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Population
Terms:
* birth rate
o the number of babies born per thousand people in the population per year
* death rate
o the number of deaths per 1000 people

* natural increase / decrease

o nat. increase: the nat. growth in population (excess of births over deaths)
o nat. decrease: the same; excess of deaths over births
* net migration
o the figure obtained from the number of immigrants (ppl. entering) - number of
emigrants (ppl. leaving)
* life expectancy
o the length of time a person born in a given area can expect to live
* dependent pop.
o the pop. that depends on the adult working population to support it economically
* sex ratio
o the no. of males per 100 females in a population
males�100\females
Birth Rate Factors
1. govt. policies
explanation
* Governments launch policies to control birth rate
* There are incentives for people who reach children quota such as salary bonus
and/or access to education., healthcare., transport. etc.
* This is a disadvantage for people with too many children
* They will have a salary decrease, have their career or education pathways
blocked, or a financial aid decrease
* Governments also launch propaganda to slowly change couples� mindsets through
posters, magazines, or TV.
* They also sell more baby / family planning products (family planning)
example
* govt. afraid of overpopulation as it obstructs economic growth
* It is widely publicised in mass media
* Government gives rewards such as:
o 10% salary inc.
o childcare leave, no-pay leave
o part-time work in the public sector guaranteed
o more childcare centres
o housing & pri-sch. reg. priority
* disincentives:
o fines + annual tax
female Edu.
explanation
* more focus on career/Edu.
o dec. time to care for children ? dec. time for career
o dec. age of marriage ? inc. repro age
o maternity ? dec. time for career
o less willing to care for children ? don�t have children ? b/r dec.
* material desire, industrialisation
example
* sg. fem. lit. rate: 74% (1980) ? 96.1% (2019)
* b/r: 16.967 ? 8.067 (per 1000)
Culture
* ppl. in rural areas, farming
o children are a valuable source of labour
o more children to work
o make more babies
* men are the breadwinners / accorded more respect and importance
o men carry on the family line
o children reflect parents� virility
o birth rate also high
* religion
o roman cath. church opposes use of artificial means of birth control
example
* 84% of people are roman catholic
* pop. growth rate: 2.4% (1990s)
* one of the highest pop. growths in asia
*
Death Rate Factors
1. Improved standard of living
* improvements in:
o medical facilities, healthcare
o housing
o hygiene, water supply, sanitation & nutrition
* rubbish disposal + cleanliness of areas
* H2O supply, sewage
* less likely to fall sick ? dec. d/r
* tpt. facils.
* better econ., better food prod�n.
politics
* war
o mass conscription ? more men die @ war (d/r inc.)
o destruction of homes ? civilians die
o poor facilities (wartime rations, unclean water & home)
* fall sick easily w/o treatment ? (d/r inc.)
pop. pyramid

1. stage 1
o concave shape
o broad base (high b/r)
o narrow peak (high d/r)
o famine, war, infectious disease
o no country�is at stage 1
2. stage 2
o triangle shape
o broad base (high b/r)
o slightly broader peak (d/r dec.)
o most LDCs
3. stage 3
o bell shape
o narrower base (b/r dec.)
o broader peak (d/r dec.)
o some LDCs
4. stage 4
o bell (narrower bottom)
o narrower base (b/r dec.)
o broader peak (d/r dec.)
o most DCs
5. stage 5
o very narrow base
o very broad peak
o few DCS
challenges faced (ageing pop.)
impacts
* inc. resources spent on healthcare
* inc. strain of working class
o resources diverted
* labour $ [shortage of young working pop.]
* dec. productivity
o most of the working population old ? not much work done
* insufficient young to defend country
solutions
labour shortage
* inc. retirement age ? pop. work for more years
o possible due to inc. life expectancy
* draw women back into labour force
o incentives (home-based, part-time, flexi arrangements, childcare subsidies,
exemption for maid levies)
financial schemes
* enable pop. to save for retirement
healthy lifestyle
* prevent from degenerating mentally & physically
* NTUC organises grp. activities (e.g. dances, runs for the elderly)
elderly-friendly features in homes
* hand-rails ? help elderly move around
* ramps / sliding chairs ? wheelchair users
* emergency btn. / card ? summon help if needed
charitable organisations
* raise funds with govt. support (SG)
* subsidised / free medical check-ups (medisave)
housing
impacts of housing shortage
lack of safe shelter
* houses made in�slums�and�squatter settlements�have weak foundations
* unstable walls & roofs made of poor quality materials (e.g. zinc and cardboard)
* houses collapse easily during natural disasters (floods, earthquakes)
* construction materials are also flammable ? inc. risk of fire
* houses built on unsuitable sites (low-lying areas [flood], steep slopes
[landslide])
* houses built in dense, disorderly manner
o narrow paths, limited access for vehicles
o residents may not be able to evacuate quickly, rescue efforts hampered
insufficient basic services
* people lack access to basic services (eg. electricity, clean water, proper
sanitation, waste disposal)
* lack of infrastructure (power lines, water pipes, toilets, waste mgmt. facil.)
* example:�Nairobi, Kenya
o lack of proper sanitation
o toilet shared by up to 1300 residents
o access to water is inconsistent
* water piped into the slum is often diverted away by indiv. residents / private
water companies
o waste accumulates in streets & rivers
* lack of waste disposal facilities
causes of housing shortage
rapid pop. growth
* urbanisation: inc. in proportion of the world�s pop. living in cities
o urban pop. inc.; rural pop. dec.
o asia & africa projected to exp. the largest inc. in % of pop. in urban areas
* rapid pop. growth ? inc. demand for housing
* inc. in urban pop. ? further pressure on govt. and devs.
* rural-urban migration + high birth rates ? rapid pop. growth
migration
definitions
* migration: mvmt. of ppl. from one area to another, to take up residence for�?�1
year
* rural-urban migration: mvmt. of ppl. from rural areas to cities
* push factors: undesirable qualities of the place ppl. leave
o lack of job opportunities
o poor Edu. facil.
o lack of healthcare services
o famine, war
* pull factors: attractive qualities of the place ppl. would like to move to
o job opportunities
o better schooling, further Edu.
o more hospitals, doctors
o perception of exciting city life
o political stability
explanation
* ppl. move to cities in search of a better life
o attracted by job opp. in cities
* more jobs created in cities
o wider range of econ. activities compared to rural areas
example
* sao paulo, brazil
* migrants
o there may be insufficient jobs to cater to the huge no. of migrants there
o migrants may also lack skills req. for jobs avail. in cities
o \therefore difficulty getting jobs, unable to afford housing
* city
o unable to build sufficient houses quickly enough
* for housing the huge number of migrants
* \therefore migrants settle in slums
o may eventually find employment there (small businesses)
high birth rate
explanation
* high rates of nat. inc.
o high b/r, low d/r
o cities have a large prop. of ppl. in 20s - 30s; likely to start fam.
o abv. avg. fertility rates ? high nat.inc.
* supply-demand
o cities have to allocate more resourcees to housing ? cater to the inc. in pop.
o \because cities may not be able to build houses fast enough
o \therefore not every couple may be able to live in formal housing
example
* london, uk
* london�s pop. increased (rapidly) by 104 000 in 2012-13
o high b/r, m/r (migration rates)
o 86 000 more births than deaths
o foreign-born mothers accounted for > 1/4 of total births
* have to allocate more resources to housing to cater to inc. in pop.
competing land use
explanation
* many uses for land
o residential (house)
o commercial (make $)
o industrial (factories)
o recreational (have fun)
o infrastructure (roads, airports, hospitals)
* competing uses for land ? stiff competition ? insufficient land for housing
o various grps. of people may have conflict of interest
example
* Singapore
* govt. has committed 17% of land supply to housing to cater to a proj. growth in
pop.
* competing land uses have been identified
o some golf courses in sg will be removed ? re-dev. for housing / other
limited land supply
* limited land supply of land suitable for housing
o physical features (seas, rivers, mts.) limit amt. of land that can be used for
housing
o flat land is preferred for dev.; high $ of construction on steep slopes
* some cities have small land areas (eg. sg - 716 sq km, hk - 1104 sq km)
o there is a limit to how much land can be reclaimed from the sea
o small land area ? insufficient land for housing
* high pop. dens. (large pop., limited land area)
o need to house more ppl. in small area
consequences of housing shortage
homelessness
explanation
* -ve impact on one�s health
o exposure to cold / rain
o hunger, lack of sleep
o skin infections, respiratory problems, stress disorders
example
* us dept of housing & urban dev. estimates 610 042 homeless ppl. in the us in a
single night (jan 2013)
slums & squatter settlements
env. pollution
explanation
* inadequate provision of basic svcs. ? env. pollution
* water pollution
o rivers near slums may be used for�washing,�garbage, and�sewage disposal.
o contaminants from sewage can seep into groundwater, pollute nearby water sources
(e.g. wells)
* land pollution
o lack of a garbage disposal system ? dumping of garbage into open drains
* foul smell
* eyesore
example
* Guanabara Bay, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
* 1970s
o clear waters, white sandy beaches
o habitat for diverse range of marine animals
* present
o floating rubbish, polluted waters
o disposal of untreated sewage into the bay (nearby slums, squatter settlements)
low level of health, due to poor living conds
explanation
* lack of basic services (clean water, proper sanitation) ? people more vulnerable
to diseases
* no access to safe drinking water
o use water from polluted rivers, contaminated wells
o may have bacteria, causing diseases (eg. cholera)
* lack of waste mgmt. facil.
o improper disposal of rubbish
o stagnant waters (clogged drains, sewers) ? breeding grounds for mosquitoes ?
malaria, dengue
* overcrowding
o large family living in a small room
o houses closely spaced
o facil. the rapid spread of diseases
example
* nairobi, kenya
* health of children living in slums is generally poorer than in areas with formal
housing
* d/r of children (<5 y/o) living in slums is 2.5 � higher than in other parts of
the city (who, 2008)
vulnerability
explanation
* residents more susceptible to the risk of fires, landslides and evictions (see
earlier chapter)
* slums may be built on land w/o perm. from relevant auth.
o face the threat of eviction
o lack a sense of sec. ? may be forced out of their homes
example
1. mumbai, india
o fire in slum destroys 150 houses
* more than 100 1-room shacks, rendered families homeless
* cause of fire: short circuit (loose electric wires)
2. rio de janeiro, brazil
o landslides in a favela in r.d.j. ? 256 ppl. killed (apr 2010)
o occurred after a period of heavy rain, a house collapsed down a hill
3. dhaka, bangladesh
o court order to clear the land issued ? 40 000 people evicted from korail slum
(2012)
o social tension between auth. & residents
* residents staged protest ? govt. promised to stop temp. evicting residents
strategies to manage housing
slum upgrading
explanation
* cities improve the quality of housing & basic svcs.
* slum sites cleared and basic infrastructure provided (the whole house)
* residents move out and relocate
* financial schemes & assistance provided
advantages
* residents can be provided with housing relatively quickly with all svcs. covered
disadvantages
* high costs for the govt.
* some residents may face difficulties paying for the cost
* residents reluctant to move and be left without a house temp.
example
* nairobi, kenya
* govt. partnered with the un (un-habitat) in a proj. which aims to provide
residents with the rights to build on the existing land & improve housing conds.
and infra-str.
* residents shift temporarily to an area with new housing units (equipped with
svcs.)
* vacated slum area upgraded & residents can return to the original sites once
complete
self-help schemes
explanation
* low income households to improve the cond. of existing housing
* govt.s do not provide housing directly
o provide assistance in other forms:
* construction materials
* basic svcs.
* ppl. build the houses themselves
o at their own pace / in free time (after work / weekends)
o training provided by govt.
advantages
* reduced construction costs
disadvantages
* training needs to be provided
o even then, still has chance of being dangerous
* the pace of construction is slow due to schedule clashes etc.
example
* rocinha project, brazil
* most wooden houses replaced by concrete houses
* 75% of homes have electricity (compared to 30% in the past)
* rooftop water tanks, piped water systems
* sanitation facilities (eg. toilets, sewers)
public housing
explanation
* govt. efforts to provide housing units with basic svcs.
o usu. for low-income hh. + other persons of need (elderly, disabled)
* reasonably priced (compared to private housing)
o subsidised by govt.
* other methods of public housing
o old flats may be rented at a low price
o abandoned buildings converted for residential use
o new apartments built
advantages
* low cost (for both govt. and people)
disadvantages
* may be difficult to roll out in a larger country due to the sheer number of
residents such a scheme would have to cater to (diff. local issues to be managed)
example
1. singapore
o 1960-70s: slums / squatter settlements had to be cleared ? provide higher quality
housing to residents
* hdb (housing dev. board) set up (1960) ? build and provide public housing for
sg�s inc. pop.
o public housing programmes achieved success
* address the diverse needs of all residents
* > 80% of sg�s pop. lives in hdb flats (2013)
2. r.d.j., brazil
o bairro carioca project
* comprises 2240 apartments which will house 10k people
* govt. partnership with private sector
* companies hired to build basic infrastructure of roads, sewerage & water; design
and build housing units
provision of inclusive housing (sg)
definition
* a city which provides all residents with adequate housing & access to all basic
svcs. (tpt., rec.)
* all residents feel a sense of belonging and actively contribute to the community
affordable housing
definition
* housing that is priced at a reasonable cost such that residents still have enough
money for other basic needs
how?
* variety of housing types to cater to the diff. income grps.
o private property / condominiums (high-income pop.)
o public housing (low-income pop.)
* types of public housing increased to meet residents� needs
o studio apartments ? seniors
o 3-room flats ? smaller families
examples
1. financial schemes
o subsidise the cost of flats
o additional cpf housing grant (ahg) (2006)
* helps low-income fam. buy their first flat
* families earning not more than S$5000 / month can qualify for a grant of up to
S$40000, used to pay for flat
2. ethnic integration
o ethnic integ. policy (eip) (1989)
o promote racial integ. and harmony
* includes ppl. of diff. races in the nbh. by specifying ethnic quotae for each
block
o creates opp. for interaction among residents from diverse bgs.
facilites & amenities for all ages
how?
* impt. to provide range of facils. and amenities for diff. age grps.
* retail shops, clinics, parks are common in nbhs.
example
1. 3-generation (3g) facilities
o playground, adult fitness corner, wellness stations (seniors)
o cater to the needs of multi generational fam.
2. seniors activity centres (sac)
o set up near hdb rental / studio apt. blocks (where the elderly usu. live)
o snrs. encouraged to spend time @ centres ? interact & exercise with others
3. gen. infrastructure
o corridors in residential dev.: min. width. - 1.5 m
* facil. access for ppl. using mobility aids (eg. wheelchairs)
strong sense of place & belonging
definition
* sense of place = meaning and value people attach to a place as a res. of their
exp. / unique. chars. of a place
why?
* ppl. may regard places w. special meaning & rmb. these places fondly
* spent much time there / had +ve exp.
* more likely to dev. a sense of place & belonging
how?
* distinctive phys. features ? give the place its visual quality, char. and
identity
o monuments
o gardens
* allows ppl to recog. and recall a place easily ? contrib. to sense of place &
belonging
example
* rounded balconise & spiral staircases of hdb flats (tiong bahru)
o unique phys. feature ? may evoke a sense of place & belonging for tiong bahru
residents
end remarks
housing is an important basic need which impacts one�s q.o.l. with the rise in
urban pop., cities face inc. pressure to provide sufficient housing. the nature &
extent of housing shortage varies between cities. thus, they have adopted diff.
strategies to manage the issue of housing shortage.
although sg has achieved considerable success in providing quality housing, it
needs to continue to be responsive to the changing needs & aspirations of its
people. as sg begins to exp. an ageing pop., facil. and amenities which provide
care & support svcs. for the elderly would become inc. impt.
transport
causes of traffic congestion
separation of work & residential areas
explanation
* people often work & live in different parts of the city
o places of work often located away from housing areas
o sep. of work & residential areas forces people to�commute�(travel some distance
between two places) between home & and place of work�on a reg. basis
* many people prefer to drive private vehicles (convenient / allows for
flexibility)
o high car ownership
o massive no.s of cars that drive in and out of cbd (central business district)
example
1. united states
o total of 132.3m ppl. commute between work & residential areas daily
2. singapore
o avg. daily traffic vol.: 289k vehicles (entering cbd)
3. uk
o steady inc. in car ownership
* no. of fam. owning 1 car / 2 or more cars inc. over time
movement from one part of the city to another to obtain / provide goods & svcs.
exp.
* ppl. may need to move about within city to�obtain�g&s
o purchase gds. from specialised stores
o attend classes in a diff. part of the city
o wider range of g&s avail. in the city (compared to rural areas)
* ppl. may also need to travel within city to�provide�g&s
o wholesalers deliver to retail shp.
o home delivery svcs. deliver products to homes
o delivery of goods to diff. parts of city is carried out using diff. vehicles
(frieght trucks, motorcycles)
inadeq. tpt. inf-str. & poor prov. of tpt. svcs.
def. / exp.
* inadequate tpt. inf-str.: city�s tpt. facil. are incapable of handling amt. of
traffic it receives
o roads may not have enough lanes
o netwk. may not be well connected
* lack of alternative routes ? congestion (esp. accident / peak hr.)
* tpt. svcs.: svcs. prov. to move ppl. & gds. from one loc. to another
o poor prov. of tpt. svcs.: city only has a small fleet of public buses & rail
* does not have enough of them to carry commuters
* overcrowded trains, buses; buses do not arrive freq.
* \therefore ppl. avoid taking pub. tpt.; buy cars to drive to wk. instead ? inc.
vehicles on roads ? traffic cong.
eg.
* mumbai, india
* trains often filled to many times their capacity
* buses caught in trf-cong. often filled with passengers
* \therefore many ppl. turn to driving their own cars (priv-tpt.) ? more pleasant
commute
o car pop. inc. by 51%
o 2006-7: 1.5m veh. (incl. 460k cars) ? 2012-3: 2.16m veh. (incl. 700k cars)
impacts of trf-cong.
social
reduced productivity
def.
* productivity: rate at which g&s are produced
o measured in output per unit of labour
o involves engaging in activities that bring about economic benefit
exp.
* ppl spend more time commuting \therefore trf-cong. reduces productivity
* tpt. system is inefficient ? productivity goes down ? economic loss for the
country
* rising expenses in fuels
* higher tpt. cost (goods need to be delivered)
eg.
1. singapore
o econ. loss from inefficient tpt. amts. to 9% of the country�s annual income per
person (siemens, 2014)
o an efficient tpt-sys. can provide a city with up to us$238b in econ. val.
annually by 2030
2. lagos, nigeria
o econ. loss can be as high as 28% of the country�s ann. incm. per person
3. philippines
o losing 2.4b pesos (s$570m) / day in potential income due to trf-cong.
stress on phys. & ment. health
exp.
* ppl. often exp. stress and anxiety ? negatively affect their phys. and ment.
health
* long travel times ? fatigue
o more prone to losing conc. / falling asleep ? accident / death
* exhaust fumes from idling veh. in traffic
o incl. co2, co, particulate matter
o long-term exposure: asthma, respiratory inflammation, lung disease
* more prone to stress & frustration ? inc. chance of getting into fights /
accidents on the road
env. impacts
air pollution
exp.
* cars emit greenhouse gases (eg. co, co2) ? earth�s temp. rise (trap heat)
* other gases: no2, so2
* vehicles remain stationary in trf-cong. / constantly accel. & brake (stop-start
trf.) ? wasted fuel ? inc. air pollution & co2 emissions
* other harmful air pollutants ? poor air quality (smog)
o difficulty in breathing, asthma, reduced resist. to lung infections, colds, eye
irritation
o exposure to smog can reduce life expectancy by u.t. 15 years (british medical
journal, 2014)
o slows down plant growth ? harm the env.
o tiny pollutant particles deposited on soil & water ? enter food chain ? poison
animals
eg.
* china
* smog
o resemble nuclear winter, slows down photosynthesis in plants
o pm 2.5 particles hit 505 $?$g / cu.m. (recommended level - who: 25)
o flights grounded, highways closed, tourists deterred
* 11.2k ppl visited forbidden city (beijing), 1/4 of the avg. daily visits
noise pollution
exp.
* rumbling of engines
* honking
eg.
1. stats�(uk noise assoc., 2009)
o road traffic is the biggest cause of noise pollution in the uk, disturbing > 12m
ppl
2. kolkata, india
o drivers honk their cars very freq.
o in 2010, drivers honk at an avg. of 1 honk / 5 s
* honks are usu. > 65 db (over lawful limit of 55 db for residential areas)
o prolonged exp. to harmful noise can trigger heart disease, high blood pressure,
mental illness
strategies to manage trf-cong.
making public tpt a choice mode
integ. pub. tpt. sys.
exp.
* a pub. tpt. sys. that is seen as whole, regardless of the modes of tpt.
* encourage ppl. to use pub. tpt.
adv.
* more conv., accessible, efficient. ppl. can make use of diff. modes of tpt. to
get to a place quickly
dis.
* req. extensive planning & $
o may not be feasible in all countries
eg.
1. tokyo, jp
o all pub. tpt. modes (train, tram, bus) can be paid for using a rechargeable
contactless smart card
* speeds up mvmt. of ppl taking pub. tpt ? commuting is smooth and conv.
o all modes timed to precision
* allows commuters to plan travel routes more effectively
2. sg
o six tpt. hubs with bus interchanges (fully integ. w. rail svcs. & retail
activities) (2014)
o over the next 10y, another 7 integ. tpt. hubs will be built
* have linking platforms from road - rail
* escalators ? improve accessibility & speed up bus-train transfers
o ez-link (contactless card)
* same ticketing system
* smoother transfer between buses and trains
bus lane schemes
def.
* lanes specially set aside for priv./pub. buses on specific days / times
exp.
* buses able to enter/exit bus stops smoothly & quickly
* regulations that give buses priority are needed
o prov. faster / uninterrutped journeys for commuters
adv.
* allow buses to move quickly, will not be held up during congestion
* arrive on schedule more often even during peak hr.
o make travelling by bus more appealing
dis.
* success of bus lane schemes depends on drivers� compliance
* allocating a lane for buses dec. road capacity for other drivers
o may lead to traffic cong. for private car users
eg.

