COSC 50
MODULE 5: SET THEORY
SET THEORY
➔ Set Theory is an important language
and tool for reasoning.
➔ The foundation of mathematics.
➔ Basic building block for types of
objects in Discrete Mathematics.
➔ The basis of several other fields of
study like counting theory, relations,
graph theory, and finite state
machines.
➔ Georg Ferdinand Ludwig Philipp
Cantor (March 3, 1845 - January 6,
1918) played a pivotal role in the
creation of set theory.
➔ Cantor established the importance of
one-to-one correspondence between
the members of two sets, defined
infinite and well-ordered sets, and
proved that the real numbers are
more numerous than the natural
numbers.
➔ Cantor's method of proof of this
theorem implies the existence of an
infinity of infinities. He defined the
cardinal and ordinal numbers and
their arithmetic.
SET
➔ A set is any well-defined collection,
group, list, or class of distinct
objects, called elements that share a
common characteristic. Sets are
usually named using capital letters.
➔ Each member is said to belong to the
set.
➔ Elements of a set are represented by
lowercase letters.
➔ The symbol ∈ means “belongs to” or
“is an element of” or “is a member of
the set”.
➔ Set of natural numbers (N) - 1, 2, 3, 4
➔ Set of integers (Z) - negatives and
zeros, –3, –2, –1, 0, 1, 2, 3
➔ Set of rational numbers (Q) -
numbers of the form a/b where a and
b are integers with b ≠ 0, 1/2, 5 = 5/1,
–22/7, 0/19,
➔ All integers are rational numbers, but
some rational numbers are not
integers.
➔ Set of real numbers (R) - include
both rational and irrational numbers,
e.g. fractions, integers
➔ Set of irrational numbers (P) - all real
numbers which are not rational, such
as √2, π.
 ➔ Set of even numbers (Ɛ) - elements
0, ±2, ±4, ±6, 2n for some integer n.
➔ Set of odd numbers (℧) - ±1, ±3, ±5,
2n + 1 for some integer n.
SETS SYMBOLS
➔ B = Boolean values = {true, false}
➔ N = natural numbers = {0, 1, 2, 3,}
➔ Z = integers = {−3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, }
➔ Z + = Z≥1 = positive integers = {1, 2,}
➔ R = set of real numbers
➔ R + = R>0 = set of + real numbers
➔ C = set of complex numbers
➔ Q = set of rational numbers
DEALING WITH LOGICAL CONDITIONS
➔ symbol ∀ - “for all” or “for any”
➔ symbol ∃ - “there exists”
➔ negation ∃ - “there does not exist”
DEALING WITH ELEMENTS & SETS
➔ ∈ - element is in a set
➔ ∈/ - element is not in a set
➔ ⊆ - containment of sets
➔ - non-containment of sets
➔ - proper containment of sets
➔ ∅ - empty set
➔ ∪ - union
➔ ∩ - intersection
➔ \ - remove from a set
SET NOTATION
➔ used in mathematics to list numbers,
objects and outcomes using curly
braces or brackets.
WAYS OF DEFINING SET
1. ROSTER NOTATION OR TABULAR
FORM/LISTING METHOD
➔ elements of a set are listed or
enumerated and enclosed by braces.
➔ element is separated by commas.
➔ e.g. B = {m, t, h, c, s}
2. DESCRIPTIVE FORM
➔ state the elements of a set in words
or their common characteristics
➔ e.g. B = set of odd numbers from 2 to
10
3. SET BUILDER FORM OR RULE
METHOD
➔ used by describing the elements of a
given set clearly.
➔ The set builder notation, {x/P(x)}, is
used to represent any given set.
➔ {x/P(x)} is read as “the set of all x
such that”.
➔ e.g. B = {x/x ε a consonants in the
word Mathematics}
KINDS OF SET SUBSETS AND SET EQUALITY
1. FINITE SET ➔ Set A is a subset of set B if every
➔ it is possible to list and count all the element of A is also an element of B.
members of the set. ➔ Two sets of A and B are equal if they
➔ Example: have the same elements.
D is the set of the days of the week
D = {Sunday, Monday, Tuesday, PROPER SUBSET
Wednesday, Thursday, Friday, ➔ A is a proper subset of B if A ⊆ B and
Saturday, Sunday} A ≠ B.
➔ denoted by "⊂" that means "is a
2. INFINITE SET proper subset of"
➔ it is NOT possible to list and count all ➔ Example: If A={1,3,5} then B={1,5} is a
the members of the set. proper subset of A.
➔ Example:
E is the set of even numbers greater SET CARDINALITY
than 9. ➔ The cardinality of a finite set S, is the
E = {10, 12, 14, 16, ...} number of distinct elements of S.
➔ denoted by |S|
3. EMPTY SET ➔ Example: {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} = 5
➔ a set which has no members.
➔ denoted by the symbol {} or ∅. POWER SETS
➔ The set of all subsets of a set S is
4. SINGLETON SET called the power set of S.
➔ is a set that contains exactly one ➔ Denoted by P(S) or 2^S
element. ➔ Example: A = {1, 2} is P(A) = {{}, {1},
➔ also known as the unit set. {2}, {1, 2}}
➔ e.g. A = {10}
UNIVERSAL SET
➔ a set which contains all objects,
including itself
➔ Example: A = {1,2,3} B = {1,a,b,c}
U = {1,2,3,a,b,c}
EMPTY SET OR NULL SET DIFFERENCE OF SETS
➔ a set with no elements ➔ difference of A and B
➔ denoted by the symbol { } or ∅ ➔ denoted by A - B
➔ Example: E = {x/x is a whole number ➔ the set containing those elements
between 1 and 2} that are in A but not in B
E = { } or Ø ➔ the difference of A and B is also
called the complement of B with
DISJOINT SET respect to A
➔ two sets that have no elements in ➔ Example: if A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} and B =
common {3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8}, then find A – B and B
➔ the intersection of the two sets are – A. A – B is {1, 2} and B – A is {7, 8}
empty set
➔ Example: S = {2, 4, 6, 8} COMPLEMENTS OF SETS
T = {1, 3, 5, 7} ➔ the complement of set A
➔ denoted by A’
UNION SETS ➔ the set of all elements in the
➔ union of A and B universal set that are NOT in A.
➔ denoted by A ∪ B ➔ Example: U = {2,4,6,8,10,12} and A =
➔ the set that contains elements that {4,6,8}, then the complement of set A
are either in A or in B, or in both is A′ = {2,10,12}.
➔ Example: A = {1,2} ∪ B {2,3} = {1,2,3}

