conclusions by identifying motives or
causes, making inferences and/or finding evidence to support generalizations. Therefore,

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students are expected to identify logical errors/e.g. point out a contradiction or erroneous
inference/ or differentiate among facts, opinions, assumptions, hypothesis and conclusion.
Students are expected to draw relationships among ideas and to compare and breakdown,
distinguish, point out, deduce, illustrate, relate, diagram, infer, separate out, differentiate,
outline, subdivide, analyze, order, classify, arrange, divide, compare etc.

Example: the students will be able to breakdown the components of the compound in to its
constituent elements.

Synthesis: is creatively or divergently applying prior knowledge and skills to produce a new
or original whole. Therefore, at this level students are expected to produce something unique
or original; here, they are expected to solve some unfamiliar problems in a unique way. Some
action verbs that describe learning outcomes at this level are; categorize, create, formulate,
compile, design, compose, produce, etc.

Example: the students will be able to create an environment for a hypothetical animal

Evaluation: Objectives written at this level require the students to form judgment and make
decision about the values of methods, ideas, people, or products that have a specific purpose.
Students are expected to state the bases for judgment (e.g. external criteria or principles they
drew up on to reach their conclusion).

Some action verbs that describe learning outcomes are: appraise, criticize, justify, compare,
defend, support, contrast, judge, validate, assess, evaluate, rank, grade, test, measure,
recommend, conclude, etc.

Example: The student will be able to evaluate objectively the best of two students’ essays on
HIV/AIDS.

Reflection: What is the difference between the sub-levels of the cognitive domain?

6.5.2: The Affective Domain

This domain focuses on attitudes, values and feelings, (e.g. rules of respect and relationships,
getting along in groups, appreciating art and nature, sense of confidence, positive self-esteem,
and resolving moral/ethical dilemmas). This taxonomy is ordered according to the principle
of internalization. Internalization refers to the process whereby a person’s affect toward an

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object passes from a general awareness level to a point where the affect is internalized and
consistently guides or controls the person’s behavior. Affective goals are seldom made
explicit and then consciously translated into teaching procedures. This domain consists of the
following five levels.

Receiving: The key feature at this level is that of students exhibiting a degree of open
mindedness for without this trait they may not be willing to receive the information under
study. Hence, awareness, willingness to hear, and selected attention are very important. At
this level students are expected simply to listen or be attentive. Some action verbs that
describe outcomes at the receiving level are attend, discern, be aware, hear, notice, listen, ask,
choose, follow, hold, locate, etc.

Example: the students will illustrate an awareness of the importance of ecology by supplying
pertinent newspaper clippings.

Responding: is active participation on the part of the learners. Students attend and react to a
particular phenomenon may emphasize compliance in responding, willingness to respond, or
satisfaction in responding (motivation). For example, students participate in class discussions;
give presentation, question new ideals, concepts, models, etc. in order to fully understand
them. At this level, students are exhibiting some interest, involvement, or even commitment.
Some action verbs used at this level are applaud, follow, play, comply, discuss, participate,
volunteer, etc.

For example: the students will demonstrate enjoyment of the subject by volunteering to join
in the role-playing of Ras Alula Aba Nega.

Valuing: the worth or value a person attaches to a particular object, phenomenon, or

behavior. This ranges from simple acceptance to the more complex state of commitment.
Valuing is based on the internalization of a set of specified values, while clues to these values
are expressed in the learner’s overt behavior and are often identifiable. For example, one
demonstrates beliefs in the democratic process, is sensitive towards individual and cultural
differences (value diversity), shows the ability to solve problems, proposes a plan to social
improvement and follows through with commitment and informs management on matters that
one feels strongly about.

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Objectives at this level require the students to display behavior consistent with a single belief
or attitude in situations where she/he is neither forced nor asked to comply. Here, behavior is
initiated by the students who is committed to particular position and is willing to openly
discuss and support that position.

Some action verbs used here are: Act, debate, help, argue, display, organize, convince,
express, prefer, complete, demonstrate, differentiate, follow, form, initiate, invite, join,
justify, propose, read, report, select, etc.

Example: The students will demonstrate a continuing desire to learn to use the microscope
by volunteering to work after school.

Organization: Organizes values into priorities by contrasting different value, resolving

conflicts between them, and creating a unique value system. The emphasis is on comparing,
recasting, and synthesizing values. Organization requires a commitment to a set of values. It
involves two important issues.

1. Forming a reason why one values certain things and not others;
2. Making appropriate choice between things that are valued and are not valued.

Students are expected to organize their likes and preferences into a value system and then
decide which one will be dominant. Some action verbs that describe learning outcomes at the
organization level are adhere, alter, arrange, compile, compare, complete, formulate,
generalize, abstract, decide, select, balance, systematize, theorize, etc.

Example: the student will freely express her opinion to her class mate about the importance
of sex education.

Characterization: Individuals have a value system that controls their behavior. The behavior
is pervasive, consistent, predictable and most importantly characteristic of the learner.
Instructional objective are concerned with the student’s general patterns of adjustment
(personal, social, emotional).

In general, this level allows the students to develop personal yet global views about such
things as the nature of universe or a philosophy of life. Some action verbs that describe
learning outcomes at this level are avoid, internalize, resist, display, manage, resolve, exhibit,
require, revise, act, discriminate, display, influence, practice, etc.

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 Activity 25

1. Discuss briefly about the hierarchical levels of the affective domain.
2. Give your own concrete examples for each level. Identify how one level is different
from the other level and why these levels are arranged in the given way.

6.5.3: The Psychomotor Domain

It refers to skill development (E.g. kicking a ball, measuring in sciences, drawing shapes in
Mathematics, handwriting, using tools or equipment0. No matter how much information we
have, without appropriate skills, we will not be able to use it. The psychomotor behavior
concerns itself with levels of attainment on neuro-muscular coordination. As the level of
coordination goes up, the action becomes more refined, speedy and automatic. Each level is
presented in the following way.

Imitation: Learners observe a skill and attempt to repeat it, or see a finished product and
attempt to repeat it while attending to an exemplar. Objectives at this level require that the
student be exposed to an observable action, and then overtly copy or repeat it, such as when
an instructor demonstrates the use of a microscope by placing a slide on the specimen tray.
Here, students are expected to observe and be able to repeat it (although imperfectly) the
action being visually demonstrated. This level is usually lacking neuromuscular coordination.
Some of the action verbs that describe learning outcomes at this level are copy, replicate,
repeat, align, grasp, balance, hold, rest on, follow, place, step, etc. Example: the students will
be able to familiarize themselves with soccer kicking techniques.

Manipulation: the student is required to perform selected actions from written or verbal
directions without the aid of a visual model or direct observation. Students are expected to
complete the action from reading or listening to instructions, although the behavior still may
be performed crudely and without neuromuscular coordination. The action verbs used here
are the same as that of the imitation level except they are performed from spoken or written
instructions. Example: Students will use the power saw safely to cut out a desired form for a
bookstand.

Precision: At this level, learners independently perform the skill or produce the product with
accuracy, promotion and exactness; at an expert level. Few errors are apparent. Here the
students are expected to perform an action independent of either visual model or a written set

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of directions. Proficiency in reproducing the action at this level reaches a higher level of
refinement. Students are expected to reproduce the action with control and to reduce errors to
a minimum. Expressions that describe outcomes at this level include performing the
behavior: accurately, with control, independently, errorless, proficiency, with balance, refine,
succeed, surpass, etc.

Example: Students will be able to blow the trumpet skillfully to produce a high “F” Nota for
one minute.

Articulation: The skills are so well developed that the individual can modify movement
patterns to fit special requirements or to meet a problem situation. Here, the students are
expected to display coordination of a series of acts by establishing the appropriate sequence
and performing the acts accurately with control as well as with speed and timing. Some of the
action verbs used here to describe outcomes include confidence, integration, speed,
coordination, proportion, stability, harmony, smoothness, timing, adapt, alter, change, excel,
rearrange, etc.

Example: Students will be able to head the soccer ball forwards, to the left and to the right.

Naturalization: At this level, response is automatic. The individual’s experiment, creating

new motor acts or ways of manipulating materials out of understandings, abilities, and skills
developed. One acts “without thinking”. Therefore, objectives at this level require a high
level of proficiency in the skill or performance being taught. The act is performed with the
least expenditure of energy and becomes routine, automatic, and spontaneous. Students are
expected to repeat the behavior naturally and effortlessly. Some of the action verbs which
describe this behavior are arrange, combine, compose, construct, create, design, originate,
etc. And some of the expressions that describe this level of behavior are automatically,
naturally, effortlessly, professionally, with perfection, roughly, with posies, with ease,
spontaneously, etc.

Example: Students will be able to catch and pass the ball accurately while on the move during
a basketball game.