expansion of rail ntwk.

exp.
* inc. the no. of loc. trains can reach
i. more tracks can be laid ? rail ntwk. covers more areas
ii. more stations can be built ? more loc. have access to trains
adv.
* trains have very high capacities ? tpt. more ppl. at each time
* ppl can travel to more dest. by train, some of which were only accessible by
car/bus
dis.
* rail network building is $$$
* proposed rail lines may cut through housing estates & buildings
o residents/businesses may have to bear construction noise / give up property
o inconveniences for residents in the area
eg.
1. dallas, tx, us
o dallas area rapid transit (dart) (1996)
o largest light-rail sys. in the country, and is continuing to expand
o started with 14 stations, total combined length of 17.4 km
o 2014: 61 stations, total combined length of 137 km
2. singapore
o land tpt. master plan (2030)
* build more mrt lines (cross-island line, jurong region line)
* add new stations to existing lines (ccl, dtl, nel)
* rail ntwk. will double from 178km - 360km
* 8 in 10 homes will be located 10 min away from a train stn.
inc. cap. and freq. of buses & rail
exp.
* bus & rail sys. can be upgraded to carry more ppl. and arrive more freq.
* tpt. op. can put sys. in place so that buses & trains arrive at scheduled times
adv.
* more ppl. can be transported to places within a short time
dis.
* inc. the freq. & cap. of buses/trains could be $$$
eg.
1. curitiba, brazil
o brt (bus rapid transit) system
o inc. cap. of bus sys.
* dedicated bus lanes for articulated buses, div. into 3 sections
* \because buses can carry more passengers \therefore brt can tpt. ~2m passengers /
day
o buses arrive more freq.
* as often as every 90 s
* on-board sensors ? trf. lights stay green when buses approach
* \therefore reduces no. of times buses stop ? move at steady pace
2. sg
o bus
* 2012: govt. partner with bus ops. to inc. cap. & freq. of buses (bus service
enhancement programme)
* expected to red. waiting times for buses
o train
* 2011: more trains added to existing lines
* 2014: more trains cont. to be added
* 2016: 28 trains added to nsl and ewl; 16 trains added to sengkang & punggol lrt
* upgraded train signaling sys.
* allow trains to arrive safely every 100 s
* carry 20% more passengers
managing road usage
road pricing
def.
* a trf. mgmt. sys. which charges drivers when they use certain roads
exp.
* drivers req. to pay more during peak hr.
* discourage the use of certain roads
* no. & loc. of gantries have to be determined
adv.
* higher $ discourage driving during p.h. ? drivers use alternative tpt. (public
bus/train)
dis.
* drivers avoid erp ? traffic diverted to other roads ? congestion on other roads
eg.
1. singapore
o erp (electronic rd. pricing)
o 72 erp gantries set up (2012)
* located in more-cong. areas
o cashcards inserted into in-vehicle units (ius)
o each time a vehicle passes through an erp gantry, an amt. is deducted from its
cashcard via short-range radio comm.
o success
* 15% reduction in trf. vol. on the rd. during peak hr.
* avg. expressway speeds: 35 km/h ? 55 km/h
* trf. reduced by 16% within erp zones
* trf. vol. in cbd during peak hr. remains relatively stable, despite inc. car
ownership over the years
2. stockholm, sweden
o stockholm congestion tax applies to veh. leaving/entering the cbd (2007)
o a bill is sent to the veh. to inform driver of the amt. to pay
o traffic vol. fell by 24% during p.h. (cong. charge secretariat, stockholm)
increase parking fees
exp.
* inc. driving $, esp. to and from cbd
* encourage pub. tpt.
* ppl seek alt. means of tpt. such as pub. tpt. & carpooling
o carpooling: grp. of ppl. travelling tgt. in the same car & sharing the $
* save $ on fuel, parking, cong.
* reduces no. of veh. on road
adv.
* high parking $ add to the $ of owning & using cars, discouraging private car
ownership
dis.
* drivers may resort to illegal parking ? block traffic / pose a danger to other
drivers
eg.
* shanghai, china
* city govt. plans to inc. car parking charges
o current:
* downtown: 15 yuan (us$2.40) for the 1st h, 10 yuan for every additional 1/2h
* inner ring road: 10 yuan for the 1st h, 6 yuan for every additional 1/2h
* target:
o keep no. of reg. cars in central shanghai below 2.5m
* current: over 2.1m (1.8m are private veh.)
enhanced traffic monitoring
exp.
* traffic monitoring can alert drivers of trf-cong. ? they can avoid travelling on
the road
adv.
* drivers can avoid places w. trf-cong.
dis.
* trf. monitoring only encourages drivers to drive elsewhere
* does not reduce no. of veh. on the road
eg. (singapore)
1. emas (expressway advisory & monitoring system)
o vehicle breakdown / accident ? live info made avail. to drivers on the roads ?
drivers can opt to take alt. routes
2. glide (green link determining)
o computerised trf. light signalling
* detects vehicles, pedestrians, maj. rd. jn. ? adj. the green time accordingly
* when more vehicles detected, trf. signal remains green ? allow veh. to drive
through the trf. jn.
* trf. signals at nearby jn. are coordinated at the start of their green times ?
drivers can catch the �green wave� ? travel from one jn. to the next w/o stop
other measures
telecommuting
def. and exp.
* telecommuting: work arrangemt. where employees wfh or @ a loc. near home
o do not have to travel to office
* made possible by tech: internet, computers, phone lines
* ppl. can stay in contact with colleagues/clients although not phys. in the office
* ?�eliminates need for ppl. to commute to/from workplaces ? reducing no. of veh.
on the road ? reduces trf-cong.
adv.
* do not need to travel out of their residential areas to go to work
o reduces no. of drivers & pub. tpt. passengers during p.h.
dis.
* when millions of ppl. change their work arrangment, local servers may go down and
cease to function temporarily ? more inconv.
cycling
exp.
* bicycles are env.-friendly (0 carbon emissions)
* convenient (mobility & flexibility)
adv.
* mode of tpt. that provides flexibility and mobility
* env.-friendly, sustainable
dis.
* cycling lanes v. near to motor veh. on the road ? dangerous for cyclists
* layout, trf., topography ? may be unsuitable for cycling
eg.
* copenhagen, denmark
* govt. built ntwk. of wide cycling lanes, covering a large part of the city
o v. conv. for ppl. to travel from place - place
* numerous bicycle parking lots for cyclists
* cycling now an impt. means of tpt.
o 52% ppl. in the city commute by bicycle to wk. / sch. (2013, city of copenhagen)

TRANSPORT

Causes of traffic congestion

* Separation of work and residential areas

* When places of work are located away from housing areas, there is a resultant
need for people to commute to work. This increases the number of cars on the road
and results in traffic congestion.
* In 2013, the average daily traffic volume entering the CBD in Singapore was
289,000 vehicles.