INTERSECTION OF SETS
➔ intersection of A and B
➔ denoted by A ∩ B
➔ the set that contains elements that
are in both A and B
➔ Example: if A = {1,2,3,4,5} and B =
{3,4,6,8}, then A ∩ B = {3,4}
MODULE 6: RELATION AND FUNCTION
RELATION
➔ a collection of ordered pairs that
contain elements from one set to the
other set
➔ a relationship between sets of values
➔ relation between the x-values and
y-values of ordered pairs
➔ ordered pairs =
{(1,2),(-3,4),(5,6),(-7,8),(9,2)}
TYPES OF RELATION
IDENTITY RELATION
➔ every element of a set is related to
itself only
➔ Example: if set A = {a, b, c}, the
identity relation will be I = {a, a}, {b, b},
{c, c}
➔ I = {(a, a), a ∈ A}
INVERSE RELATION
➔ a set has elements which are inverse
pairs of another set.
➔ Example: if set A = {(a, b), (c, d)}, then
the inverse relation will be R-1 = {(b,
a), (d, c)}.
➔ R-1 = {(b, a): (a, b) ∈ R}
REFLEXIVE RELATION
➔ every element maps to itself
➔ Example: set A =
1, 2,}. The reflexive relation will be R = {(1, 1),
(2, 2), (1, 2), (2, 1)}.
➔ (a, a) ∈ R
SYMMETRIC RELATION
➔ if a=b is true then b=a is also true
➔ A relation R is symmetric only if (b, a)
∈ R is true when (a,b) ∈ R.
➔ Example: R = {(1, 2), (2, 1)} for a set A
= {1, 2}.
➔ aRb ⇒ bRa, ∀ a, b ∈ A
TRANSITIVE RELATION
➔ if (x, y) ∈ R, (y, z) ∈ R, then (x, z) ∈ R
➔ aRb and bRc ⇒ aRc ∀ a, b, c ∈ A
EQUIVALENCE RELATION
➔ If a relation is reflexive, symmetric
and transitive at the same time
FUNCTION
➔ defined as
➔ is a relationship from elements of
one set X to elements of another set
Y (empty sets)
➔ X is the domain
➔ Y is the codomain of function ‘f’ 2. ONTO FUNCTION (SURJECTIVE)

➔ Function ‘f’ is a relation on X and Y ➔ If every element b in B has a

➔ For each x ∈ X, there exists y ∈ Y, corresponding element a in A such

such that (x,y) ∈ R that f(a) = b.