Concerning the inter-relationship between the three domains, the division of educational
objectives in to domains is not water-tight or exclusive one. The achievement in one domain
is to a quite appreciable degree dependent upon the learner’s status in others. For instance,

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understanding (comprehension) may be a prerequisite for attaching proper value to an object
or proper cognition necessary for arousing proper interest. Similarly, interests and attitudes
affect the quality of performance in both cognitive and psychomotor domains.

Activity 26

1. Discuss clearly about the hierarchical levels of the psychomotor domain.

2. Give your own concrete examples for each level and try to relate each level with your
practical life.
3. Evaluate the balance of the cognitive, affective and psychomotor domains in your
respective major areas by referring to the primary school textbooks.

Activity 27

1. Discuss the characteristics of any plan.
2. Why do we say that teaching without written plan is sloppy and ineffective?
3. Why should objectives be stated in what the students do?

6.6 Definition of Classroom Management

Classroom management is the art of carefully preparing, presenting, disciplining and

controlling class activities. Classroom management is also the process of organizing and
coordinating a class so that there can be efficient and effective learning. Students are
composed of diversified attitude, values, maturity, age, family background, etc. Thus the
teacher is highly expected to manage such varieties of behaviors. Classroom management is
also defined as the methods and strategies an educator uses to maintain a classroom
environment that is conducive to student success and learning. Although there are many
pedagogical strategies involved in managing a classroom, a common denominator is making
sure that students feel they are in an environment that allows them to achieve.

 Activity 27

1. How do you evaluate the classroom management of your primary and secondary
school teachers? Did they treat female students and male students equally?

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 2. Identify some teachers who were effective in their classroom management using their
characteristics.

6.6.1: Approaches to Classroom Management

The teacher’s personality, philosophy, and teaching style will directly affect his/her
managerial and disciplinary approach. There are different approaches to class management,
all based on a mixture of psychology, classroom experience and common sense. Their
difference is only in the relative importance given to prevention and intervention, degree of
control and supervision exercised by the teacher. Some of them are listed below.

1. The Assertive Approach: This approach expects teachers to specify rules of behavior
and consequences of misbehaving or disobeying and communicate them to the students
clearly. Teachers hold students accountable for their actions. The idea is for teachers to
respond to a student’s misbehavior quickly and appropriately.

2. The Behavior Modification Approach: Such an approach involves a variety of

techniques and methods, ranging from simple rewards to elaborate reinforcement training.
The assumption in this approach is that behavior is shaped by environment and little
attention is given to the causes of the problem. The basic principles are:

 Behavior is shaped by its sequences not by the causes of the problems;

 Behavior is strengthened by immediate reinforces;
 Students respond better to positive reinforces than to punishment.

3. The Group Managerial Approach: This emphasizes on the importance of responding

immediately to group behavior among students that may be inappropriate or undesirable
in order to prevent problems rather than having to deal with problems after they emerge.
The idea is, if misbehavior is not noticed, is ignored, or is allowed to continue for too
long, it often spreads throughout the group and becomes more serious and chronic.

Activity 28
Which of the above approaches do you support? Why?


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 6.6.2: Organizing the Classroom

One of the vital factors is learning the environment. This implies that the teacher has to create
homely atmosphere at his/her classroom. For doing so knowledge of the different seating
arrangements is so important. In any discipline, every classroom is a mixed ability group.
Whether dealing with high flyers, or low achievers, teachers must allow for the fact that some
learners will work more rapidly and accurately than others. On the way to the ideal of
individualizing educational programs for all their learners, teachers can start by splitting their
class into groups. The amount and difficulty of work demanded from each group can then be
related to their abilities in that particular subject. There are three ways of doing this: by Rota,
quota and branching.

Rota: as in rotation of crops, refers to groups moving round the classroom from one activity
to another.

Quota: similarly requires the teacher to work out an appropriate amount of work to be
completed during a session by each group. Each learner has an assignment card or booklet,
which becomes a record of work, completed as the teacher check it.

Branching: involves starting all the class together on a particular activity, doing an exercise
from the board, or working together from a textbook.

6.7 Types of Seating Arrangement

There are four most popular seating arrangements that we observe in most classrooms.

A. Row type of seating arrangement: where the students sit in rows, facing the teacher and
the chalkboard. Usually learners are arranged in accordance with their height where the
tallest seat at the back and the shortest in the front. In situations where you have students
with short-sighted, hard or hearing you need to place them in one of the front seats.

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 Merits

 This type of seating arrangement seems to be convenient for formal lecture.

 It helps to have easy movement in between rows and orderly collection and distribution
of materials.

B. Cluster Pattern of seating arrangement

This is characterized by the formulation of little cluster of students in different positions in

the class. This type of seating arrangement is very convenient for buzz group discussion.

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Merits

 Students communicate easily with each other;

 Easier for students to work as a team;
 Movement from one cluster to another is not too difficult.

C. The horse shoe pattern of seating arrangement: A seating arrangement in which

students are arranged in the form of “U” shape. In here the teacher sits at the centre.

Merits
 Used when the lesson requires a lot of discussion among the students and with the
teacher as well;
 Easy for students to consult each other.

D. The Round Table Pattern/ Circular Seating Arrangement

Is this also a good formation of groups’ discussion lessons? Unlike the horseshoe, the
authority of the teacher is completely decentralized. In sum, although many teachers may
not find it too easy varying their students seating arrangements, they should try to vary
them as much as they can.

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6.8 Effective Classroom Management

Effective class managers make use of one or a combination of the approaches mentioned
above. They have a well-planned and relevant lesson which they encourage students to take
seriously, who make it clear what the class rules are and teach disciplinary skills with as
much care as they teach academic skills, who realize what kind of things stimulate student
attention, and who know and enjoy each one of their students. Being an effective class
manager is not a talent, which some people just have, and others do not – it is a set of skills
and an attitude learned though patience and practice. There are a number of things we know
about effective class managers. For instance, effective managers have a workable system of
rules and procedures which the students follow and do not ‘turn them loose’ without careful
directions. They do not appear to treat inappropriate behavior differently from the less
effective managers, but they stop it sooner.

We also know that good class managers establish classroom with routines and procures
which ensure that teaching and learning take top priority, and that the students are informed
about their responsibilities for performing the work, as well as about the importance of the
work to the teacher. These good managers seem to consider the task of controlling student
behavior as an instructional challenge, which requires the same approach taken to instruction
in other curriculum areas. They analyze the task at hand, deciding what skills are necessary
for the students to perform as desired. Class management, then, involves things such as
routines, beginning a lesson, planning for instruction, lesson presentation, rapport with
students, response to questions and proper use of the chalkboard, to mention only some.

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 6.8.1: What Kind of Learning Atmosphere is Ideal?

A busty class is usually a happy class. Provide activities, which stretch the students’ abilities
and afford sufficient work to keep them busy. Develop a sense of timing-know when to speed
up, slow down, or change the activity, but avoid creating pressure. In addition, rules for
behavior should grow out of the purposes of the group and should be developed jointly by the
classes and the teacher.

Easily recognizable rewards should follow approved behavior without delay. Give
recognition whenever possible for superior work or behavior. Try to respond to poor work
with encouragement rather than scolding. This is possible if you as a teacher are prepared in
terms of outlines, material, equipment, and activities. Start and end on time.

6.8.2: How Should you Approach Individual Differences?

Providing for individual difference is a major class-management concern regularly cited by

teachers. Perhaps you also consider it as your major concern. Teachers always recognize an
obvious manifestation of a problem relating to individualization. Solving this critical
management problem requires an understanding of both the nature of the concept of
individual differences and the attempts to devise suitable educational arrangements.
Individuals differ from each other physically, temperamentally, intellectually, and in their
special aptitude. Those individual differences are naturally obvious in physical attributes,
psychological attributes: subject-matter knowledge, intellectual development, motivation,
intellectual curiosity, study habits, ability to think independently, creativity, and so on.

In order for teachers to make working units of instruction for individual students, therefore,
they must fully concentrate on teaching small groups and individuals. Only if they have
organized the program in such a way that other students are fully self-directive, responsible
for their own behavior and for the completion of assignments, will teachers be able to
concentrate on individual students-hence respond to individual differences. Independent
activities are ones that students do without continual supervision from the teacher. While the
teacher is engaged in instructing individuals and small groups of students, the rest of the
students are doing independent activities. The following points help to create a good
classroom environment if practiced by a teacher.

1. Know your students. Learn their names immediately;

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 2. Be aware of students’ feelings. Pay attention to attitudes revealed in writing and
discussions. Respect the personalities of the students. Don’t talk down to them.
3. Student’s participation is necessary for good morale. Help the students to become
members of the group.
4. Emphasize the strengths of each student. Always look for the good points in a student.
Build up the confidence of each student-help him/her feel important to the group. All
people, young and old, like praises. Use it.