* Movement within city due to delivery of goods

* When people move about within the city to obtain or deliver goods and services,
this increases the number of vehicles on the road and results in traffic
congestion.
? For example, Brussels, a city with a strong service economy, has one of the worst
traffic congestion in the world, wasting 74 hours in traffic in 2014.
? Poor transport infrastructure such as insufficient bus and train services
? When this occurs, people are unable to get from place to place quickly as there
is inadequate public transportation services, so they will turn to cars to get
around, causing the demand in cars to increase.
? In Mumbai, India, trains are often filled to many times their capacity. Buses
caught in traffic congestion are often filled with passengers. Therefore, many
people turn to driving their own cars to have a more pleasant commute. Impacts of
traffic congestion
IMPACTS

? Reduced productivity
? Traffic congestion reduces productivity because people have to spend more time
commuting. This wastes time that could be spent on productive work.
? For example, in Singapore, the economic loss from inefficient transport amounts
to 9% of the country�s annual income per person in 2014.
? Stress in physical and mental health
? Long travelling times can lead to fatigue. Drivers are more prone to losing their
concentration or falling asleep, causing accidents and even deaths. Exposure to
fumes during traffic congestions can cause asthma and lung diseases. More time
spent on the roads can increase stress and cause frustration. This can lead to
accidents and fights.
? South Africa, which is the 5th most traffic congested country in the world, has
one of the highest road fatalities of 25.1 per 100,000 inhabitants per year.
? Air pollution
? Traffic congestion can also raise the air pollution level of the city. Cars emit
pollutants which can contribute to poor air quality, which can result in smog.
? According to the United States Environmental Protection Agency, more than half of
the air pollution in the United States of America is primarily caused by cars.
? Noise pollution
? Noise pollution is another impact of traffic congestion, where harmful and
excessive noise that may disrupt human and animal life is produced.
? A 2009 United Kingdom Noise Association report identified road traffic as the
biggest cause of noise pollution in the United Kingdom, affecting more than 12
million people. Strategies to reduce traffic congestion Integrated public transport
system
? Connects various modes of transportation such that it functions as a whole.
Building an integrated public transport system is an important first step to
encourage people to take public transport.
? One example can be seen in Tokyo, Japan. A rechargeable contactless smart card
speeds up the movement of people taking public transport, making commuting smooth
and convenient. Moreover, all transport modes are timed to precision, allowing
commuters to plan their travel route more effectively.
Benefits:
? It is more convenient, accessible and efficient. People can make use of
different modes of transportation to get to a place quickly.
Challenges:
? It requires extensive planning and is costly to build. Therefore, it may not be
feasible in all countries.

Bus lane schemes ? With designated bus lanes, buses are able to enter and exit bus
stops smoothly and quickly. Thus, regulations that give priority to buses are
necessary because they provide faster and uninterrupted travel for commuters. ? For
example, driving within full-day bus lanes in Singapore is not allowed from 7:30am
to 11pm from Mondays to Saturdays. Driving within normal bus lanes is also not
allowed during weekday peak hours. Benefits: ? Buses are able to move quickly and
will not be held up during traffic congestion. ? Buses will arrive on schedule more
often even during peak hours, making travelling by bus more appealing.
Challenges: ? The success of this strategy depends on the compliance of drivers. ?
Allocating a lane for buses takes away precious road capacity for other drivers,
which may lead to traffic congestion for private car users. Expansion of railway
networks ? By increasing the number of locations the trains can reach, public
transport becomes a much more attractive option than driving. ? One example of an
extensive railway network would be the Dallas Area Rapid Transit (DART) in Texas,
United States, where there is a total of 61 stations and 137 kilometers covered as
of 2014. Benefits: ? Trains have very high capacities and are extremely efficient
at transporting large amounts of people at a time. ? More previously inaccessible
areas can now be reached by rail. Challenges: ? It is extremely costly to do so.
Increasing the capacity and frequency of the buses and rail ? To help relieve
traffic congestion, buses and rail systems can be upgraded to carry more people and
run more frequently. ? One good example of this would be the Bus Rapid Transit
(BRT) in Curitiba, Brazil, which has triple-sectioned articulated buses that arrive
every 90 seconds. Benefits: ? This allows a great deal of people to be transported
to places within a short time. Challenges: ? This is also a costly strategy. Road
pricing ? Road pricing charges drivers when they use certain roads, thus decreasing
traffic congestion as drivers try to decrease their usage of the popular roads due
to the higher costs. ? One example of this road pricing strategy would be the
Electronic Road Pricing (ERP) in Singapore. Seventy-two gantries have been set up
in Singapore as of 2012. Benefits: ? It directly discourages driving during peak
hours, and drivers may consider other forms of transport instead. Challenges: ?
Traffic may be diverted to other roads because of drivers trying to avoid ERP,
leading to congestion elsewhere. Increased parking fees ? This would increase the
cost of driving, especially to and from the CBD, thus discouraging private car
ownership and encouraging the use of public transport. ? For example, in Shanghai,
car parking charges have been increased to discourage driving to downtown areas
within the city. Benefits: ? High parking fees add to the cost of owning and using
a car, discouraging private car ownership. Challenges: ? Drivers may resort to
illegal parking to avoid paying high fees. The illegally parked car may block
traffic or even pose a danger to drivers. Enhanced traffic monitoring ? Cities can
make use of technology to monitor traffic. Traffic monitoring can alert drivers of
traffic congestion and they can avoid travelling on that road. ? One such traffic
monitoring system in Singapore is the Expressway Monitoring and Advisory System
(EMAS). In the event of a vehicle breakdown or an accident, live information will
be made available to drivers on the roads about the current situation. Drivers may
then opt to take an alternative route. Benefits: ? Drivers can avoid places with
traffic congestion. Challenges: ? It only encourages drivers to drive elsewhere and
does not reduce the number of vehicles on the road. Telecommuting ? Employees work
from home or at a location near their home and thus do not have to travel to the
office. This eliminates the need for people to commute to and from their workplace,
reducing the number of vehicles on the roads. Benefits: ? People do not need to
travel out of their residential areas to go to work. This reduces the number of
drivers and public transport passengers during peak hours. Encourage cycling ?
Bicycles are environmentally friendly and a convenient mode of transport because of
mobility and flexibility they offer. ? For example, the government in Copenhagen,
Denmark built a network of wide cycling lanes that covers a large part of the city,
making it very convenient for people to travel from place to place. Benefits: ?
Cycling is a mode of transport that provides flexibility and mobility. ? It is
environmentally friendly and sustainable. Challenges: ? It may be dangerous for
cyclists because cycling lanes are very near to motor vehicles on the road. ? Some
cities are not suited to cycling because of the layout, traffic conditions or
topography. Conclusion for essay: In order to sufficiently manage traffic
congestion, we need to reduce road usage as well as make public transport
attractive. If we were to focus on improving public transportation and not do
anything to road usage, for example, people may still end up purchasing cars as
there are no disincentives to getting one./ Relying only on road pricing to reduce
congestion would not work as people will still need to commute, and may even cause
unhappiness among the people if no other alternatives are available and they are
effectively forced to pay the higher taxes to drive. Therefore, there is a need to
employ a multi-pronged approach in order to effectively manage traffic congestion.

Transportation

Causes
1. Separation of work and home
2. Goods and services
3. Poor infrastructure, transport services
Impacts
1. Health
2. Reduced Productivity
3. Air pollution
4. Noise pollution

Strategies
1. Integrated transport system
2. Bus lane�
3. Expansion of rail network
4. Capacity and frequency of bus/services

5. Road Pricing
6. Parking Fees
7. Traffic monitoring

8. Telecommuting
9. Cycling
Causes (3):
Separation of work and residential areas

People often work and live in different parts of the city. Places of work are often
located away from housing areas. The separation of work and residential areas
results in the need for people to commute to work. According to a 2011 report
published by the United States Census Bureau, a total of 132.3 million people in
the country commute between their work and residential areas daily. In 2013, the
average daily traffic volume entering the CBD in Singapore was 289 000. Commuting
can be done via public or private transport. However, many people prefer to drive a
private vehicle as it is convenient and more flexible. Therefore, in most cities,
car ownership is high, leading to massive numbers of cars that drive in and out of
the CBD daily. This contributes to the problem of traffic congestion.�
Movement from one part of a city to another to obtain or provide goods and services

People may need to move about within the city in order to obtain goods or services.
For example, they may need to purchase goods from specialised stores, or attend
classes in a different part of the city. There is a wider range of goods and
services in the city compared to rural areas.�

People may also need to travel within the city to provide goods and services. For
instance, wholesalers deliver to retail shops, and home delivery services deliver
products to homes. The delivery of goods to different parts of the city is carried
out using different vehicles including freight trucks and motorcycles.

Inadequate transport infrastructure & poor provision of transport services

Inadequate transport infrastructure means that a city�s transportation facilities

are not capable of handling the amount of traffic they receive. Roads may not have
enough lanes or the network may not be well connected. This leads to roads being
congested due to the lack of alternative routes, especially when there has been a
traffic accident or during peak hours.�

Poor provision of transport services means that a city only has a small fleet of
public buses or trains. This leads to overcrowded public transport. This can also
result in buses and trains not arriving frequently or on time.�

People may therefore choose to commute using private transport, cars or

motorcycles, to get to work. The greater number of vehicles on the road results in
greater traffic congestion. One example of this is in Mumbai, India, where trains
are constantly filled to many times their capacity. Buses caught in traffic
congestion are often filled with passengers. Therefore, people may choose to drive
to work to have a more pleasant commute.
Impacts (4):
Stress on physical and mental health (Social)
People caught in traffic congestion often experience stress and anxiety, which
negatively affect their physical and mental health.
Long travelling times can lead to fatigue. Drivers are more prone to losing their
concentration or falling asleep, causing accidents and even deaths.�
Traffic congestion poses another serious health hazard. It is a source of exhaust
fumes from idling vehicles stuck in traffic. These fumes include carbon dioxide,
carbon monoxide and particulate matter. Some particulates are so small that they
can penetrate deep into lung tissues, causing inflammation. Long-term exposure to
these fumes has been linked to several health problems, including asthma and lung
disease.�
Traffic congestion also has negative impacts on people's mental health. Due to the
prolonged time on the road, drivers may become prone to stress and frustration
while stuck in traffic. This increases their chance of being involved in accidents
and fights with other drivers.
Reduced productivity (Economic)

Traffic congestion greatly increases the amount of time people spend commuting.�

As people spend more time commuting, productivity is reduced. This leads to

economic loss for the country as a whole.

In cities such as Lagos, Nigeria,� the economic loss from inefficient transport can
reach up to 28 percent of the country�s annual income per person. An efficient
transport system can provide a city with up to US$238 billion in economic value
annually by 2030, according to a 2014 study by Siemens. This shows that traffic
congestion greatly impacts countries economically.
Air pollution (Environmental)
Traffic congestion increases the pollution level of a city. According to the United
States Environmental Protection Agency, more than half of the air pollution in the
United States is caused by cars. Cars emit greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide
and nitrous oxide. These gases cause the earth's temperature to rise because they
trap heat. When vehicles remain stationary in traffic congestion, or constantly
accelerate and brake during stop-start traffic, wasted fuel will increase air
pollution and carbon dioxide emissions.�

Cars also produce other harmful air pollutants which contribute to poor air
quality. Smog is a combination of smoke and fog, caused by exhaust and particles
from cars and factories. It can cause respiratory illnesses like asthma and reduce
life expectancy by as much as 15 years, according to a study published in the
British Medical Journal in 2014.�

Smog also slows down plant growth, thus harming the environment. Tiny pollutant
particles may also be deposited on soil and water surfaces, thereby entering the
food chain and poisoning animals.

Noise pollution (Environmental)

Noise pollution occurs when there is harmful and excessive noise that may disrupt
human and animal life. For example, in Kolkata, India, there is noise pollution due
to drivers honking very frequently. According to a news report in The Telegraph
India in February 2010, drivers in Kolkata would honk at an average of every five
seconds. Each honk is usually more than 65 decibels, which is over the lawful limit
of 55 decibels for residential areas in India. Studies have found that prolonged
exposure to harmful noise can trigger heart disease, high blood pressure and mental
illness.
�
Strategies
1. Making public transport a choice mode (4)
Integrated public transport system
An integrated public transport system connects various modes of transportation such
that it functions as a whole. This could be done by unifying the payment system for
all buses, trains and public transport services.