➔ x is called pre-image ➔ It is not required that a is unique.

➔ y is called image of function ‘f’ ➔ The function f may map one or more

➔ Domain and co-domain – if f is a elements of A to the same element of

function from set A to set B, then A is B.

called Domain and B is called

co-domain.
➔ Range – Range of f is the set of all
images of elements of A. Basically,
Range is a subset of a co-domain.
➔ Image and Preimage – b is the image
of a and a is the preimage of b if
3. ONE TO ONE CORRESPONDENCE
f(a) = b.
FUNCTION (BIJECTIVE/INVERTIBLE)
➔ if it is both one to one and onto
TYPES OF FUNCTION
function.
1. ONE TO ONE FUNCTION (INJECTIVE)
➔ if for all elements a and b in A, if f(a)
= f(b), then it must be the case that
a = b.
➔ It never maps distinct elements of its
domain to the same element of its
co-domain.
 4. INVERSE FUNCTIONS
➔ Bijection functions are also known as
invertible functions because they
have inverse function properties.
➔ The inverse of bijection f is denoted
as f -1 .
➔ It is a function which assigns to b, a
unique element such that f(a) = b.
hence f1 (b) = a.
NOTE:
★ A function is one to one if it is either
strictly increasing or strictly
decreasing.
★ One to one function never assigns
the same value to two different
domain elements.
★ For onto function, range and
co-domain are equal.
★ If a function f is not bijective, the
inverse function of f cannot be
defined.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN RELATION AND
FUNCTION
★ All functions are relations, but not all
relations are functions.
★ The difference between a relation
and a function is that a relationship
can have many outputs for a single
input, but a function has a single
input for a single output. This is the
basic factor to differentiate between
relation and function.
★ Relations are used, so those model
concepts are formed. Relations give
a sense of meaning like “greater
than,” “is equal to,” or even “divides.”
MODULE 7: COMBINATORICS
COMBINATORICS
➔ the study of collections of objects,
specifically counting objects,
arrangement, derangement, etc.,
along with their mathematical
properties.
PRINCIPLE OF INCLUSION-EXCLUSION
(PIE)
➔ computes a number of elements that
satisfy at least one of several
properties and prevents double
counting entry.
➔ Let A, B, be subsets of a finite set U

PRODUCT RULE
➔ if two events are not mutually
exclusive
➔ Product Rule Theorem: A procedure
can be accomplished with two
disjoint subtasks if there are:
● n1 ways of doing the
first task PERMUTATION
● n2 ways of doing the ➔ a set of distinct objects is an ordered
second task arrangement of these objects.
➔ |A × B| = |A| |B| ➔ an ordered arrangement of r
elements of a set of n elements is
SUM RULE called an r-permutation
➔ Sum Rule Theorem: If an event e1
can be done in n1 ways, an event e2 ➔

can be done in n2 ways, and e1 and

e2 are mutually exclusive, then the
number of ways of both events
occurring is n1+n2.
➔ If A ∩ B = ∅, then |A ∪ B| = |A| + |B|
PROBABILITY
➔ branch of mathematics concerning
numerical descriptions of how likely
an event is to occur, or how likely it is
that a proposition is true
➔ a number between 0 and 1, where,
roughly speaking, 0 indicates
impossibility of the event and 1
indicates certainty.
➔ the ratio of the number of ways a
certain event can occur to the
number of possible outcomes
➔ Formula:
➔ Experiment: a repeatable procedure
with a set of possible results.
➔ Outcome: A possible result of an
experiment.
➔ Sample Space: all the possible
outcomes of an experiment.
➔ Sample Point: just one of the
possible outcomes
➔ Event: one or more outcomes of an
experiment

➔ The formula defines the likelihood of

the happening of an event. The
formula to calculate the probability of
an event is equivalent to the ratio of
favorable outcomes to the total
number of outcomes. Probabilities
always range between 0 and 1.