As a teacher you are supposed to do the following in order that you can have a good
classroom environment:
1. If you make a promise, keep it. Students expect to be, and should be, treated fairly by
their teacher. If you make a mistake, apologize. Share with the students the fact that
everyone makes mistakes.
2. Be willing to try out ideas. A teacher must be flexible. Be as creative and innovative
as you know how to be.
3. Employ a procedure, which is friendly and informal but businesslike and consistent.
Treat all students with the same degree of fairness, impartiality, and consideration.
4. The teacher should posses a good sense of humour.
5. Establish a good rapport with students so that they feel confident in approaching you
with problems or questions. Be as courteous as you expect them to be with you. Never
act in anger, or use threats as a deterrent.
6. Teacher example will set the stage for many things. Be well groomed and speak and
act like a lady or gentleman.

Activity 29
1. Were your primary and secondary school teachers gender sensitive in

managing the classroom? How?
2. Identify your model teachers who were effective in managing the whole teaching
learning process and share to your classmates

6.8.3: Principles of Class Discipline

Here are some principles that may help the teacher under the concept discipline clearly.

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Principle 1: the aims of education and class discipline are the same: to help students become
self-directing people.

Principle 2: Discipline should be dynamic, helping students to channel their energies

towards learning goals.

Principle 3: Discipline is inseparable from teaching.

Principle 4: Discipline should change with the learners’ stage of development and help them
move to the next stage.

Principle 5: Behavior is determined by rational demands of the specific situations.

Principle 6: teaching effectiveness, as perceived by learners, gives the teacher classroom

authority.

Principle 7: Discipline is the ability to attend to a task.

Principle 8: No matter what the classroom design or how learners are organized for
instruction, the principle for effective teaching and discipline apply.

Principle 9: By identifying and dealing effectively with the factors under their control and
influence, teachers can, in most cases, tip the balance in favour of discipline.

Principle 10: principle of redirection: Socialization requires the redirection of destructive

behavior into socially useful behavior.

Principle 11: Principle of agreement: ways of dealing with misbehavior should be in

agreement with developmental goals.

Principle 12: Basic disciple can be achieved only when basic needs, such as food and safety,
are met. Schools should recognize that all students need to be valued and respected as people-
which they need to have some measure of control over their lives and activities, in school and
out.

6.8.4: Leadership Styles

Teaching style is viewed as a broad dimension or personality type that encompasses teacher
stances, pattern of behavior, mode of performance, and attitude toward oneself and others. It
also refers to the choice of instructional activities and materials and methods of involving the

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students in the process of instruction. A teacher and his/her students communicate under three
types of teaching styles. There are:

i. Visual: charts, demonstrations and other things that can affect the sight of the learners
assist learners;
ii. Auditory: learners are assonated by explanations of what is to come next.
Brainstorming, questioning, and debriefing allow students to make links between
what they have acquired; and
iii. Kinaesthetic: the learners do their best when they touch and move. They show fewer
tendencies to learn if there is little or no external stimulation or movement.

A teacher and his/her learners communicate through various styles of classroom leadership.
And the presence or absence of relationships between or among the learners and the teacher
are influenced by the teacher’s styles of guidance. The following are some of them.

Authoritarian style: The teacher who subscribes to this style of classroom management
determines school policy alone and assigns duties without question in prescribed manner.
Such teachers centralize all powers in themselves and teaching is completely teacher-
centered. Students are the followers of the orders of their teacher and listeners of the
information; the teacher imparts knowledge to a passive audience of learners. This type of
teaching style has no place for free discussion and expression on the part of the learners.
When people are coerced, controlled and threatened, individuals’ initiatives may be stifled
and self-motivation may be discouraged. This may lead to low morale amongst both the staff
and the learners, which may become the root causes of strikes, riots.

The students taught by the authoritarian teachers:

 Lack the capacity for initiation and group action;

 Show no interest in their work in the absence of their teacher;
 Develop hostility and aggression towards other follow members.

Laissez-faire style: The teacher believes that there should not be rules and regulations since
everyone has an “inborn sense of responsibility. Such a situation may well exist amongst
mature, experienced teachers. But how would it work with new, young teachers fresh from
“freedom years of university or college?” This is a mismanagement where the head sits back
and allows everyone to do as they please. This may lead to anarchy, and chaos, which would

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hardly be conducive to the provision of quality education. The laissez-faire (literally let-do)
style is opposite to the autocratic style. These often considered as unorganized or ineffective
teachers. They don’t direct or guide their students’ activities. Rather they provide no (or few)
goals and directions for group of individual behaviors leave them free to do what they like.
Students taught by these teachers:

 Feel insecurity;
 Show dissatisfaction against their teachers;
 Are cooperative.

Democratic style: in the head or teacher believes that the staff or students should be involved
in decision making process. Decisions are arrived at after consultation with the staff or and
with the students. This person allows freedom of thought and action within the framework of
the mission and objectives of the school. This style is based on the belief that where people
are committed to the services of ideas, which they helped to frame, they will exercise self-
control, self-direction and be motivated. In sum, a teacher of this style respects the
individuality of their students and don’t impose orders or restrictions on their learners. They
create such an environment in which students freely communicate with each other. Teachers
work as leaders of the group. The teachers and students work on the principle of give and
take and respect each other and let the students share in the decision making process.

The following characteristics are developed in a democratic classroom.

 Friendliness and more cooperative atmosphere.

 High level of efficiency and habit of independent work.
 Initiative of working effectively in the absence of their teacher
 Mutual cooperation and recognition.

These three types of leadership (characteristics) overlap in the process of classroom

instruction, because teachers could not always show authoritarian, laissez-faire or democratic
behavior in their teaching. Thus, the specific conditions should be considered.

Activity 30

Which style of leadership do you support? Give rationales for your preference.

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 6.8.5: Guideline for Effective Classroom Management

 Have a good plan;

 Have good subject mastery;
 Use rewards;
 Apply better methods of teaching;
 Respect professional code of ethics;
 Respect the students;
 Evaluate your students fairly;
 Encourage students participation;
 Keep your promise;
 Use humour, etc.

There are also the following eight factors that provide the foundation for an effective
classroom management and discipline strategy. Each is discussed below. Addressing these
enables a teacher to use the “winning ways” in classroom management that help create an
environment in which the teacher is respected the classroom is peaceful for all and learning
proceeds unhindered.

1. Letting students know classroom rules and consequences for not following them:
This critical factor, described further below, is the step through which clear and
specific classroom guidelines are established. There are three components to this. The
first is establishing classroom rules-the set of standards that all students will follow.
The second is determining the consequences if these standards are not met-the things
that occur in the situation that rules are not followed. The third is the identification of
rewards those ways in which adhering to standards is recognized and rewarded.

2. Providing instruction that matches students’ abilities: Instruction should be at a level

that is not too easy for students, leading to boredom, and not too difficult, leading to
frustration. The ideal instructional level is that which is somewhat challenging to the
student and which the student can attain-consistent with the principle of the zone of
proximal development. If instructional materials are not at the appropriate level for a
student, there is a good possibility that the student will be frustrated and misbehaved.
Hence, assessing students’ knowledge levels and identifying instructional materials

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 that will enable them to learn in challenging ways is a key to effective classroom
management.

3. Varying the instructional approaches used in the classroom: Research shows that
elementary grade children tend to be able to attend carefully to one style of
presentation for approximately 10 minutes, and secondary school students for
approximately 15 minutes. When students are no longer paying attention, behavior
problems occur. Hence, a valuable strategy for preventing classroom management
problems is for a teacher to vary the style of classroom presentation and of classroom
activities. If there is a change of pace with some frequency and if students have the
opportunity to move from one type of learning to another during any class session, it
is most likely that inattentiveness and restlessness will be minimized.

4. Providing a number of learning choices: Giving students a number of choices for

undertaking a class assignment enables them to choose the one that is most
personality meaningful to them and makes clear that they do have influence on what
occurs in school. It can prevent the difficult situation in which, with only one learning
path, some children do not succeed, with the result that they act out because they feel
like failures. We know from the work of Howard Gardener that children learn
likelihood of a well-managed classroom.

5. Expecting students to be responsible for their own learning and behavior: We know
that the best way to foster responsible behavior is to give students responsibilities, and
the way to foster irresponsible behavior is to deny students responsibility. Teachers
need to remember that if they “demand a lot,” they will get a lot. If they “expect a
lot,” they will get a lot. But, if they “ask for little,” that is exactly what they will get.
Students should be expected to complete and turn in their homework. They should be
expected to be in class on time and ready to learn. They should be expected to try hard
and apply themselves in every assignment. And, they should be expected to help
create a well-managed classroom, free of discipline problems. If they know they are
responsible for these things, there is a far greater likelihood that they will consider
them meaningful, personal priorities than if they consider them someone else’s
responsibility.

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 6. Listening to what students are thinking and feeling: One of the most important things
a teacher can do is to listen empathetically to students’ needs. This has the potential
for preventing or eliminating misbehavior. We need to recognize that behavior
problems occur when students feel anxious, hurt, afraid, and angry or rejected. If a
teacher listens to a child who is having negative feelings, the need to resort to
misbehavior is eliminated. This means more than simply letting the child or
adolescent talk. It means having a teacher communicate with empathy the concern the
teacher feels for the student. It means having a teacher communicate with empathy the
concern the teacher feels for the student. It means helping the student try to find an
avenue to solve he student try to find an avenue to solve the problem that is causing
the negative feelings.