ExampleIn London: Oyster cards

* All public transport modes: train, tram and bus services can be paid by
contactless payment using the Oyster card
* This speeds up the movement of people taking public transport, making commuting
smooth and convenient
* Public transport modes can be timed to precision, allowing commuters to plan
their routes effectively
BenefitsChallenges* Affordable for the public (Oyster card costs as little as 5
Euros)
* People can make use of different modes of transportation to get to a place
quickly.* An integrated public transport system requires extensive planning and is
costly to build.
Bus lane schemes
Bus lanes are lanes specially set aside for private and public buses on specific
days and times. Designated bus lanes allow buses to enter and exit bus stops
smoothly and quickly, providing faster and uninterrupted journeys for commuters.�

Example* In Singapore, there are specially designated bus lanes to improve bus
speed and reliability. The lanes can be either full-day (Monday to Saturday 7:30am
to 11pm) or normal (weekday peak hours) bus lanes.
BenefitsChallenges* Allows buses to move quickly so that they will not be held up
in traffic congestion.
* Buses will arrive on schedule more often, even during peak hours, making
travelling by bus more appealing.* The success of bus lanes also relies on the
compliance of drivers.
* Allocating a lane takes away road capacity for other drivers, which may lead to
traffic congestion for private car owners.
Expansion of rail networks
The expansion of rail networks refers to increasing the number of locations train
services can reach.This can be done by laying out more tracks to ensure more
coverage or building more stations so that more locations have access to trains.�

Example* In Singapore, the government revealed the Land Transport Master Plan 2013.
* By then, rail network length will double from 178km to 360 km and 8 out of 10
homes will be located within a 10-minute walk from a train station.
BenefitsChallenges* Trains have a higher capacity.
* People can travel more by train to destinations only reachable by car or bus.*
Building rail networks is expensive.
* Proposed rail lines may cut through buildings and housing estates.
* Affected residents would have to bear with the construction noise or give up
their property to make way for new lines.
Increasing capacity and frequency of buses and rail services
Bus and rail systems can be upgraded to carry more people and arrive more
frequently. Transport operators can also put systems in place so that buses and
trains arrive at scheduled times.��

Example* Curitiba, Brazil

* The Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) system has been successful in increasing the capacity
of its bus system
* The buses can also carry 2 million passengers a day, almost equivalent to the
city�s population
* The buses also arrive as frequently as every 90 seconds.
BenefitsChallenges* More people can be transported within a shorter amount of time.
* Increasing the frequency and capacity of buses and trains could be costly.
2. Managing road usage (3)
Road pricing
Road Pricing refers to a traffic management measure that charges drivers when they
use certain roads. Commonly, drivers are required to pay more during peak hours in
order to discourage the use of certain roads.�

Example (Singapore)
In Singapore, road pricing is implemented via the ERP system. 72 ERP gantries
have been set up across Singapore as of 2021. They are located in areas with more
traffic congestion. The CBD tends to be the most congested. To reduce congestion in
the CBD, ERP rates for driving into the CBD are the highest.�

Since its implementation in 1998, there has been a�

* 15% reduction in traffic volume on the road during peak hours and
* traffic was reduced by 16% within the zone covered by ERP�

Increased parking fees

Parking fees can be increased to manage road usage. This would increase the cost of
driving, especially to and from congested places like the CBD. It would also
encourage people to take public transport instead.�

Example (Article by Shanghai Daily)

Shanghai�s plan to increase car parking charges to discourage driving to downtown
areas within the city:�

Currently, the cost of parking downtown in Shanghai is 15 yuan for the first hour
and 10 yuan for every additional 30 minutes. In other areas within the Inner Ring
Road, the corresponding fees are 10 yuan and 6 yuan.�

BenefitsChallenges* High parking fees add to the cost of owning and using a car,
hence discouraging private car ownership.* Drivers may resort to illegal parking to
avoid paying high fees. The illegally parked car may block traffic or even pose a
danger to drivers.
With increased costs due to road pricing and increased parking fees, people
might seek alternative means of transport such as public transport and carpooling.
Carpooling refers to a group of people travelling together to work, school or other
locations in one car. It reduces the amount of money each person pays for fuel cost
and parking fees and also reduces the number of vehicles on the road.�
Enhanced traffic monitoring
Cities can make use of technology to monitor traffic. Traffic monitoring can
alert drivers of traffic congestion or traffic accidents so they can avoid
travelling on that road. This allows for smoother travelling and fast-moving
traffic.

Example (Singapore)
Singapore has a system called the Expressway Monitoring and Advisory System
(EMAS). In the event of a vehicle breakdown or an accident, live information will
be made available to drivers on the roads about the current situation. The drivers
may then opt to take an alternative route.

BenefitsChallenges* Drivers can avoid places with traffic congestion.* Traffic

monitoring only encourages drivers to drive elsewhere and does not reduce the
number of vehicles on the road.
3. Other measures (2)
Telecommuting
Telecommuting refers to a work arrangement where employees work from home or
at a location near their home and do not have to travel to the office. Instead,
they use technology such as Internet connections, computers and telephone lines to
stay in contact with their colleagues or clients. This eliminates the need for
people to commute to and from their workplaces.�

Example
Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, Singapore has introduced Work-from-home and
Home-Based-Learning to reduce physical interaction between people. These programmes
involve the use of telecommuting over platforms such as Zoom, allowing students and
working adults to communicate with others online. This is one example of how
telecommuting has replaced private and public transport.

Benefits* People do not need to travel out of their residential areas to go to

work. This reduces the number of drivers and public transport passengers during
peak hours.
Encouraging cycling
Bicycles are environmentally friendly and a convenient mode of transport because of
the mobility and flexibility they offer.

Example (Copenhagen, Denmark)

An example of a city that encourages cycling is Copenhagen in Denmark. The
government has built a network of wide cycling lanes that covers a large part of
the city. There are also numerous bicycle parking lots for cyclists. Cycling is now
an important means of transport in Copenhagen and about 52% of people in the city
commute by bicycle to work or school daily, according to 2012 statistics by the
City of Copenhagen.�

BenefitsChallenges* Cycling is a mode of transport that provides flexibility and

mobility.
* Cycling is environmentally friendly and sustainable.* It may be dangerous for
cyclists because cycling lanes are very near motor lanes on the road.
* Some cities are not suited to cycling because of the layout, traffic conditions
or topography (the arrangement of the natural and artificial physical features of
an area).

POPULATION Population structure Pyramidal shape pyramid ? Pyramidal shaped

pyramid ? It clearly has a wide base, narrow top and concave sides. ? It has a high
birth rate as indicated by its wide base ? The young dependents/ Age group 0-14
years is __% of the population. ? It has a low life expectancy and high death rate,
as indicated by its narrow top and concave sides ? The old dependents/ Age group >
65 years old is __% of the population. ? This population pyramid also indicates a
high dependency ratio ? There is a small number of economically active people, as
indicated on the diagram as people of ages 15-64 years, to support the young and
old dependents. Beehive shape pyramid ? Beehive shaped pyramid ? It clearly has a
narrow base, broader top and convex sides. ? It has a low birth rate as indicated
by its narrow base ? The young dependents/ Age group 0-14 years is __% of the
population. ? It has a high life expectancy and low death rate, as indicated by its
broader top and convex sides ? The old dependents/ Age group > 65 years old is __%
of the population. ? This population pyramid also indicates a low dependency
ratio ? There is a large number of economically active people, as indicated on the
diagram as people of ages 15-64 years, to support the young and old dependents.
High Birth rates Economic: ? Need for farm labour ? Less developed countries are
typically agrarian or agricultural societies, involving a lot of manual labour.
Thus, people tend to have many children to provide extra help on the farms or work.
? This can be seen in the fishing communities along the Mekong River in Cambodia
and Thailand, where fishermen have more children to help out with extra chores like
mending the nets or fishing. ? Expected to take care of their family in old age ?
hence people may have more children as an �insurance� for old age. ? For many Asian
families, it is not uncommon for the parents to expect their children to take care
of them in their old age. For example, villagers in the rural Mekong Delta tend to
have more children because of this. ? Need to replace lost children ? As healthcare
is not that developed in those years, many children would have perished before
reaching adulthood, leading the parents to have more children to ensure that enough
children survive till adulthood. ? This can be seen in the Sub-Saharan African
region, where infant mortality rates are the highest in the world. The fertility
rates in the region are also similarly high, and corresponded with IMR whenever
there is a decrease. Cultural: ? Added status in the community* ? children are seen
as a symbol of wealth and fertility, so people may have more children in order to
be seen as such. ? This can be observed in many Asian countries before the 21st
century, including Singapore, where wealthy tycoons are known to have many children
and wives. ? Preference for sons* ? Some cultures exhibit a strong preference for
sons as they are typically the breadwinners and are able to pass on the family
name. Hence, people will keep trying for children until they get a son. This
increases birth rates. ? This can be seen in countries like India, where only sons
are allowed to light funeral pyres. ? Cultural beliefs (can replace*) ? As these
countries tend to have a lower literacy rate, they may be more prone to following
certain cultural beliefs. Some cultures may see children as a symbol of wealth or
sign of virility, causing people to have many children so that they may appear to
be so. Many societies may also favour males over females as they may see the males
as breadwinners. In such patriarchal societies, people will keep trying for
children until they get a son, thus increasing birth rates. ? This can be seen in
countries like India, where only sons are allowed to light funeral pyres. ?
Religious beliefs ? Some religions believe strongly that all children are a �gift
from God� and hence encourage childbirth. ? Take for example the Philippines, where
84% of them are Roman Catholics. As the Catholic Church prohibits the use of
contraceptives, many people in the Philippines will not use them. This means that
unwanted pregnancies will not be prevented. In the mid 1990s, Philippines had one
of the highest birth rates in Asia with a growth rate of 2.4%. ? Lack of access to
contraceptives and family planning ? Without access to contraceptives, people are
unable to prevent unwanted pregnancies, and this results in higher birth rates.
Similarly, without family planning, people are unable to plan for and control the
number of children they have. ? One example can be seen in Kenya, where fertility
rates rose after budget cuts were made to family planning services. This caused a
revision of population size predictions by demographers. In 1990, demographers had
predicted the population of Kenya in 2050 would be 53 million. But now, the
population in 2050 is predicted to be 65 million. ? Early marriages ? This results
in longer child-bearing years as people get married earlier, resulting in more
children, thus increasing birth rates. ? This can be seen in Niger, where marriage
rates and first childbearing of adolescent girls are more than double that of
Nigeria and Burkina Faso, contributing to Niger�s TFR, which is the highest in the
world. Extra points ? Post-war population boom ? There is an optimistic outlook of
life after the war, and people believe that it is safe for them to have children.
This results in a higher Birth Rate. ? Industrialisation ? Newly emerging economies
are undergoing industrialisation, thus needing labour and having more money to have
kids. Low Birth rates ? High costs of living ? In countries where the cost of
living is high, it will cost a lot to send a child to school, and to feed and
clothe them. Thus people have fewer children due to the high costs of raising a
child, as they cannot afford raising too many children. ? This can be seen in
Singapore where it costs an average of $500,000 to raise a child to pre-university
levels. ? Preference for smaller families ? Due to hectic and stressful work
environments, people are increasingly choosing to have little or no children at
all, as they require time and effort to raise. ? In Singapore, married couples are
having fewer and fewer children over the years, with most families opting for 1 to
2 children. ? Later, fewer marriages ? People are increasingly delaying marriage
due to work or longer years of education. This results in a shorter range of
childbearing years, resulting in fewer children. ? In Singapore, the median ages of
first-time grooms and brides were 30.2 and 28.5 respectively in 2018. ? Anti-natal
policies ? This causes birth rates to start decreasing as people are discouraged
from having more children through incentives and punitive measures. ? For example,
Singapore had a successful anti-natal policy called �Stop at two� in the 1970s.
High Death rates ? Poor access to medical services ? They lack qualified doctors
and medical facilities. Hence sick people may not recover easily. ? Poor access to
clean drinking water ? Diseases spread easily, causing people to fall sick and die.
Low Death rates ? Improved standard of living ? More easily accessible medical
facilities and healthcare services, hence many diseases can be cured. People live
longer thus increasing life expectancy causing low death rates. ? Improvements in
water quality ? This means that cases of water-borne diseases are very rare,
resulting in a low death rate. ? Improvements in medicine/healthcare ? More
medication is invented, so people can recover from common illnesses that used to be
fatal. ? Green Revolution ? advancements in food production technologies and hence
better nutrition. Increased food production drastically. Impacts of
overpopulation ? Overpopulation ? where the population exceeds the carrying
capacity of the country and its resources. ? There will be a high dependency
ratio ? as there are many young dependents, and not enough economically-active
adults to support them. ? There could be famines ? as there are just too many
people and food is not produced fast enough to feed everyone. ? There will be a
housing shortage ? as there are so many people, and houses are limited. ? There
will also not be enough schools ? to provide adequate education for all, so some
children may not receive education, which can cause a strain on the government as
they will need to divert resources to meet this need. Strategies to
overpopulation ? Anti-natal policies ? to discourage people from having children
through the use of incentives and penalties. ? To limit the population growth the
government of Singapore introduced the �Stop at two� in the 1970s. There was public
education on contraceptives and the benefits of smaller families. The disincentives
such as reduction of income tax relief to cover only the first three children;
progressive increment of childbirth fees charged in government hospitals based on
birth order; reduction of paid maternity leave from three to two confinements; and
lowering the priority for allocation of Housing and Development Board (HDB) flats
for families with more than two children. ? OR One-child policy, post-war China,
aimed at curbing the population growth rate of China through complicated system of
rewards, incentives, fines and punishments, which included massive advertising
campaigns, tax incentives for those who had just one child, women being forced or
coerced into having abortions, free services for single children, with heavy fees
for additional children and neighbours being encouraged to �inform� on family or
friends who were expecting or considering having more than one child. ? Implement
family planning programmes ? that aim to educate people on how to use birth control
to prevent unwanted pregnancies. ? Create more jobs ? by attracting multinational
companies to come and
set up a base in the country, by offering tax relief and other incentives. ? Build
more schools and housing ? to reduce the shortage, so that more people can be
educated and housed. Impacts of underpopulation ? Underpopulation ? where there are
not enough people to utilise the country�s resources efficiently. ? Shortage of
labour ? This causes labour costs to increase, hence the economy may look less
attractive to investors looking for cheap labour. ? Some companies such as
Microsoft have moved away from Singapore due to higher labour costs and difficulty
in finding labour. ? Schools may have to be closed down ? Schools will not be able
to meet the minimum threshold, making it very expensive to operate. ? Singapore has
merged several primary and secondary schools. ? Weakened national defence ? as
there are fewer people who can help to defend the country due to the shrinking
birth rate. Impacts of ageing population ? Ageing population ? where the average
age of the population increases/ there are more elderly dependents in the
country. ? Greater dependency ratio ? as there are many old, retired people. This
means that the economically active group may not be able to support them. ? Higher
taxes will thus have to be imposed ? Working population may feel the strain of
having to pay more taxes to support a growing number of elderly. ? Singapore is
planning to raise its Goods and Services tax. ? Government has to spend more
resources on healthcare services and facilities ? as the elderly are more prone to
health problems such as heart diseases. ? More hospitals such as the Ng Teng Fong
hospital in Jurong are built in Singapore to cater to the �silver tsunami�.
Strategies to underpopulation ? Pro-natal policies to boost births ? To encourage
people to give birth to more babies with the help of incentives. ? In Singapore,
there is a Baby Bonus of $8000 for the first and second child, $10000 for the third
and fourth child. This cash given by the government can be used for a child's
needs. ? Promote immigration through incentives offered to foreigners ? This will
encourage immigrants to enter the country, especially the young working age group,
as they will have babies in time and add to the young population. ? In November
2017, the Government of Canada announced a plan to gradually increase the number of
immigrants to be welcomed over the next three years. As a result, immigration will
trend toward 1% of Canada�s population in 2020. ? Raising of Retirement Age ? So
that the number of economically-active people can be larger, avoiding a higher
dependency ratio. ? The most general retirement age is 65 years old. Spain, Germany
and France are raising their retirement age from 65 to 67 years old, while the goal
in Britain and Ireland is 68 years old. Conclusion for essay: I feel that cultural
beliefs may also be a more significant factor to consider when analyzing such a
trend. While economic factors are significant in influencing the high birth rates
in LDCs, they are easier to manage as compared to cultural factors. For instance,
governments can work to develop their countries and improve access to
contraceptives. However, even with education, such socio-cultural beliefs often
remain entrenched for generations and thus are able to accurately affect birth
rates in spite of the prevailing economic and political conditions.

POPULATION Population structure Pyramidal shape pyramid ? Pyramidal shaped

pyramid ? It clearly has a wide base, narrow top and concave sides. ? It has a high
birth rate as indicated by its wide base ? The young dependents/ Age group 0-14
years is __% of the population. ? It has a low life expectancy and high death rate,
as indicated by its narrow top and concave sides ? The old dependents/ Age group >
65 years old is __% of the population. ? This population pyramid also indicates a
high dependency ratio ? There is a small number of economically active people, as
indicated on the diagram as people of ages 15-64 years, to support the young and
old dependents. Beehive shape pyramid ? Beehive shaped pyramid ? It clearly has a
narrow base, broader top and convex sides. ? It has a low birth rate as indicated
by its narrow base ? The young dependents/ Age group 0-14 years is __% of the
population. ? It has a high life expectancy and low death rate, as indicated by its
broader top and convex sides ? The old dependents/ Age group > 65 years old is __%
of the population. ? This population pyramid also indicates a low dependency
ratio ? There is a large number of economically active people, as indicated on the
diagram as people of ages 15-64 years, to support the young and old dependents.
High Birth rates Economic: ? Need for farm labour ? Less developed countries are
typically agrarian or agricultural societies, involving a lot of manual labour.
Thus, people tend to have many children to provide extra help on the farms or work.
? This can be seen in the fishing communities along the Mekong River in Cambodia
and Thailand, where fishermen have more children to help out with extra chores like
mending the nets or fishing. ? Expected to take care of their family in old age ?
hence people may have more children as an �insurance� for old age. ? For many Asian
families, it is not uncommon for the parents to expect their children to take care
of them in their old age. For example, villagers in the rural Mekong Delta tend to
have more children because of this. ? Need to replace lost children ? As healthcare
is not that developed in those years, many children would have perished before
reaching adulthood, leading the parents to have more children to ensure that enough
children survive till adulthood. ? This can be seen in the Sub-Saharan African
region, where infant mortality rates are the highest in the world. The fertility
rates in the region are also similarly high, and corresponded with IMR whenever
there is a decrease. Cultural: ? Added status in the community* ? children are seen
as a symbol of wealth and fertility, so people may have more children in order to
be seen as such. ? This can be observed in many Asian countries before the 21st
century, including Singapore, where wealthy tycoons are known to have many children
and wives. ? Preference for sons* ? Some cultures exhibit a strong preference for
sons as they are typically the breadwinners and are able to pass on the family
name. Hence, people will keep trying for children until they get a son. This
increases birth rates. ? This can be seen in countries like India, where only sons
are allowed to light funeral pyres. ? Cultural beliefs (can replace*) ? As these
countries tend to have a lower literacy rate, they may be more prone to following
certain cultural beliefs. Some cultures may see children as a symbol of wealth or
sign of virility, causing people to have many children so that they may appear to
be so. Many societies may also favour males over females as they may see the males
as breadwinners. In such patriarchal societies, people will keep trying for
children until they get a son, thus increasing birth rates. ? This can be seen in
countries like India, where only sons are allowed to light funeral pyres. ?
Religious beliefs ? Some religions believe strongly that all children are a �gift
from God� and hence encourage childbirth. ? Take for example the Philippines, where
84% of them are Roman Catholics. As the Catholic Church prohibits the use of
contraceptives, many people in the Philippines will not use them. This means that
unwanted pregnancies will not be prevented. In the mid 1990s, Philippines had one
of the highest birth rates in Asia with a growth rate of 2.4%. ? Lack of access to
contraceptives and family planning ? Without access to contraceptives, people are
unable to prevent unwanted pregnancies, and this results in higher birth rates.
Similarly, without family planning, people are unable to plan for and control the
number of children they have. ? One example can be seen in Kenya, where fertility
rates rose after budget cuts were made to family planning services. This caused a
revision of population size predictions by demographers. In 1990, demographers had
predicted the population of Kenya in 2050 would be 53 million. But now, the
population in 2050 is predicted to be 65 million. ? Early marriages ? This results
in longer child-bearing years as people get married earlier, resulting in more
children, thus increasing birth rates. ? This can be seen in Niger, where marriage
rates and first childbearing of adolescent girls are more than double that of
Nigeria and Burkina Faso, contributing to Niger�s TFR, which is the highest in the
world. Extra points ? Post-war population boom ? There is an optimistic outlook of
life after the war, and people believe that it is safe for them to have children.
This results in a higher Birth Rate. ? Industrialisation ? Newly emerging economies
are undergoing industrialisation, thus needing labour and having more money to have
kids. Low Birth rates ? High costs of living ? In countries where the cost of
living is high, it will cost a lot to send a child to school, and to feed and
clothe them. Thus people have fewer children due to the high costs of raising a
child, as they cannot afford raising too many children. ? This can be seen in
Singapore where it costs an average of $500,000 to raise a child to pre-university
levels. ? Preference for smaller families ? Due to hectic and stressful work
environments, people are increasingly choosing to have little or no children at
all, as they require time and effort to raise. ? In Singapore, married couples are
having fewer and fewer children over the years, with most families opting for 1 to
2 children. ? Later, fewer marriages ? People are increasingly delaying marriage
due to work or longer years of education. This results in a shorter range of
childbearing years, resulting in fewer children. ? In Singapore, the median ages of
first-time grooms and brides were 30.2 and 28.5 respectively in 2018. ? Anti-natal
policies ? This causes birth rates to start decreasing as people are discouraged
from having more children through incentives and punitive measures. ? For example,
Singapore had a successful anti-natal policy called �Stop at two� in the 1970s.
High Death rates ? Poor access to medical services ? They lack qualified doctors
and medical facilities. Hence sick people may not recover easily. ? Poor access to
clean drinking water ? Diseases spread easily, causing people to fall sick and die.
Low Death rates ? Improved standard of living ? More easily accessible medical
facilities and healthcare services, hence many diseases can be cured. People live
longer thus increasing life expectancy causing low death rates. ? Improvements in
water quality ? This means that cases of water-borne diseases are very rare,
resulting in a low death rate. ? Improvements in medicine/healthcare ? More
medication is invented, so people can recover from common illnesses that used to be
fatal. ? Green Revolution ? advancements in food production technologies and hence
better nutrition. Increased food production drastically. Impacts of
overpopulation ? Overpopulation ? where the population exceeds the carrying
capacity of the country and its resources. ? There will be a high dependency
ratio ? as there are many young dependents, and not enough economically-active
adults to support them. ? There could be famines ? as there are just too many
people and food is not produced fast enough to feed everyone. ? There will be a
housing shortage ? as there are so many people, and houses are limited. ? There
will also not be enough schools ? to provide adequate education for all, so some
children may not receive education, which can cause a strain on the government as
they will need to divert resources to meet this need. Strategies to
overpopulation ? Anti-natal policies ? to discourage people from having children
through the use of incentives and penalties. ? To limit the population growth the
government of Singapore introduced the �Stop at two� in the 1970s. There was public
education on contraceptives and the benefits of smaller families. The disincentives
such as reduction of income tax relief to cover only the first three children;
progressive increment of childbirth fees charged in government hospitals based on
birth order; reduction of paid maternity leave from three to two confinements; and
lowering the priority for allocation of Housing and Development Board (HDB) flats
for families with more than two children. ? OR One-child policy, post-war China,
aimed at curbing the population growth rate of China through complicated system of
rewards, incentives, fines and punishments, which included massive advertising
campaigns, tax incentives for those who had just one child, women being forced or
coerced into having abortions, free services for single children, with heavy fees
for additional children and neighbours being encouraged to �inform� on family or
friends who were expecting or considering having more than one child. ? Implement
family planning programmes ? that aim to educate people on how to use birth control
to prevent unwanted pregnancies. ? Create more jobs ? by attracting multinational
companies to come and
set up a base in the country, by offering tax relief and other incentives. ? Build
more schools and housing ? to reduce the shortage, so that more people can be
educated and housed. Impacts of underpopulation ? Underpopulation ? where there are
not enough people to utilise the country�s resources efficiently. ? Shortage of
labour ? This causes labour costs to increase, hence the economy may look less
attractive to investors looking for cheap labour. ? Some companies such as
Microsoft have moved away from Singapore due to higher labour costs and difficulty
in finding labour. ? Schools may have to be closed down ? Schools will not be able
to meet the minimum threshold, making it very expensive to operate. ? Singapore has
merged several primary and secondary schools. ? Weakened national defence ? as
there are fewer people who can help to defend the country due to the shrinking
birth rate. Impacts of ageing population ? Ageing population ? where the average
age of the population increases/ there are more elderly dependents in the
country. ? Greater dependency ratio ? as there are many old, retired people. This
means that the economically active group may not be able to support them. ? Higher
taxes will thus have to be imposed ? Working population may feel the strain of
having to pay more taxes to support a growing number of elderly. ? Singapore is
planning to raise its Goods and Services tax. ? Government has to spend more
resources on healthcare services and facilities ? as the elderly are more prone to
health problems such as heart diseases. ? More hospitals such as the Ng Teng Fong
hospital in Jurong are built in Singapore to cater to the �silver tsunami�.
Strategies to underpopulation ? Pro-natal policies to boost births ? To encourage
people to give birth to more babies with the help of incentives. ? In Singapore,
there is a Baby Bonus of $8000 for the first and second child, $10000 for the third
and fourth child. This cash given by the government can be used for a child's
needs. ? Promote immigration through incentives offered to foreigners ? This will
encourage immigrants to enter the country, especially the young working age group,
as they will have babies in time and add to the young population. ? In November
2017, the Government of Canada announced a plan to gradually increase the number of
immigrants to be welcomed over the next three years. As a result, immigration will
trend toward 1% of Canada�s population in 2020. ? Raising of Retirement Age ? So
that the number of economically-active people can be larger, avoiding a higher
dependency ratio. ? The most general retirement age is 65 years old. Spain, Germany
and France are raising their retirement age from 65 to 67 years old, while the goal
in Britain and Ireland is 68 years old. Conclusion for essay: I feel that cultural
beliefs may also be a more significant factor to consider when analyzing such a
trend. While economic factors are significant in influencing the high birth rates
in LDCs, they are easier to manage as compared to cultural factors. For instance,
governments can work to develop their countries and improve access to
contraceptives. However, even with education, such socio-cultural beliefs often
remain entrenched for generations and thus are able to accurately affect birth
rates in spite of the prevailing economic and political conditions.

Population

High Birth Rate

Causes
? Lack of family planning and contraceptives
? In Nigeria, many of the people are uneducated, while family
planning and contraception services are not easily accessible.
The people there may not know what family planning and
contraceptives are, and thus become resistant to accept it. This
may lead to unintentional births and resulting in high birth rates.

? Early marriages
? Women are usually more fertile at younger age, and early
marriages will allow couples to have more children, thus
increasing the birth rate.

? Cultural factors
? In India, only sons can light funeral pyres, and families with
daughters will continue to try for sons.
? In some societies, children are a symbol of wealth as people
believe only the rich can afford to raise a large family.

? Need for farm labour

? Children are valuable labour in farming families, and they are
expected to help out with farming in some countries. Hence, as
having more children will improve the farming efficiency,
families tend to be large.

Strategies
? China�s one child policy (1979)
? One family can only have one child
? Financial incentives (for those families which complied) and
disincentives (for those who did not follow) offered
? Benefits for the only child (better opportunity when applying for
schools etc.)