7. Legitimizing behavior that cannot be stopped: There are some behaviors, such as
conservation among adolescents that is difficult to keep away from the classroom.
With peer culture of great significance to adolescents, they continually want to
interact with one another. There are many ways that teachers can build learning
environments that recognize the traits of students and build on the behaviors that are
characteristics of groups of learners at particular stages or of various backgrounds.

Collaborative learning, for example, enables adolescents to work together, turning their need
for peer interaction into an asset rather than a liability. Similarly, young students want to be
active. Creating learning environments that require them to be active, moving about the
classroom as they solve problems, for example, builds upon the characteristics they bring to
the educational environment.

8. Recognizing that there are some students who have serious behavior problems: It is
often stated that you can best understand the patterns of behavior in a classroom if
you recognize the 80-15-5 rule. The rule states that approximately 80% of students
will not be a behavior problem in a well-managed classroom. If instruction is matched
to their level of ability, they are likely to adhere to the expectations for them and will
rarely if ever be a behavior problem. Approximately 15% of students will be a
discipline problem some of the time. These are children who may be experiencing
difficulties at home or in learning, thus feeling frustrations that they deal with by
misbehaving. Their behavior is acceptable some of the time, but not acceptable other
times. The remaining 5% are students who are under serious stress, who have learned
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 in the past to misbehave, or who are involved in non-school behaviors in the past to
misbehave, or who are involved in non-school behaviors (drinking, taking drugs, etc.)
that lead to significant non-school behaviors (drinking, taking drugs, etc.) that lead to
significant problems in school behavior. It is very important that teachers not develop
a sense of failure due to difficulties in dealing with this type of student. Rather help
needs to be sought from administrators at the school or from a psychologist to give
the student the kind of assistance beyond the classroom necessary to identify and
address the problem.

6.9: Major Causes for Classroom Misbehavior

There are two major causes for classroom misbehavior:

6.9.1: Teacher-Related Problems

Teachers can be sources for classroom misbehavior in the following aspects:

 Poor preparation;
 Ineffective style of presentation;
 Poor handling of questions;
 Nagging;
 Hasty judgment;
 Overreacting;
 Lowering academic marks;
 Corporal punishment, etc.

6.9.2: Students-Related problems

Some of the aspects at which students can be cause for classroom misbehavior are mentioned
below:

 Cheating ;
 Lack of clear rules;
 Unclear instruction;
 Not doing assignments, home works, etc;

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  Coming late;
 Quarrelling each other;
 Breaking rules and regulations;
 Changing Seats without permission, etc.

Activity 31

Discuss in pair to what extent your primary and secondary school teachers were
effective in managing disciplinary problems in the classroom.

6.10 Preventive Techniques for Classroom Misbehavior

A) Some of the preventive techniques are listed below:

 Use sign;
 Approaching towards the misbehaving student;
 Boosting students interest;
 Use humor
 Reprimand;
 Placement;
 Tolerance;
 Focusing, etc.

B) In addition, teachers should apply the following preventive techniques so as to make

effective classroom management:

1. Create a warm and nurturing classroom climate.

The classroom should be a place where a student feels welcome and at home. Students need
to feel safe and accepted, so ridicule and sarcasm are not allowed. Mutual respect and the
golden Rule is the key for maintaining this climate.

2. Democratically develop a set of rules and consequences.

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Teachers and students must create discipline plans including rules with clear and effective
consequences. The rules should be agreed upon and understood by everyone in the class. It
should be understood that when rules are broken, consequences will be applied fairly and
consistently.

3. Develop a daily routine, yet remain flexible

Students will often misbehave if they don’t know exactly what they should do and when.
Teachers can avoid this dilemma by installing class routines and procedures, which allow the
students to begin and complete work expeditiously.

4. Make learning more attractive and fun for the student;

Schools exist for the students, and not for the teachers. It is important for the teacher to
expend every effort necessary to make the curriculum relevant, the lessons interesting, and
the activities enjoyable. The result will be an engaged and active participant in the learning
process.

5. Deal with misbehavior, quickly, consistently, and respectfully.

Misbehavior is a disruption to my effectiveness as an educator. The time spent dealing with

misbehaving would be better spent teaching the others. Therefore, misbehavior will be dealt
with quickly and consistently with class defined consequences.

C) Techniques for Better Classroom Discipline

1. Focusing

Be sure you have the attention of everyone in your classroom before you start your lesson.
Don’t attempt to teach over the chatter of students who are not paying attention.

2. Direct Instruction

Uncertainty increases the level of excitement in the classroom. The technique of direct
instruction is to being each class by telling the students exactly what will be happening. The
teacher outlines what he and the students will be doing this period. He may set time limits for
some tasks.

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  An effective way to marry this technique with the first one is to include time at the
end of the period for students to do activities of their choosing. The teacher may
finish the description of the hour’s activities with: “And think we have some time at
the end of the period for you chat with your friends, go to the library, or catch up on
work for other classes.”

3. Monitoring

The key to this principle is to circulate. Get up and get around the room. While your students
are working, make the rounds. Check on their progress. An effective teacher will make a pass
through the whole room about two minutes after the students have started a written
assignment. He/she checks that each student has started, that the children are on the correct
page, and that everyone has put their names on their papers.

4. Modeling

“Values are caught, not taught.” Teachers who are counters, prompt, enthusiastic, in control,
patient and organized provide examples for their students through their own behavior. The
“do as I say, not as I do” teachers send mixed messages that confuse students and invite
misbehavior. If you want students to use voice in your classroom while they work, you too
will use a quiet voice as you move through the room helping youngsters.

5. Non-Verbal Cuing

Non-Verbal cues can also be facial expressions, body posture and hand signals. Care should
be given in choosing the types of cues you use in your classroom. Take time to explain what
you want the students to do when you use your cues.

6. Environmental Control

A classroom can be a warm cheery place. Students enjoy an environment that changes
periodically. Study centers with pictures and color invite enthusiasm for your subject. Young
people like to know about you and your interests. Include personal items in your classroom.
A family picture or a few items from a hobby or collection on your desk will trigger personal
conversations with your students. As they get to know you better, you will see fewer
problems with discipline.

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 7. Low-Profile intervention

Most students are sent to the principal’s office as a result of confrontational escalation. The
teacher has called them on a lesser offense, but in the moments that follow, the student and
the teacher are swept up in a verbal maelstrom. Much of this can be avoided when the
teacher’s intervention is quiet and calm.

An effective teacher will take care that the student is not rewarded for misbehavior by
becoming the focus of attention. She/he monitors the activity in her/his classroom, moving
around the room. She anticipates problems before they occur. Her/his approach to a
misbehaving student is inconspicuous. Others in the class are not distracted.

Controlling Student-Related Misbehavior

There are times, however, that students may create problems that disrupt the classroom
discipline no matter how the teacher is without any of the problems listed above. This could
be because the students may have some problems related to inattentiveness, or other problems
they might have at home. The following are some of the general or classic preventive
measures that you as a teacher can use so as to help the students develop self-control.

a) Signal interference:- in some cases a subtle signal can put an end to budding
misbehavior. The signal or body language, if successful, can stimulate the student to
control him/or herself.
b) Proximity control: place yourself close to the misbehaving student. This makes a
signal more apparent.
c) Interest boosting:- convey interest in the incipient misbehavior, directing such
students so that they will concentrate on the school work.
d) Humor:- humor is an excellent influence, especially in tense situations. However,
remember that it should not convey any irony or sarcasm.
e) Retribution:- when efforts at prevention and subtle control fail, you may
occasionally have to resort to forms of retribution. If the misbehavior is an
accomplished fact, you have no choice but to require the guilt party to suffer
consequences. This is because retribution teaches the students that they should not
break rules. Retribution can have such forms as withholding privileges, detention,

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 putting them in a quiet room for some time, discussing in private, and sending them to
the principal.
f) With-it-ness: means teacher’s knowledge and understanding of what is occurring in
his/her classroom. This refers to the ability to demonstrate that the teacher knows
what was going on. That is it is defined as a teacher’s communicating to the students
by his/her actual behavior that she/he knows what the students are doing, or has “eyes
in the back of his/her head”

Read the following scenarios and identify possible barriers to learning and suggest
possible strategies for support by an effective teacher:

1. Mr. “A” suffered from measles very badly as a small child, which has left him with both
hearing and visual impairment. He has had special help through elementary and high
school which has enabled him to cope with his disabilities. He cannot read printed
materials easily but he can write and read Braille.

2. Ms. “B” is an orphan and has two small children of her own. She has worked extremely
hard to complete her education, supporting herself by growing and selling vegetables.