? Resulted in the 4-2-1 family structure, where one child had to

provide for 2 parents and 4 grandparents, leading to a huge
financial strain on the only child
Ageing Population/Low Birth Rate
Causes
? Preference for smaller families
? Costs are high to raise a child, thus discouraging couples to
have large families.

? Better educated women/Late marriages

? They may want to pursue their careers first instead of starting a
family.

Impacts
? Maternity wards and schools built for a larger younger population may
have to be shut down as there are insufficient people due to low birth
rates.
? There will be a shortage of labour which may result in high labour
cost as countries may not be able to fully develop their resources.
? The working population will feel a strain as taxes rise to support the
growing elderly population.
? More healthcare services will be required for the elderly as they are
more prone to health problems.
Strategies
? Increase retirement age
? Incentives can be given to draw back women or retired people
to the workforce.

? Accept more foreign talents and workers

? This adds on to the working population so that taxes can be
shared among more people.
? Incentives to encourage births
? As the cost of raising children is high, providing monetary and
leave incentives will help more couples to raise children.

? Build more healthcare and medical facilities

? As the elderly population increases, there will be a greater
demand on healthcare services.

Low Death Rate

? Better medical and healthcare services available and easily
accessible, generally more trained healthcare professionals.
? Higher hygiene standards and better living conditions.
? Better nutrition for people.

Housing shortages

Causes
? High birth rates (Rapid population growth)
? The world population increased sharply from 2.5 billion in 1950
to 7.9 billion in 2021
? In Nigeria, the birth rates are at around 37 births per 1000
people, more than double the average global birth rate of 18
births per 1000

? Migration
? Rural-urban migration (happens within the same country)
? People from the rural areas of Brazil are attracted by work
opportunities in Sao Paulo, but there may be insufficient jobs to
cater to the large number of migrants
? Some may lack the skills required for certain jobs, and hence
unable to afford housing
? Cities may not be able to build sufficient houses quickly enough
for the huge number of migrants, causing them to resort to
living in slums
? Competing land use
? Land is used for residential, commercial, industrial and
recreational purposes
? With so many possible uses of land in cities, the competition
may result in limited land being set aside for housing
? In Singapore, the government has committed 17 per cent of the
land supply to housing, and to achieve this, some of the golf
courses will be removed

? Limited land supply

? Physical features such as seas, rivers and mountains could
limit the amount of land to be used to build housing
? In Singapore, it only has 719 square kilometres, which is a very
small area as compared to the larger neighbouring countries

? In Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, the city is surrounded by steep slopes,

which is not suitable for housing

Impacts
? Homelessness (slums and squatter settlements)
? Example: slums found outside Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, built on
the slopes
? Government will have to provide the necessary infrastructure
and basic needs for them
? The quality of housing is usually very poor
? Environmental pollution
? Land pollution
? In Kibera, Nairobi, Kenya, land and drains are filled with waste
due to a lack of proper garbage disposal system, resulting in a
foul smell and can become an eyesore
? Water pollution
? In the Guanabara Bay in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, it has turned
from a clear white beach in the 1970s to polluted waters with
floating rubbish now

? Vulnerability
? Fires: As slums are usually built close to one another and are
made of easily flammable materials, it can lead to devastating
fires easily
? In Mumbai, 2013, a fire destroyed more than 100 houses, and
left many people homeless
? Landslides: It can be very disastrous especially in densely
populated slums built on steep slopes
? In 2010, 256 people were killed after a house collapsed down a
hill in a favela in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
? Eviction: As slums and squatter settlements may be built on
land without the authorities� permission, they face the threat of
eviction and can be forced out of their homes anytime

? In 2012, about 40000 people living in the Korail slum in Dhaka,

Bangladesh were evicted when a court order to clear the land
was issued

? Low levels of health due to poor living conditions

? There is usually a lack of access to clean drinking water and
proper sanitation, making people vulnerable to diseases.
? For example, in Nairobi, Kenya, the death rate of children less
than 5 years old in slums is 2.5 times higher than those in the
other parts of the city, according to 2008 data by WHO

Strategies
? Slum upgrading
? Self-help schemes by the Rocinha Project held in Rio de
Janeiro, Brazil.
? Government provides training and materials while the residents
provide labour themselves, allowing the government to save
money to provide more basic services
? Slum upgrading efforts in Nairobi, Kenya
? The government partnered with the United Nations in a project
aiming to provide residents with rights to build on existing land,
and improve housing conditions and infrastructure.
? This requires the residents to be shifted away temporarily while
new housing units were built, and they can only return after the
upgrading is completed
? Provision of public housing
? Public housings are reasonably priced as compared to private
housing, and may be further subsidised by the government
? HDB set up in 1960 to provide public housing (higher quality
with basic services) for Singapore�s increasing population

Transport

Causes
? Separation of work and residential areas
? People often work in different parts of the city, and they will
need to commute to work and back regularly.
? In 2011, a total of 132 million people in the United States
commute between their work and residential areas daily.
? Although it can be done by both public and private transport,
most people prefer private transport as it is more convenient
and flexible.

? Movement from in cities to obtain and provide goods and services

? Some people may need to purchase specialised goods from
stalls or attend classes in a different part of the city.
? Some may need to travel within the city to provide goods and
services, like delivery of goods.
? This raises the demand for transport, and may result in traffic
congestion.

? Inadequate transport infrastructure and provision of transport services

? It means that a city�s transport facilities and services are not
capable of handling the amount of traffic and demand they
receive.
? For example, in Mumbai, India, trains and buses are often filled
to many times their capacity, hence many turn to driving their
own private vehicles for a better journey.

Impact
? Reduced productivity
? When people have to spend more time commuting, it wastes
precious time which can be spent on productive work.
? In Singapore, the economic loss from inefficient transport sums
up to 9 per cent of the country�s annual income per person, and
this may be much worse in some other countries.
? Stress on physical &amp; mental health
? During traffic congestion, some people may experience stress
and anxiety, and this may lead to fatigue after a long time.
? When drivers lose their concentration, it increases the chances
for accidents or even deaths to occur on the road.

? Air pollution
? Cars emit greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide and
nitrous oxide, which can trap heat from the atmosphere and
contribute to global warming. Other harmful gases can also
lead to smog, a combination of smoke and fog.
? For example, in Beijing, China 2014, it experienced a very bad
toxic air pollution, with the concentration of PM 2.5 particles as
high as 505 micrograms per cubic metre, 20 times higher than
the safe level of 25 recommended by the World Health
Organisation.
? Noise pollution
? Traffic congestion produces harmful and excessive noise that
may disrupt animal and human life.
? For example, in Kolkata, India, drivers honk very frequently at
about one honk per 5 seconds according to a news report.
Each honk is usually 65 decibels, over the lawful limit of 55
decibels in residential areas.

Strategies
? Integrated public transport system
? It connects various modes of public transportation that function
as a whole, and it is an important first step to encourage people
to take public transport.
? For example, in Singapore, there are 10 transport hubs with
bus interchanges that are fully integrated with rail services as of
2021. For smoother transfer between buses and trains, the
same ticketing system, EZ-Link is for these public transport
services.
? Convenient, accessible, efficient, yet requires extensive
planning and is costly to build.

? Bus lane schemes

? Bus lanes are lanes specially set aside for buses on specific
days and times, allowing buses to travel smoothly and
uninterrupted,
? In Singapore, a $130 fine is given to vehicles which enter the
bus lanes during operating hours.
? Normal bus lanes: Weekday peak hours only.
? Full-day bus lanes: Daily 7.30-11pm.
? Allows buses to arrive on schedule and not be affected by
traffic congestion, but takes up precious road capacity and may
lead to congestion for private cars.

? Expansion of rail networks

? It means increasing the number of locations that trains can
reach, through adding more tracks and more stations.
? Under the Land Transport Master Plan 2013, more MRT lines
will be built and more stations will be added to the existing
ones. By 2030, it is expected that the rail network will double in
length with stations easily accessible and convenient.
? It can travel to more destinations previously unavailable but it is
expensive and causes disruption during construction.
? Increasing capacity and frequency of buses and rail services

? To encourage public transport, buses and trains can be

upgraded to carry more people efficiently.
? In Singapore, programmes and plans have been launched to
increase bus and rail capacity and frequency. For instance, in
2015, the 18 trains had been added to the north-east line and
the capacity had increased by 70%.

? Road pricing
? It charges drivers when they use certain roads and can be
adjusted from time to time.
? In Singapore, Electronic Road Pricing (ERP) has been
implemented in the 1990s where money will be deducted from
the car�s In-car Unit (IU) when it passes through any of the 78
ERP gantries.
? Although it discourages driving during peak hours on certain
roads, traffic may be diverted to other roads and lead to
congestion elsewhere.
? Increased parking fees
? This increases the cost of driving and discourages the use of
private transports.
? In Shanghai, China 2014, parking fees in the downtown area
were increased to 15 yuan for the first hour and 20 yuan for
every additional hour.
? Though it increases the cost of owning a car, it may result in
illegal parking which can block traffic or pose danger to people.

? Enhanced traffic monitoring

? Cities can make use of technology to monitor traffic and inform
the public.
? For example, in Singapore, one such monitoring system is the
Expressway Monitoring and Advisory System (EMAS). In the
event of vehicle breakdown or accident, live information will be
made available to drivers and they may opt to take an
alternative route.
? While it allows drivers to avoid places with traffic congestion, it
does not reduce the number of vehicles on the road and may
cause congestion on other roads.

? Telecommuting
? It is a work arrangement where employees work from home or
near their home. This is made possible as the technology
advances and people are able to interact with one another even
when they are not physically meeting.
? When fewer people travel out of the residential areas, it
reduces the number of drivers especially during peak hours.
However, it may not be feasible for all companies.

? Encourage cycling
? Cycling is an environmentally friendly and sustainable mode of
transportation.
? In Copenhagen, Denmark, here is a wide network of cycling
lanes available which covers a large part of the city. It is an
important means of transport as about 52 per cent of the people
commute by cycling.
? Although it provides greater flexibility and mobility, it may be
dangerous and unfeasible as some due to the topography.
Factors Affecting Natural Population Growth
1. Improved Living Standards
Explanation (increase): Improved living standards means that there is a higher
level of healthcare and sanitation, such as clean water. The high level of
sanitation reduces the number of people who fall sick, the higher level of
healthcare means that patients will be able to receive better medical care in time.
This causes the death rate to decrease and the life expectancy to increase, which
leads to a natural increase in population.
1. Example (increase): Singapore, a developed country that has advanced health care
and a high level of sanitation has a low death rate of 5.2 deaths per 1000 people.

Explanation (decrease): Improved living standards refer to a developed economy,

which means that many births are required for manpower. Moreover, improved living
standards also refer to a developed society, where there is better family planning,
which reduces the fertility rate and birth rate, thus decreasing the population
growth. Also, improved living standards increase the cost of living in the more
developed urban areas, which causes families to have fewer children as it is too
expensive to raise them. In addition, women are more educated and they will rather
pursue their careers, so they do not want to spend time at home taking care of
children, as a result, they will have fewer children.
Example (decrease): Singapore is a developed country that has a Family Planning and
Population Board to control the population growth through family planning, and most
women in the country are educated. It has a low birth rate of 1.14 births per woman
in 2019.

2. Government Policies
Explanation: The government can launch policies to increase or slow down the birth
rate, depending on the country�s situation. The government can give rewards, salary
bonuses etc. to people who abide by the policy, while those who violated them were
given punishments and salary deductions. The government may also ban/encourage the
use of contraceptives to increase/decrease birth rates.
Example (increase): In 1987, the Singapore government launched the �Have three or
more - if you can afford it� policy to reverse the decreasing birth rate caused by
the previous �Stop at 2� policy. Paid maternity leave and Baby bonuses were given
to help citizens support their children financially, encouraging them to have more
children. The 1st and 2nd children get an $8000 baby bonus, while the 3rd child
gets a $10000 baby bonus.
Example (decrease): In 1979, the Chinese government started the �One Child Policy�
to slow down the population boom after World War II. Rewards and salary bonuses
were given to people who abided by the policy, while fines and annual tax for those
who violated the policy. This caused a drop in the birth rate from 6.4 in 1965 to
1.6 in 2000.

3. Cultural Attitudes�
Explanation (Increase): In different cultures and religions, it is often encouraged
to have an extended family. Moreover, twins and triplets are considered blessings
to the family, which will encourage couples to keep trying until they have twins.
Example (Increase): The Muslims treasure their extended family very much, due to
the communal family spirit, thus they are encouraged to have more children.

Explanation (Increase): Some religions may ban the use of contraceptives due to
various reasons, like going against �nature�s law�. As a result, these religious
families may have more children as they are unable to prevent pregnancies.
Example (Increase): Christians ban the use of contraceptives as it is said to be
going against �nature�s law�. As a result, Christian families have more children as
they are unable to prevent pregnancies.

Explanation (Increase): Some countries or religions have a preference for males due
to them being able to carry on the family lineage. As a result, these families will
have more children in hopes of giving birth to a boy.��
Example (Increase): Asians tend to have a preference for males because they carry
on the family name. The birth rate in China before the one-child policy was
exceptionally high, at 6.4 per woman in 1965.

4. Increased Accessibility and Availability of Contraceptives (Hinders Population

Growth)
Explanation: The increased accessibility of contraceptives allow more people to use
contraceptives, which will reduce the number of unwanted pregnancies and thus the
number of accidental births. This causes a lower fertility rate and birth rate,
which hinders population growth.
Example: During the 1960s in China, the government started giving out free
contraceptives as part of the One-Child Policy. This reduced the number of unwanted
pregnancies and births in China, hence reducing the fertility rate from 6.4
children per woman in 1965 to 1.6 children per woman in 2000.

5. Better Education (Hinders Population Growth)

Explanation: Many educated couples believe that education is the key to their
child�s success. However the high education fees pressure these couples to have
fewer children, so they can afford the education fees for every child. This results
in lower fertility and birth rate, which hinders population growth.
Example: In 1990, the education costs in Hong Kong was one of the highest in the
world. This caused the population pyramid to change from a large-base pyramid to a
beehive shape. The fertility rate in Hong Kong also dropped from 3.46 per woman in
1970 to 1.27 children per woman in 1990.

Explanation: More educated women tend to have children later and have fewer
children. They tend to spend more time working to earn money to support their
family.
Example: Japan, which has a 100% primary school enrollment, has a low birth rate of
1.3 children per woman.

6. Evaluation
Government policies are the most significant factor in influencing natural
population increase as they can be implemented anytime. Regardless of country and
culture

Overpopulation
Overpopulation refers to when a large number of people in an area relative to the
number of resources available, such that there are not enough resources to
accommodate the population. (usually developing countries)
Causes of Overpopulation
1. High birth rates
Explanation: Many uneducated people do not know how to use contraceptives, which
will cause many unwanted pregnancies, and they are not educated about family
planning. Some countries or religions also do not allow the use of contraceptives.
In other countries, children are a valued source of labour. This increases the
birth rate, thus increasing the population.
Example: Eritrea has a low primary school enrolment of 35.7%, and has a high birth
rate of 1.6 children per woman.
Example: China before the one-child policy was a poor country, and agriculture was
one of the only sources of income for most poor families. Children were considered
valuable sources of labour so more children determined more economic benefit and
thus resulting in high birth rates.

2. Immigration
Explanation: Immigration occurs when foreigners migrate to a country through
unfavourable conditions in their homelands like war and diseases called push
factors and favourable conditions in the target country like constant warfare and
job opportunities called pull factors. These people settle down in another country
and add to the population there, regardless of whether they have a family there or
are alone.
Example: The United States of America's population increased from 152 million
people in 1950 to 270 million people in 2002, a 78% increase in population, due to
the huge number of immigrants who were attracted by America�s large population.
Example: In Singapore, 60% of the people are local citizens while 40% are
foreigners, because of Singapore�s liberal attitude towards immigration in 1990.
(Now causes social issues like their housing problems)

3. Need for Manpower

Explanation: In countries that have huge amounts of labour work, such as farming
and agriculture, the people will tend to have more children so that the children
can help out on farms and increase manpower.
Example: �In China, people from lower economic classes had more children so that
their children can help them earn a living.

4. Technological Advancements in Fertility Treatment

Explanation: Technological advancements have enabled infertile couples to undergo
fertility treatment processes to conceive their baby.
Example: 40 to 45 % of women under 35 years old in the United States in 2014
underwent vitro fertility treatment, causing them to be pregnant, hence increasing
the fertility rate and birth rate.

Impacts of Overpopulation
1. High Unemployment Rates
Explanation: Overpopulation leads to more competition for jobs, which results in
more people being unemployed. This will cause unemployed people to resort to crime
in order to survive.
Example: Afghanistan has one of the highest unemployment rates of 35.1%, causing
Afghanistan people to suffer from poverty and lack of housing due to unemployment.
2. Insufficient Resources
Exclamation: The large population means that there are insufficient resources like
food and clean water to accommodate the population. This will cause more people to
die of thirst and disease, increasing the death rate.
Example: China has to feed 22% of the global population with only 10% of the global
arable land which led to many people starving and feeling sick.
Strategies for Overpopulation
1. Reducing the High Birth Rate
Explanation: Overpopulated countries can educate their people on family planning
through family planning programs and the benefits of birth control.
Example: In India, many family planning clinics have been set up to educate people
about family planning.
Limitation: Some families might not listen to the advice provided by family
planning clinics and continue having more children which will increase the birth
rate.

2. Reducing Unemployment
Explanation: Overpopulated countries can try to expand the economy and seek other
companies and investors to set up business in the country, which will offer more
job opportunities, thereby reducing unemployment rates. Training schools can also
be set up to equip people with the necessary skills to get a job.
Example: Singapore has a Workforce Development Agency, which helps to equip
unemployed Singaporeans with the skills to get a job.
Limitation: Some companies might not be willing to invest in less developed
countries� economies due to bad reputations such as low security.
Underpopulation
Underpopulation occurs when there are not enough people to maximise the use of
resources in the county.

Causes of Underpopulation
1. Absence of pro-natal policies
Explanation: The lack of pro-natal policies, such as helping to reduce the costs of
having a child, will discourage people from having children, decreasing the
fertility and birth rate.
Example: In Italy, there are no pro-natal policies such as subsidies for housing to
curb the skyrocketing rent and housing prices, thus many people cannot afford to
raise a child.

2. Education
Explanation: A higher level of education means that children are taught about
family and birth control at a young age, which discourages them from having many
children, thus reducing fertility and birth rate, decreasing the population.
Example: Italians receive compulsory education from 6 to 16 years old and are
taught about family planning and birth control methods.
3. Changing attitudes towards women joining the workforce
Explanation: Women joining the workforce is now seen as more conventional,
encouraging more women to get a job. This means that women have to juggle work time
and do not have time to have a child.
Example: In Italy, many women prioritize jobs over children, so they will spend
more time on their jobs than having a child, which decreases the birth rate.
Impacts of Underpopulation
1. Lack of Manpower
Explanation: Underpopultaoin means that there are not enough people to take up the
jobs needed for the country to run, reducing the country's productivity.
Example: Japan�s low birth rate has caused it to be lacking in manpower in various
sectors such as construction and elderly care, which reduces Japan�s productivity.
2. Closure of Schools
Explanation: Underpopulation will cause fewer students in each school, which does
not maximise the efficiency of the schools, so the government will close some
schools to reduce the cost of raising children.
Example: Thwaites announced in September 2015 that it was going to close
approximately 18 schools that had a low number of students.
Strategies for Underpopulation
1. Increasing Technology Opportunities
Explanation: Investing in the technology sector allows the economy to become more
digitally developed, thus increasing the number of job opportunities for the locals
and foreigners, attracting more people to settle down in the country.
Example: The Digital Serbian Initiative invests in local startups and encourages
foreign companies to move into Serbia, with the aim of creating a digitally
competitive economy in Serbia.
Limitation: This strategy may be expensive to implement especially in poorer
countries that do not have adequate technology or infrastructure.
2. Investing in Local Development
Explanation: Making use of the active cultural scenes while developing the
infrastructure can help make small towns and rural areas of a country more
attractive to live in.
Example: During the second half of the 20th century, many immigrants moved and
settled down in Singapore due to its cultural diversity and advanced infrastructure
such as HDB flats, which provided housing for many people.
Limitation: This strategy requires political stability where the government is not
corrupted, so that money can be used for local development instead of for the
government's personal use.
Ageing Population
Causes of Aging Population
1. High Living Costs
Explanation: Most of the time, the monetary incentives provided by the government
are not enough to cover the costs of having a child. This causes fewer people to
have children and reduces the birth rate, therefore there are fewer people in the
working class to support the elderly, increasing the country�s dependency ratio.
Example: In Singapore, the Baby Bonus policy gives people $8000 for their 1st and
2nd baby born. However, it is not enough to cover the high costs of housing and
education for the children, thus Singapore has a birth rate of 1.14 in 2018.

Impacts on Aging Population

1. Increase in Dependency Ratio
Explanation: Due to the low birth rate, there will be a larger proportion of the
ageing population in the workforce population. Retired people in countries with an
ageing population will not have to pay tax as they are not working anymore, so the
working population will have to pay more tax.
Example: Japan has a low birth rate of 7.397 children per 1000 people in 2019 and
has a high dependency ratio of 68.28% in 2019.
2. Lack of Manpower
Explanation: An ageing population requires more resources to support, as they can
get injured easily. Thus a larger workforce is required to support the ageing
population. However, the birth rates in such countries are low, hence there are not
enough people joining the workforce to support the elderly, causing a lack of
manpower.
Example: In Singapore 1997, about 10 people were supporting 1 elderly aged 65 and
above, but in Singapore 2030, it is estimated that there will be 3 people
supporting 1 elderly aged 65 and above, as the elderly population will make up 18%
of the total population in Singapore in 2020.
Strategies for Aging Population
1. Increase Retirement Age
Explanation: This increases the number of economically active people, especially
the older people so that they are less elderly dependent on the younger working
force to support them.
Example: In 2020, China has announced that it has plans to increase its retirement
age to 60 for men and 55 for women, to cope with the ageing population in China.
Limitation: Older people who work in physically taxing jobs may overwork themselves
and possibly injure themselves, resulting in more elderly dying from their
injuries, thus increasing the death rate.
2. Promote Immigration through Incentives
Explanation: Incentives such as scholarships can encourage foreign talents to work
in the country, increasing the number of economically active people. This means
that there are more people in the workforce to support the elderly, reducing the
dependency ratio.
Example: In Singapore, about 31700 foreigners received their Permanent Resident
status each year over the past 5 years, with 22100 new citizens every year in the
past 5 years too.
Limitation: Immigration of foreign talents will cause more competition for jobs,
which will result in locals being unable to get a job.
3. Pro-natal Policies
Explanation: Governments can implement policies to encourage people to have more
babies in Singapore, such as subsidies for housing fees, lower taxes and priority
for education.
Example: In 2001, the Singapore government rolled out the Baby Bonus that gives
families $8000 for the first two children and $10000 for the 3rd and subsequent
children to subsidise the cost of having children, encouraging more people to have
children.
Limitations: There will be some couples who are not motivated by these incentives,
which will reduce the number the children born

Population Graph
Triangular Pyramidal Shape
Populations that are young and growing, which are usually the developing countries
� Broad base (high birth rate), with a large percentage of the population being in
the younger age groups
� Rapid narrowing towards the top (high death rate)�
� Shorter height (low life expectancy)�
Beehive-shape / Rocket-shape
Populations that are elderly and shrinking, which are usually countries with higher
levels of development�
� Narrower base, with young dependents forming less than 30% of the total
population�
� Wide or bulging middle section, with most of the population economically-active�
� Gradual tapering towards the top (low death rate and high life expectancy)�
Rectangular shape
Populations that are not growing, which are usually the developed countries�
� Very narrow base (very low birth rate)�
� Roughly equal percentages across age groups�
� Tapering occurs only near the top of the pyramid (very low death rate)

Housing Shortage
Causes of Housing Shortage
1. Rapid Population Growth
Explanation: Rapid population growth causes an increase in housing demand, which
puts more pressure on the housing supply. When the housing supply is unable to meet
the increasing housing demand, more people will not have a home to live in,
resulting in them being homeless.
Example: In present day Nigeria, there is a housing shortage as the population is
growing too fast three is a lack of housing for everyone, making many people in
Nigeria homeless.
2. Rural-Urban Migration
Explanation: Migration refers to the movement of people from one area to another.
Rural-urban migration refers to the movement of people from rural areas into cities
to live and work. People move to cities in search of a better life. They are
attracted by the wider range of economic activities compared to rural areas.
However, there may be insufficient jobs to cater to the huge number of migrants.
Migrants may also lack the skill required for jobs available in the cities Hence,
they have difficulty getting jobs and are not able to afford housing.
Example: Many people in rural areas of Brazil are attracted by work opportunities
in Sao Paulo. However, those who are unable to get a job and buy a house have to
live in slums.
Example: In 1950, a third of the world�s population lived in urban areas. In 2007,
there were more people living in cities than in rural areas for the first time in
history. By 2030, the urban population is estimated to increase to 5 billion.
Example: According to data from the Office for National Statistics, in the United
Kingdom, babies born to fariegn-born mothers accounted for over a quarter of the
total births in 2012-2013, while births in UK-born mothers remained the same. This
show the extent of the rural-urban migration
3. High Birth Rates
Explanation: Some cities experience high rates of natural increase due to high
birth rates and declining death rates. Cities have a large portion of people who
are in their 30s and 20s (due to rural-urban migration) who are likely to start
families. This leads to the above-average of fertility which contributes to the
high increase in cities.
Example: London�s population increased rapidly by 100k from 2012 to 2013, with high
birth and migration rates, and there were 86000 more births than deaths.
Example: 30% of people lived in cities in 1950, increasing to 54% in 2020, expected
to increase to 70% in 2050.
4. Competing Land Use
Explanation: There are many uses for land, such as residential, commercial,
industrial and recreational uses. This means that there is less land for countries
to build residential areas on.
Example: Singapore has a lot of land needs and only assigns 17% of its land to
housing its population, which might create housing shortages in future.
Example: Environmental-protection groups oppose the cutting of trees to make way
for residential use.
5. Limited Land Supply
Explanation: Some countries have limited amounts of land that are suitable for
building housing. This is dependent on the physical features of a country such as
flatlands, which are suitable for building housing.
Example: Hong Kong is a small island surrounded by water. As it is also surrounded
by countries like China and Taiwan, they are only able to reclaim a limited amount
of land. Thus, it does not have enough land to build enough housing for its
population.
Example: Singapore has 714km-sq of land and Hong Kong has 1,104km-sq of land.
Impacts of Housing Shortage
1. Homelessness
Explanation: When there is a lack of houses or a high demand for houses, some
people end up being homeless.�
Example: There are up to 610,000 people homeless in the US every night.
2. Water Pollution
Explanation: Rivers near the slums become polluted due to untreated sewage being
disposed of in the water bodies. Contaminants from the rivers may also seep into
the group through infiltration and affect other water bodies like wells.
Example: Guanabara Bay in Brazil experiences pollution due to disposal of untreated
sewage into the bay from nearby slums and squatter settlements. The bay is now
filled with floating rubbish and polluted waters.
3. Land Pollution
Explanation: In slums, there are no proper rubbish disposal systems, and hence
rubbish is improperly disposed of, like being thrown into the drains. The drains
get clogged, creating stagnant water bodies which are mosquito breeding grounds.
The mosquitos will end up spreading diseases like malaria and dengue to the slum
dwellers. The rubbish is also unsightly and produces a pungent smell.
Example: The Smokey Mountain in the Philippines has 30,000 people living in it, and
the name of the slum is explained by the smoke emitted from burning the garbage
4. Lack of Safety
Explanation: Slums are made out of flimsy and flammable materials such as wood,
which provides little protection for the slum dwellers. Houses may also be built on
unsuitable land areas which may be low-lying or on steep slopes, making them
vulnerable to natural disasters. This makes slum dwellers vulnerable to fires and
natural disasters like landslides.
Example: In April 2010, 256 people were killed after a house collapsed down a hill
slope in a favela in Brazil.
Example: A fire in a slum in Mumbai destroyed 150 houses and killed 6 people.�
5. Lack of Security
Explanation: In slums, the houses were built illegally in the first place and can
be demolished by the government anytime, leaving the slum dwellers living in fear
of conviction.
Example: 40000 slum dwellers in a slum in Bangladesh protested because they were
ordered to leave their slums which were about to be destroyed. The government only
stopped the protests by temporarily stopping the eviction of residents.�
Strategies for Housing Shortage
1. Slum Upgrading
Explanation: Slum upgrading refers to improving slums so that they are sturdier and
have basic services like clean water and electricity. The residents have to be
housed somewhere temporarily while the slums are being upgraded.
Example: For example, the slum upgrading in Nairobi, Kenya by UN-Habitat. It is a
project that aims to provide residents with the rights to build on the existing
land and improve housing and infrastructure. The residents were moved to public
housing and the vacated slums were upgraded.�
Limitation: Some residents may find it difficult to pay for the temporary housing
units if not given financial assistance by the government.