3. Mr. “D” has just been diagnosed as HIV positive. He is a friendly, outgoing young man
who seems to be coping well.

4. Ms. “F” has been on crutches following an accident when she was a small child. She has
limited mobility from the waist down and relies on her mother for support. In school, she
had supportive friends who looked after her

5. Mr. “H” has epilepsy. When he reached adolescence, he began to have seizures more
frequently. His doctor hopes that he will be better as he becomes more mature and that
new medication will help him.

6. Ms. “J” finishes the work before everybody in the class. Her work is always excellent. She
says she is bored with the work because it is too easy.

7. Ms. “K” has language difficulties. She copes very well in her local language and was given
language support by a family friend to help her achieve good results in her grade 10
exams. Her Amharic and her English are very limited.

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8. Mr. “L” becomes angry very easily and he loses his temper and hits other students in the
class when he finds the work difficult. His new Maths teacher realizes that he can only
count up to 10.

9. Ms. “M” was involved in a car accident and is now in a wheelchair. She is good in all her
subjects.

10. Mr. “N” is in Grade7. He is good at Mathematics, but he can hardly read the simplest
material.ag54 ACTIVE LEARNING PROJECT MODULE 2

11. Ms. “P” finds it difficult to read the board when she is near the back of the class. Her
work in all subjects is above average for the group.

12. Mr. “R” works at the same speed as everybody in the group and his written work is good.
He never talks to anybody else in the group – he is always on his own.

D) The LEAST Approach:

Where:

“L” stands for leave it alone. Many actions may simply be left out.

“E” stands for end the action. Many teachers can simply end the misbehavior without
undo emotion.

“A” stands for attend more fully; that is, a teacher must take further steps beyond merely
ending the disruption at the moment, and then it is time to get into the root of the
problem.

“S” stands for spell out direction. If the procedures listed so far do net work, it is time to
clearly tell the student what to do.

“T” stands for track (follow up). The student’s progress as she/he moves along specified
measures.

The following are also very essential for managing classroom misbehaviors:

1. Planned ignoring: if it appears that the behavior will not spread to others, it is
sometimes best to ignore it.

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 2. Engaged time; enough work is assigned to f ill the scheduled time. This is also named
as “time on task”. As there is students work involvement exhibit fewer disciplinary
problems as there is Less chance for boredom.

The “time on task” has been known as a critical factor in learning. Active student
engagement in learning provides valuable clues as to adjust what teachers are doing with
their time.

3. Placement: the teacher has to put noisy student with a well-behaved student.

4. Hurdle lesson: due to frustration, with a particular assignment, not understood, etc
then they translate their frustration into disruptive behavior and the remedy is re-teaching.

4. Antiseptic bouncing (time out): removing the student from the room for a few
minutes (this happens when the student becomes uncontrollable)

5. Reprimands: talk with the misbehaving student in private rather than in front of the
class.

6. Stop troubles before it starts: knowing the right moment to interrupt behavior is a
valuable asset.

7. Praise: needs to be natural and sincere and should never become dull and routine. It is
a good idea to try to think of at least different but similar synonyms for “good” like
“great”, fine”, “splendid”, “remarkable”, are some examples. The way the teacher talks to
the class reflects his/her attitude to them not only in what is said, but how it is said.

8. Facial expressions and tone of voice: are as important to communication as making

sure that attention is gained, by getting the class to stop work and listen carefully to what
has to be said.

 Activity 32

1. Compare and contrast the above mentioned preventive techniques for classroom
misbehavior.
2. Identify some preventive techniques for classroom misbehavior which had been used
by your primary and secondary school teachers.

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 Dear learner, assess your level of understanding about the following concepts.

 Insert tick mark in the following table for your own decision.

S. no Main points Yes No

1 Plan
2 Objectives
3 Taxonomies
4 Cognitive domain
5 Psychomotor domain
6 General objectives
7 Specific objectives
8 Interaction
9 Classroom management
10 Misbehavior
11 The LEAST approach
12 Causes of classroom misbehavior
13 Preventive techniques of classroom misbehavior
14 Modeling
15 Styles of leadership
16 Principles of classroom management
17 Humor
18 Visual learner
19 Auditory learner
20 Kinaestatic learner
21 Types of seating arrangement

Unit Summary

An instructional objective is an intent communicated by a statement
describing a proposed change in the learner: a statement of what the student is to be able to
do upon completion of the learning experience. Once teachers have decided the type of
objectives required, they must express them in such a way that they are clearly understood by

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all. Objectives should also be expressed in behavioral terms that can guide teaching and
enabling the teacher to assess whether students have or have not attained them. Since
objectives play such an important role it is essential that they be written in a clear manner. If
there is any doubt about what an objective implies, teaching and learning will be adversely
affected. Clarity is, thus, the name of the game.

For this reason, great emphasis is placed upon the verb that is used verbs like “to
understand” to learn” to know’ are ambiguous. They are alright for an aim or goal, but not for
the more specific objective because they can be interpreted in a number of the more specific
objective because they can be interpreted in a number of ways. They do not suggest what to
look for in a students’ behavior. It is better to use verbs that exactly identify what you want
the student to do. These are called action verbs.

A teacher who does not have a lesson plan will create the following problems:

 Omission of important elements;

 Inaccurate facts taught or accepted as correct;
 Poor timing;
 Lack of logical presentation;
 Lack of interesting details, illustrative materials;
 Boredom and restlessness in class, etc.

Classroom management is a way of creating conducive environment for students’ learning. In

a class where there is disciplinary problem, the attainment of instructional objectives is
questionable. Therefore, the teacher has to be skillful in managing whatever disciplinary
problems may arise in his/her class. The classroom should be a place where a student feels
welcome and at home. Students need to feel safe and accepted, so ridicule and sarcasm are
not allowed. Mutual respect and the golden Rule is the key for maintaining this climate.
Teachers and students must create discipline plans including rules with clear and effective
consequences. The rules should be agreed upon and understood by everyone in the class. It
should be understood that when rules are broken, consequences will be applied fairly and
consistently.

Students will often misbehave if they don’t know exactly what they should do and when.
Teachers can avoid this dilemma by installing class routines and procedures, which allow the
students to begin and complete work expeditiously. Schools exist for the students, and not for

139
the teachers. It is important for the teacher to expend every effort necessary to make the
curriculum relevant, the lessons interesting, and the activities enjoyable. The result will be an
engaged and active participant in the learning process.

Misbehavior is a disruption to my effectiveness as an educator. The time spent dealing with

misbehaving would be better spent teaching the others. Therefore, misbehavior will be dealt
with quickly and consistently with class defined consequences. Be sure you have the
attention of everyone in your classroom before you start your lesson. Don’t attempt to teach
over the chatter of students who are not paying attention. Uncertainty increases the level of
excitement in the classroom. The technique of direct instruction is to being each class by
telling the students exactly what will be happening. The teacher outlines what he and the
students will be doing this period. He may set time limits for some tasks. An effective way to
marry this technique with the first one is to include time at the end of the period for students
to do activities of their choosing. The teacher may finish the description of the hour’s
activities with: “And think we have some time at the end of the period for you chat with your
friends, go to the library, or catch up on work for other classes.”

Self-check exercise

I. Choose the best answer from the given alternatives and circle the letter of
your choice

1. Identify the concept that cannot be classified as preventive technique for disciplinary
problems in the classroom: A. Eye contact B. Over-reacting C .Signal interference
D. Humor

2. Which one of the following concepts can be defined as the process of creating conducive
environment for better learning? A. Instructional planning B .Communication
C. Classroom management D. Instructional media

3. Which one of the following characteristics of instructional planning requires the teacher to
consider the economic level of a country? A. Comprehensiveness B. Simplicity
C. Objectivity D. Flexibility

4. Which one of the following cannot be classified as the major component of a plan?
A. Name of the school B. Methods C. Objectives D. Contents

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5. Which one of the following action verbs is different?
A. Explain B. Identify C. Appreciate D. Compare

6. Identify the third level of the affective domain.

A. organization B. valuing C. responding D. characterization

II .Write short answers to the following questions

1. What are the major causes for classroom misbehaviors?

2. Explain some indicators of effective classroom management.
3. What are the major characteristics of a lesson plan?

Assignment
1. Prepare annual plan in group of four persons and then prepare a periodic

lesson plan individually.
2. Make analysis on the quality of lesson plans by taking sample from nearby primary
schools.

General Approaches/ Methods/ Strategies:

Teaching methods that involve active learning methods shall be employed

 Gapped lecture, buzz group discussion, case studies, field observation, role playing,
Mind map, Games, debating, panel discussion, Dramatization, Experimentation,
Jigsaw, storytelling, etc.

 Facilitator’s activities

 Makes brief presentations on the daily topic(s)

 Groups students and make them discuss on selected items
 Makes a follow-up while they are doing their tasks
 Helps students present their discussion results group by group
 Provides short notes on selected contents
 Assesses each group’s presentation and gives feedback as well as a summary .

 Learners’ Activities
 Attend the presentation and taking notes
 Participate in group discussion and presentation
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  Make self-assessment and peer-assessments
 Ask questions for elaboration while they are working in small group or whole
class.
 Receive feedback and take action for improvement.

Modes of Assessment:
Continuous assessment and summative assessment will be implemented.

 Every student needs to attend for not less than 80% of the course work. Project work
at individual level (20 %), Group work and presentation (10%), At least two tests
(20%), Individual’s contribution in the presentation and discussion session response
(10%) and Final written exam (40%).

Grading System: Criterion referenced

References

Aggarwal, J. C. 1996. Principles, Methods and Techniques of Teaching. New Delhi: Vikas
Publishing House Pvt. Ltd.

Berhane Girmay and Haile G. 2005. Module: General Methods of Teaching. Mekelle
University (unpublished).

Borich, C. D. 1988. Effective Teaching Methods. London: Macmillan publishing company.

Briggs, L. J et al. 1981. Hand book of Procedures for the Design of Instruction, (2 nd ed).
New Jersey: Educational Technology Publications. .

Callahan, J. F. and Clark, L. H. 1988. Teaching in the Middle and Secondary Schools:
Planning for Competence (3rd ed., New York: Macmillan publishing company

Farrant, J. S. 1980. Principles and Practices of Education. (2nd ed). London: Longman
Groups UK Ltd.

Fullan, M. E. 1991. The New Meaning of Educational Change. London: Cassel Educational
Ltd.

Kasambira, K. P. 1993. Lesson Planning and Class Management. London: Longman limited.

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MOE 2011. HDP Handbook. Addis Ababa (unpublished)

Sharma, Y. K. 2006. Sociological Philosophy of Education. New Delhi: Kanishka Publishers.

Tom, V. and Armstrong, D. G. 1987. Effective Teaching in Elementary School Studies. New
York: Macmillan publishing company.

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UNIT SEVEN: Trends of Curriculum Development in Ethiopia (7
Periods)

Introduction

This chapter mainly deals with the historical development of Ethiopian education.
The core areas of discussion embrace indigenous education, religious education, the
introduction of modern education and its characteristics as well as the new education and
training policy of Ethiopia.

Learning Outcomes

At the end of the unit, the trainees will be able to:

 Know the nature of indigenous education in Ethiopia;

 Understand the structures and centers of religious education;
 Know the expansion of modern education in Ethiopia from ancient to present time;
 Appreciate the role of modern education in the development of our country;
 Grasp the roots and manifestations of the new education and training policy of Ethiopia;
 Comprehend the difference, and similarities between the former systems of education
and the new education and training policy of our country.
 Know the nature of curriculum at different periods.

Key Terms: indigenous education, Traditional education

7.1. Traditional Education

Activity 33

1. What is the difference between indigenous education and religious education?

2. When was the introduction of modern education in Ethiopia started?

Traditional education has played a great role in the development of modern education and on
the transmission of cultural heritage to the new generation. In this regard, Ethiopia has a long
and rich history of traditional education. A detail discussion about this issue is presented
hereunder.

Indigenous Education

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Indigenous education is a system of education which is offered by all ethnic and linguistic
groups with the aim of conveying cultural elements to the young generation. It plays a crucial
role in equipping the children with the attitude and skills which are appropriate for male and
female social roles, based on cultural values. Indigenous education gives due attention to the
concrete problems of local communities. It also serves as a source of political leaders and
ordinary farmers from within the community. The Ethiopian nations and nationalities do have
various mechanisms of implementing the indigenous education so as to create members of
the community who respect cultural values.

Activity 34

1. Identify concrete examples from the nations and nationalities of Ethiopia.

2. What are the major merits in indigenous education?

Religious Education

It encompasses Church education and Quatrains education. These types of religious education
are treated in the following manner.

Church Education

According to various sources, Christianity has been introduced to Ethiopia by a pope called
Frumenties from Egypt, Alexandria in 4th century (Aba Selama Kessate Berhane) 330 E.C.
During this period, king Ezana was in power at Axum. He was primarily baptized by Aba
Selama Kessate Berhan. Due to this reason, Ezana is assumed to be the first Christian king in
Ethiopia. According to World Bank (1988:11), church education has founded a
comprehensive system of education that provided Ethiopian cultural, spiritual, literary,
scientific and artistic life. As mentioned by Teshome Wagaw (1979:11), the primary purpose
of the Ethiopian church education was to prepare young men for church services such as
deacons and priests. Church education has also served as the main source for civil servants
such as judges, governors, scribes, treasures and general administrators. Church education
has four major structures (levels). These are:

1. Nibab Bet: is the first level of the Orthodox Church education. It has four sub-levels as
elaborated below:

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 a) Fidel Bet: here, the students are expected to master the 27 alphabets.

b) Apostle (Abugida): the students start reading the first verse of St. John.

c) Acts of the Apostle: Here, the students are expected to read loudly the acts of the
Apostle. The task of the teacher is to clarify the idea.

d) Dawit Bet: the students, here, are expected to mediate the contents of the ‘Dawit’.
The students also develop the skill of how to write a letter.

2. Zema Bet: the following contents are included at this stage: church music (song),
dancing, playing, beating of time and tsome-degua. The zema bet takes seven years for
graduation.

3. Kine Bet: here, the students begin to study ‘Geez’ language learning takes place through
group discussion and criticisms of compositions of a given theme (topic). Some of the
activities (content) include here are: ‘Geez’ grammar, translation of Geez text into
Amharic and composition of verse.

4. Metshaf-Bet: implies higher education. There are four areas of specialization. These are:
the Old Testament, the New Testament, Dogma and philosophy, and astronomy
(astrology).

Though it is usual to specialize in one of the above mention areas, there are scholars who
specialized in two, three or even four. Any person who has succeeded in specializing the four
areas is called as the “four Eyed”.

Quranic/Islamic Education

According to Markosis (1994:156), Quranic education was introduced to Ethiopia during the
7th century. Arab culture and faith were adapted in most of the southern and south east
Ethiopia. Ayalew (1989:31) has mentioned that the operation of Islamic education was
confirmed to the centers of faith due to lack of the church. Like that of church education, the
Quranic education has four phases/structures as discussed here under.

Mejlis Quran: at this phase, the students study the Arabic alphabets. They start writing on a
wooden tablet know as “loh”. The following three aims are expected to be implemented.

These are: learning Arabic letters, reading Quran and recitation of prayers.

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Fiqh: is the second phase where students learn about Islamic laws; the contents to be covered
are: religious, political and civic life.

Nehawiya: is also called as the grammar school. The expected major contents are: Arabic
terminology, Arabic grammatical rules and usage, sentence construction, meaning and usage
of Quranic terminology.

Tefsir Quran: Tefsir means reparation, commentary particularly on Quranic and the sacked
books. Here, the students learn and practice the translation of Quranic literature into
vernacular languages.

Activity 35

1.What is the principal medium of instruction in the Orthodox Church education system?

2.List the major factors that affected the expansion of Islamic education in Ethiopia

3. How do you evaluate the contribution or religious education to the development of

modern education?

7.2 Development of Modern Education in Ethiopia

7.2.1 The History of Ethiopia Education Before the 20th century.

Activity 7.4

1. Discuss the nature of education in Ethiopia before the 20th century.

2. What was the core objective of the mission school?

Western education was introduced into Ethiopia through Portuguese missionaries,

starting from the 16th century. The first group of missionaries was Portuguese Jesuit
missionaries. They opened Catholic schools and taught reading, writing, arithmetic and the
Catholic faith. The students were taught to read and write both in Amharic and Portuguese. In
1632, the Portuguese missionaries were expelled from Ethiopia. The years from 1632 to 1769
were a period of isolation and as a result no missionary was allowed to enter Ethiopia. Fear of
Jesuit intervention was a factor in creating a climate of isolation. This fear kept Ethiopia
badly closed to missionary activities for over a century. With the opening of the Suez canal

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(1869), the 19th century marked the coming of many protestant and catholic missionaries.
They engaged in certain amount of teaching. Books were translated into Geez and Amharic.

Secular books like spelling and reading books, geography and history books were translated.
Secular books are books pertaining to worldly things or things that are not regarded as
religious, spiritual, or sacred. Missionaries like Isen Berg and Krapf (1830), the Lazarist
father, father from Italy (1847) and the Sedish Evangelical mission had organized some
schools in Ethiopia. Increasing foreign contacts in the 19 th century resulted in sending some
Ethiopians to abroad in countries like France, India, England, Rome, etc. They were sent for
religious studies.

Tewodros II (1855-1868) was highly interested to introduce western civilization and

education. But because of misunderstanding, Tewodros imprisoned the missionaries. This led
grave conflict with the British which precipitated the battle of Maquedella. Missionaries were
welcomed during the regime of Menilik II and schools began educational works. The
government confined to the places where the Coptic church had not strongly extended its
educational influence. The aim of mission education was to convert the student or to qualify
him for the conservation or others. Generally, the objective of the missionaries was religious.
By 1935, it was reported that 43 mission schools operated by commission organizations were
in existence in Ethiopia (Tegegne Bayou et al., 1999-2000).

7.2.2 The development of Modern Education During the 20th century.

Activity 36

Why do you think the introduction of modern education to Ethiopia was failed before
the 20th century? Explain briefly by considering the objective reality of the then Ethiopia?

It is appropriate to trace the historical background of modern education in

Ethiopia so as to understand how it went about at various phases. As whole, the
victory of Adwa (1896) and the foundation of Addis Ababa have witnessed new
developments. According to Tegegne et al. (1999-200:84-86) the historical development of
modern education from French period to the Derge period is discussed in detail as follow:

 French Influence (1906-1935)

The first modern government school was opened in 1905 in Addis Ababa. The name of the
school is Menelik II primary school. The second modern government school which was

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opened in 1925 in Addis is said to be Teferi Mokonen. The expansion of modern schools also
continued to Harar, Dessie, Ankober, Jima, Debremarkos, Gonder, Awassa. Egyptian Coptic
teachers were used.

The schools served for teaching languages such as French English, Italian and Arabic. The
medium of instruction was French language because of its dominant influence. In other
words, Ethiopia had adopted the French system of education. Elementary students had
annually to sit at the French Legation for French government examination of competence.
Many students were sent to colleges in Marseilles, French. By 1935, there were 21
government schools on function with a total enrollment of 4,200 students. Diribsa Defera et
al. (1990) have pointed out that modern education officially commenced in 1908 marking
significant step in the history of education in Ethiopia.

 Italian Influence (1936-1941)

During the Italian invasion, all schools were closed. The buildings in some cases were used
for Italian troops and later taken over for Italian children. The pre-war education system was
changed. Education during the Italian war was political in nature. The Italians were interested
to build up the youth with education centered on their political ideology. During this period,
the native education was restricted to elementary schools. The curriculum was designed to
train people who can handle manual labour and also to foster loyalty to the Italian
government. This instructional process focused on the following areas: language, agriculture
and crafts.

 British Influence (1941-1952)

In 1941, Ethiopia regained its independence with the help of Great Britain. The end of the
war ushered in a new educational era. The main concentration was the production of teachers
and various personnel for the state machinery. This was done mainly with British assistance,
during which English become the medium of instruction. In 1943 the first secondary school
was inaugurated and teacher training schools were opened. The curriculum, the structure and
textbooks used were that of British East Africa and students were prepared for the London
certificate examination (GCE).

 American Influence (1952-1974)

The primary, Junior, and senior secondary structure was adopted in 1962 and Amharic
replaced English as medium of instruction up to grade six. Attempts to produce national
curriculum and to expand primary education were made. Secondary schools were opened in

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provincial capital and Awrajas. A national University called Haile Selassie I University
college (the present Addis Ababa University, 6 killo campus) was opened in 1950 and higher
education system began to develop thereafter.

A low cost teacher supply was organized by the Ethiopian University service which imposed
one year’s teaching in secondary schools. However, in 1961 UNESCO sponsored conference
on education in Africa which took place in Addis Ababa revealed Ethiopian’s poor
educational progress.

The dramatic expansion of education not withstanding Ethiopia was very far from meeting
the target of Universal primary education set out by the conference on African education. By
1974 primary education was accessible to only 12 percent of the primary schools age
population.

 The Derge (Military) Period (1974-1991)

The derge regime influence began in 1974. The education system was under the
influence of the Soviet Union. An attempt was made to establish a socialist education system.
To this effect, curriculum was developed and textbooks were prepared. The attention of
teachers and students was directed to political and propaganda activities. During this period,
quality education deteriorated. Marxist-Leninist philosophy was the central theme that guided
the political, economic and social life of the country.

The curriculum during this period was highly politicized that students were required to take
courses in political education. The education system of the Derg regime was influenced by
several factors. These factors included the strong determination and commitment of the Derg
government for expanding the communist ideology and the development of curriculum based
on the philosophy of Eastern European education system. Consequently, the overall
education system was aimed towards the attainment of communist ideology. This view was
articulated through National Democratic Revolution in 1976, General Directives of Ethiopian
Education in 1980, and the guidelines of the Working Party of Ethiopia in 1984.

Under the Derg, Eastern European governments (East Germany, Bulgaria, Hungary, etc)
served the Ethiopian government as policy advisors.

The central theme of the Eastern European Socialist ideology was "serving better the interests
of the masses and enhance its contribution towards the establishment of a socialist society".
As a result, the education system of the country strongly followed the Eastern European
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educational system and the aims, content, and materials of education were designed in
alignment with socialist principles. The fundamental aim of education was to cultivate
Marxist-Leninist ideology in the young generation, to develop knowledge in science and
technology, in the new culture and arts, and to integrate and coordinate research with
production to enable the revolution to move forward and to secure a productive citizenry.
These broad objectives were later summarized into three slogans, namely, “Education for
production, for scientific research, and for political consciousness."

Some specific aims of this educational system were:

 Eradicating illiteracy through the provision of universal education to the public

masses.

 Providing schooling to help citizens develop their consciousness, participating in class

struggle, and using the principles of Marxism and Leninism.

 Enabling students to acquire and own progressive cultures so that they abide by the
principles of socialist morality and discipline.

 Providing education that would enhance scientific research and practice so that
students would be able to integrate theory with practice, know their environment, and
the society in which they live.

 Providing education that liberates the society from primitive systems of production by
producing manpower trained in various professional disciplines.

It was believed that a student developed by these educational objectives would not have a
narrow academic education, nor be a producer alone. He would be provided with academic
and a productive education. He would be a humane and productive worker. He would not be
living on the produce of others, nor would he be dependent on others for his livelihood. This
statement implies that the schools were supposed to consider the relevance of the curriculum
to producing a workforce in the attempt to create a modernized Ethiopia. To implement these
new socialist ideas, a task force was set up with the aim of revising the curriculum to align
with the new educational goals. The new curriculum was referred to as the Transitional
Curriculum. General polytechnic education, with the aim of producing middle-level trained
manpower, was proposed to ameliorate the problem of unemployment of graduates of
secondary education.

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However, a lack of sufficient financial investment and the downfall of the communist
ideology led to the collapse of the programme in the late 1980s. The reasons for the failure of
polytechnic education were not well documented. Aside from the government’s
announcement that the programmme was discontinued due to budgetary problems, the pros
and cons of the programme were not studied. Even the schools which were serving as
experimental sites did not have the necessary data. This period brought a dramatic increase in
enrollment at primary and secondary schools. One of the immediate measures taken by the
revolutionary regime was to address the issue of primary education. Accordingly, in a policy
directive issued on December 20th, 1974, it was proclaimed that "under the banner of
education for all" citizens shall have the right to free fundamental education.

On the basis of this declaration, the Ministry of Education took a step to reconcile its
educational priorities so as to advance universal primary education within the shortest period
of time using the available resources. To accomplish this educational reform, the Ministry of
Education designed a new curriculum, developed new textbooks, teachers' guides, and other
materials for nearly all subjects and grades of the regular schools. The instructional materials
were produced in consonance with government guidelines, the National Democratic
Revolution Programme, and later on the Workers Party of Ethiopia's Programme, the 10-
years Economic and Social Development, Prospective Plan and other economic, political,
social and cultural proclamations. Proclamation No. 103 of 1976 ensured the public
ownership of schools to reconcile the management of schools with the socialist system of
ownership. However, some schools for the children of the politicians and wealthy families
remained free from government control. Consequently, there was a difference in the quality
of education for upper class and lower class children, reflecting the idea that in any society,
education serves the dominant class.

One of the significant contributions of the Derg regime was its launching of a vigorous
national campaign against illiteracy in 1979. By July 1990, which marked the Eleventh
Anniversary of the Literacy Campaign, a 75.3 percent national literacy rate was reported. The
reduction in illiteracy rate from 95 percent at the start of the Ethiopian National Literacy
Campaign (ENLC) to 24.7 is certainly an outstanding achievement. In terms of expansion,
the number of primary schools increased at a high rate in all parts of the country. The national
enrollment rate reached 34.1 percent. The slogan of the Ethiopian government was to spread
education as much as possible and the nation’s economic and social development problems
would take care of themselves. Though a quantifiable expansion of the educational system on
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face value appears to be quite impressive, significant problems lie behind the figures. Firstly,
it was not possible to make education equitably accessible to all regions.

The southern part of the country received greater educational resources than the northern part.
Secondly, the quality of education had gradually started to deteriorate, due to a number of
factors. For example, the meagre educational resources had to be thinly spread because of the
uncontrolled expansion of schools. Most of the literature indicates that educational quality
was decreasing as compared with the previous periods.

These problems were identified by the Derg government, including a review of the country’s
economic and educational needs. The review was primarily aimed at solving the problems
created in the employment sector due to rapid expansion of secondary schools. To address
this concern, the government passed a resolution to expand technical and vocational
education to meet the employment demands of the country. Soon after the resolution, the
MOE initiated a project known as The Evaluation Research on the General Education System
of Ethiopia (ERGESE). The evaluation of the education sector was carried out by four
committees organized from MOE and Addis Ababa University. The study focused on
curriculum development and teaching, learning process, educational administration, structure
and planning, educational logistics, supportive services, and manpower training and
educational evaluation and research. The major findings of the study were:

 Though the syllabus of secondary school subjects reflected the national objectives;
textbooks do not reflect national educational objectives and they focus on the
instruction itself rather than learning dimensions.

 The subjects suffer either from lack of clarity, coherence, and consistency of content,
or from poor style of presentation.

 Amharic as a medium of instruction in the primary school (grade 1-6) has created
difficulties for students whose mother tongue is not Amharic.

 Using English as medium of instruction from grades seven to twelve created

difficulties for both teachers and students.

 The educational structures, namely primary (grade 1-6), junior secondary (7-8) and
senior Secondary (9-12), are not satisfactorily integrated and coordinated.

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  The expansion of the education system is not in accordance with the economic
resources and capability of the state.

 The problem of Ethiopian education is a result of poor textbooks, lack of instruments

and widespread incompetence among teaching staff.

Most of the recommendations forwarded by the ERGESE were already considered by the Ten
Year National Perspective Plan (1984-1994). Consequently, the recommendations were not
implemented. The Derge education system was somewhat inhibited by problems such as
budget shortfalls, which in turn affected the supply of basic educational materials including
textbooks and a shortage of qualified teachers both at primary and secondary schools. To
resolve the problem of the shortage of qualified teachers, the government took an aggressive
measure by recruiting 5,500 untrained teachers, recruited immediately after the completion of
12 grade. It is not difficult to imagine how the huge recruitment of untrained teachers affected
the quality of education. But, this measure has to be seen from its contribution to the
expansion of education to the rural part of the country and equal educational opportunity for
all. To resolve the problem of teachers’ qualification at elementary level, the government
designed a summer program, lasting over three years, to certify teachers. This strategy
continues to be employed as one of the mechanisms to train teachers at the primary and
secondary levels today.

7.3 The Current Education and Training Policy (1991----)

Activity 37

1. What are the major elements contained in the Current Education and Training Policy
document of Ethiopia.

2. List the core reasons for launching the Current Education and Training Policy of Ethiopia.

Education enables individuals and society to make all-rounded participation in

the development process by acquiring knowledge, ability, skills and attitudes.

The current Education and Training Policy of Ethiopia was set with a major objective of
education aimed at strengthening the individuals and society’s problem-solving capacity, and
developing the ability and culture starting from basic education to all levels. The education
policy has several general and specific objectives which include: enabling citizens to identify
harmful traditions and replace them by useful ones; helping the citizens to improve, change,

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develop and conserve his environment for the purpose of an all-rounded development by
diffusing science and technology into the society; playing a role in the promotion of respect
for human rights and democratic values; and creating the condition for quality, mutual
understanding and cooperation among people.

Education does not operate in isolation; rather it has to be integrated with research, practice
and development to contribute towards an all-rounded development of society. The policy
was established with the awareness of the country’s education problems of relevance, quality,
accessibility and equity. The current objectives of education are set considering the society’s
needs and with the intention to indicate future direction. The education system had faced
problems of inadequate facilities, insufficient training of teachers, overcrowded classes,
shortage of books and other teaching materials, all indicate the low quality of education
provided.

The gross participation rate at the primary education was below 22% of the relevant age
cohort. Of these a large number discontinues and relapse is high. Illiteracy is an overall
problem of the society. Opportunities for high school education and technical and vocational
training were limited to big towns. Higher education institutions were found only in very few
regions, and they were overcrowded and their research capacity was very low. The necessary
infrastructure to provide relevant quality education to the rural population, which is over
eighty-five percent of the population of the country, was at an insignificant level of
development. With the awareness of these complex problems, the transitional government of
Ethiopia has embarked on charting the right direction of development to break the vicious
circle we have been entangled in. Education, as a very important factor to human
development is of a high priority in the overall development endeavor of the government.
Hence, it requires an appropriate direction to set a new process in motion and change the
alarming situation. For this, a comprehensive education and training policy formulated.

The policy encompasses overall and specific objectives, implementation strategies, including
formal and non formal education, from kindergarten to higher education and special
education.

It emphasizes the development of problem solving capacity and culture in the content of
education, curriculum structure and approach, focusing on the acquisition of scientific
knowledge and practicum. Along with this, it directs that there be appropriate nexus between

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education, training, research and development through coordinated participation among the
relevant organizations.

The policy incorporates the structure of education in relation to the development of students
profile, educational measurements and evaluation, media of instruction and language teaching
at various levels, the recruitment, training, methodology, organization, professional ethics
and career development of teachers.

Due attention is also given to the provision and appropriate usage of educational facility,
technology, materials, environment, organization and management so as to strengthen the
teaching-learning process and expansion of education. The evaluation of a decentralized,
efficient and professionally coordinated participatory system is indicated in respect of
administration and management of the education system. It is also stated that the financing of
education be just, efficient and appropriate to promote equity and quality of education.

Overall, the education and training policy envisage bringing-up citizen endowed with human
outlook, countrywide responsibility and democratic value having developed the necessary
productive, creative and appreciating capacity in order to participate fruitfully in development
and the utilization of resources and the environment at large.

Summary

In Ethiopia, traditional education has played a great role in the development of modern
education and on the transmission of cultural heritage to the new generation. Indigenous
education is an education which is offered by all ethnic groups with the aim of conveying
cultural elements to the young generation. Indigenous education in Ethiopia includes church
education (i.e. Orthodox Church education) and Quranic/Islamic education.

The four major structures in church education are nibab bet (includes: fidel bet, apostel, acts
of apostle and dawit bet), Zema bet, kine bet, and metshaf bet. Quranic education has four
structures such as: mejilis quran, fiqh, nehawiya and tefsir quran.

The development of modern education in Ethiopia was influenced by France, Italy, Britain,
America and by socialist oriented system. The new educational structure of Ethiopia
constitutes basic, general higher and specialized education on formal and non-formal bases.

The core overall strategies of the current Education and Training Policy of Ethiopia includes
the curriculum, educational structure, educational measurement and evaluation, teachers,

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language and education, educational support inputs, educational organization and
management, and educational finance.

Self-test Exercises for unit seven

I. Choose the best answer from the given alternatives and circle the letter of your
choice.

1. Which one of the following is unique to the current education and training policy of
Ethiopia?
A. Using mother tongue language as medium of instruction
B. Using English language as medium of instruction
C. Using formal curriculum
D. Using professional teachers

2. When was modern education introduced in Ethiopia?

A. 18th century B. 19th century C. 20th century D. 17th century

3. The second level of church education is________________.

A. Kene bet B. Metshaf bet C. Nibab bet D. Zema bet

4. Identify the problem of educational system during the Derge regime:

A. Equity B. Relevance C. Access D all

II. Give detail answers to the following questions

1. Compare and contrast the four structures of Quranic education with the recommended
level of church education.

2. Discuss the contribution of Indigenous education in Ethiopia using concrete examples

from nations and nationalities context.

 General approaches/methods/strategies: Teaching methods that involve active learning

methods shall be employed: Gapped lecture, buzz group discussion, case studies, field
observation, role playing, Mind map, Games, debating, panel discussion, Dramatization,
Experimentation, Jigsaw, storytelling, etc.

 Instructor’s activities

 Makes brief presentations on the daily topic(s)

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  Groups students and make them discuss on selected items
 Makes a follow-up while they are doing their tasks
 Helps students present their discussion results group by group
 Provides short notes on selected contents
 Assesses each group’s presentation and gives feedback as well as a summary.

Students’ activities

 Attend the presentation and taking notes

 Participate in group discussion and presentation
 Make self-assessment and peer-assessments
 Ask questions for elaboration while they are working in small group or whole class.
 Receive feedback and take action for improvement.

 Modes of assessment: Continuous assessment and summative assessment will be

implemented.

 Every student needs to attend for not less than 80% of the course work. Project work
at individual level (20 %), Group work and presentation (10%), At least two tests
(20%), Individual’s contribution in the presentation and discussion session response
(10%) and Final written exam (40%).

Grading System: Criterion referenced

References

Alemayehu Bishaw (2012). “Journal of African Nebula, Issue 5” USA: Texas State
University.

Derbessa Dufera (2004). Fundamentals of Curriculum Development: Addis Ababa

Printing Press, Addis Ababa University.

St. Mary’s College (2005). Curriculum Studies Module, (Handbook for Distance Material).
Addis Ababa, unpublished.

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