2. Slum Upgrading (Self-help Schemes)

Explanation: This method is similar to Slum Upgrading, but instead they are done
through self-help schemes, where the government and organizations provide supplies
while the slum dwellers upgrade their slums by themselves. This reduces the
construction cost as no workers are required to be hired. Training needs to be
provided to equip residents with the skills to build their homes so the residents
can build their houses at their own pace.
Example: The Rocinha Project in Brazil aims to upgrade slums in Rocinha. Most of
the wooden houses have been replaced with sturdier concrete houses. 75 per cent of
houses have electricity compared to 30 per cent in the past. Rooftop water tanks
and piped water systems were added to provide clean water. Proper sanitation
facilities such as toilets and a proper sewage system were also built.
Limitation: The rate of construction might also be slower as residents can only
build the houses during their free time, like after their working times.
3. Public Housing
Explanation: Public housing refers to government efforts to provide housing that
have basic services that cater to people with different needs such as the elderly
and the disabled. Housing can also be subsidised by the government to make it
affordable for the general population.
Example: In the 1960s, Singapore set up the Housing Development Board to clear the
slums in the country and to build affordable public housing for the general
Singapore population. After the Bukit Ho Swee Fire in 1961 that destroyed many
homes, the government managed to relocate everyone successfully, winning over the
public�s trust. In 2013, more than 80% of Singaporeans live in HDB flats.
Limitation: However, it is challenging to monitor and evaluate all the public
housing projects, especially in big countries.
HDB Housing
As of 2013, over 80% of the Singaporean population live in HDB flats.
HDB Towns often consist of the following:
Town Centre
Several Neighbourhood Centres
Amenities (Educational, Institutional and Recreational)
Affordability
Singapore has a Central Provident Fund that subsidised housing costs for
Singaporeans. Singaporeans have to contribute a portion of their salary to the CPF
every month, and their employers must also contribute to their employees� CPFs. The
CPF money can be withdrawn for special cases, such as retirement and purchasing a
house.
Racial Harmony
Singapore introduced the Ethnic Integration Policy in 1989. The policy set limits
on the percentages of each race living in a flat. For example, Chinese people can
only occupy 83% of every flat. Thus, if the Chinese quota is fulfilled but there
are empty units for sale, Chinese cannot buy them. The policy is meant to encourage
racial mixing and prevent a sole race from occupying the entire HDB. However, this
makes flats sold to the Chinese more expensive as there is a greater demand for
them.
Sense of Belonging
The meaning and value people attach to a place arise from people�s interactions
with the place. It could be the pleasant experiences or memories of the place or a
unique physical feature of it that makes it stand out, allowing people to remember
it better.
Example: Dragon Playground in Toa Payoh
Example: Spiralling staircase in Tiong Bahru�
Causes of Traffic Congestions
1. Commuting Between Work and Residential Areas
Explanation: People work and live in different parts of the cities, resulting in
the need to travel from one place to another to work or back home.�
Example: In 2013, the average number of cars entering the CBD in Singapore daily
was 290,000. In many cities with high car ownership, you would see many cars
entering and leaving the CBD resulting in traffic congestion.�

2. Poor Provision of Public Transport

Explanation: Provision of transport services refers to the services provided to
transport people and goods from one place to another. Poor provision of transport
services means that a city has a small fleet of buses and trains and does not have
enough of them to carry commuters. This often leads to overcrowded buses and
trains, buses not arriving on time and train breakdowns. This discourages people
from taking public transport and they would instead take private transport.
Example: In Mumbai, India, trains are always filled to many times their capacities
and buses are filled with passengers and they are always caught in traffic. Hence,
people opt to buy cars instead for a more pleasant commute.�

3. Inadequate Transport Infrastructure

Explanation: When more people take private transportations, there may be too many
vehicles to handle as they have a lack of carrying capacity. There may also be
poorly connected transport networks that cause more congestion. There will be a
lack of alternative routes, resulting in the build up of traffic during peak hours
or in one-off events like accidents and road works.
Example: Expressways with few exits result in vehicles exiting from the same exit,
congesting at the same exit.

4. Provision of Goods and Services

Explanation: Goods are required to be transported to city dwellers and people in
rural areas. Vehicles are needed to transport the goods from place to place and buy
the goods from shops and stores.

5. One-Off Events (Weather/Accidents etc.)

Explanation: Weather is one of the causes of traffic congestion. Bad weather
includes heavy downpours, snow, hail, fog or haze. This causes reduced visibility
and slippery roads. This then contributes to slow traffic speed and accident
frequency and severity. High traffic and slow traffic speed, cause traffic jams and
accidents and reduces the number of lanes available. Accidents, road works etc. may
also block roads and direct traffic to the same road, causing traffic congestion as
people from different roads to gather on the same road.
Example: For example, 30 cars collided on a bridge in Montana, United States in a
major winter weather accident. It is the most severe winter accident and car pileup
in nearly 20 years.�
6. Large population0
Explanation: High birth rates and low death rates contribute to a large population.
In many cities, there is a large population of people in their 20s and 30s, ready
to start a family. This contributes to high fertility rates and high natural
increases. Example: According to the Office of National Statistics, London�s
population increased by 100.1k from 2012 to 2013, due to high birth rates and high
migration rates. London also recorded 86,000 more births than deaths. Rural-urban
migration also results in a large population. Rural-urban migration refers to the
movement of people from rural areas in a country to the cities to live and work,
due to better work opportunities. With a larger population, more people would be
commuting to and from school, work or recreation, resulting in more people
commuting and more traffic congestion.�
Impacts of Traffic Congestion
1. Reduced Productivity
Explanation: When people are trapped in congestion, they are stuck in their
vehicles and wasting time instead of doing productivity like working, which can
bring economic benefits. Traffic congestion also slows down the rates at which
goods are being transported, reducing economic growth.
Example: An average of 79 hours a month are wasted in traffic congestion in London.

2. Stress on Physical and Mental Health

Explanation: People caught in traffic often face stress and anxiety, negatively
impacting their physical and mental health. Long travelling hours cause fatigue.
This can lead to drivers losing their concentration or falling asleep which can
cause accidents and even death. Traffic congestion also poses another serious
health hazard. It is a source of exhaust fumes from idling vehicles caught in
traffic. The exhausts contain carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide and particulate
matter. These particulates are so small that they can penetrate deep into the lung
tissue, causing inflammation. Long term exposure to these fumes has been linked to
several health issues including lung infections and asthma.�

3. Air Pollution
Explanation: When vehicles are trapped in traffic congestion, they will produce
exhaust fumes. Vehicles that remain stationary during a congestion burn fuel to
keep the engine and air conditioning working. More fuel is burned in start-stop
traffic when the car accelerates and brakes.
Example: In the US, 50% of air pollution is caused by vehicles. The greenhouse
gases produced by cars cause global warming as they are trapped in the ozone
layer.�

4. Noise Pollution
Explanation: Noise pollution occurs when there are excessive harmful noises that
can affect human and animal life. Noise pollution affects human health and disrupts
their activities at work, home or school. It can disturb sleep, cause
cardiovascular and psychophysical effects, reduce productivity, provoke annoyance
responses and changes in social behaviour.�
Example: Road traffic is the largest cause of noise pollution in the UK, disturbing
more than 12 million people.�
Example: For example, in Kolkata India, noise pollution is a prevalent issue
because of the incessant honking from the drivers.�
The solution to Traffic Congestion
Making Public Transport a Choice Mode
1. Bus lane scheme
Explanation: Bus lanes will allow buses to move quickly so buses will not be held
up during traffic congestion. On top of that buses will arrive on schedule more
often during peak hours. This will make travelling by bus more appealing.
Example: For instance, in Singapore, there are bus lanes in major parts of the
city, such as Orchard Road and Bencoolen Road. These bus lanes are timed, which
deactivate at certain times in the day, such as during midnight.
Limitation: The success of bus lane schemes depends on the compliance of drivers.
Bus lanes will decrease the number of lanes normal cars can travel on. This will
cause more traffic congestion.

2. Integrated Public Transport System

Explanation: An integrated public transport system connects various modes of
transportation such that it functions as a whole. Building an integrated public
transport system is an important first step in encouraging people to use public
transport.
Example: For example, all public transport modes in Tokyo can be paid for using a
rechargeable contactless smart card.
Limitation: It is very difficult to plan and build such a system, and maintain it
when adding rail lines and bus routes.

3. Increasing capacity and frequency of services

Explanation: Buses and trains should be upgraded to fit more commuters for more
effective transportation. Implementation of better timings and schedules of the
public transport arrival and departure should also be made.
Example: In Curitiba; Brazil, the bus rapid transit system has been successful in
increasing the capacity of its bus systems. There are dedicated bus lanes for
articulated buses, which are divided into 3 sections. Since these buses can carry
more passengers, the BRT can transport nearly 2 million passengers a day.
Example: In Singapore, the Bus Services Enhancement programme in 2012 improved the
frequency of bus arrivals and departures by working with the bus operators to cut
down on commuter wait time.�
Limitation: It is very costly to buy new buses and trains.

4. Expansion of Rail Networks

Explanation: Laying more train tracks and building more stations allow more places
to be accessed by trains and make it a more attractive mode of transportation.
Example: Singapore�s Land Transport Master Plan allows 8 in 10 homes to access MRT
stations within a walking distance by 2030.
Managing Road Usage
1. Road Pricing
Explanation: Road pricing refers to the traffic management measure that charges
drivers when they use roads. The number and location of gantries have to be
determined. Drivers usually have to pay more during peak hours to discourage the
use of certain roads.�
Example: Stockholm, the capital of Sweden, imposed a road pricing scheme. The
Stockholm Congestion Tax applies to vehicles entering and leaving the CBD. Cameras
at control points capture trips made by each vehicle. A bill is sent to the vehicle
owner to inform him or her of the amount to pay.
Example: ERP system in Singapore reduces traffic volumes on the roads as people
have to pay to enter and it only operates during peak hours, diverting traffic
elsewhere.
Limitation: Traffic diverted to other roads might lead to congestion elsewhere.
Pros (For Conclusion):�
* Easy to implement and carry out (unlike rail networks and public transport
systems)
* Does not need extensive planning (unlike bus lane schemes and public transport
systems)
* Not costly as government can collect money from drivers going under ERP (unlike
rail networks)
2. Increased Parking Fees
Explanation: This refers to increasing the cost of parking, especially, to and from
the CBD, which will deter people from owning private vehicles. This will greatly
increase the cost of owning a private vehicle and using it as car parks are used
when travelling to a mall, to work and eateries. People will choose other modes of
transportation such as public transport and carpooling, which refers to a group of
people travelling together to work, school or other locations. It can reduce the
number of cars on the road, solving traffic congestion.
Example: Singapore�s CBD buildings tend to have parking rates that are 6 times that
of normal parking rates during the day, while public parking areas are 2 times the
normal parking rates to discourage parking in the CBD during the day.
Limitation: Some people would park at illegal places such as roads with double
yellow lines, in front of people�s houses. This may cause congestion and
inconvenience to others who use the roads.
Pros (For Conclusion):�
* Not expensive to implement (opposite of public transport system/rail networks,
which is costly to build)
* Will not cause damage to the environment or inconvenience to residents (unlike
railway networks, which will cut through residential areas)
* Convenient to implement (unlike building cycling tracks)

3. Enhanced Traffic Monitoring�

Explanation: Enhanced Traffic Monitoring includes alerting drivers of traffic
congestion on a road, allowing them to take a detour, detecting vehicles and
pedestrians at major junctions, and informing them of green light timings. Traffic
lights are coordinated so drivers can smoothly travel without stopping. Overall
reduces traffic congestion, spreading vehicles to different roads.
Example: The Expressway Monitoring and Advisory Sudetenland (EMAS). When vehicles
break down, live information will be made available to drivers on the roads about
the situation.
Limitation: It only encourages drivers to drive elsewhere, and does not decrease
the number of cars.
Pros (For Conclusion):�
* Efficient as sensors are accurate (unlike bus scheme, which is dependent on the
compliance of drivers)
* Does not affect residents when implemented (unlike building rail networks, which
cuts through residential areas)
* Easy to implement in different places across a country (unlike public transport
systems, which requires extensive planning)
Other Measures
1. Telecommuting
Explanation: Telecommuting is when workers work from home and avoid travelling to
offices. This eliminates the need to commute to the office and back, thus there
will be fewer vehicles on the road and less traffic congestion.
Example: When 3.9 million employees work from home at least half time, they reduce
greenhouse gas emissions by the equivalent of taking more than 600,000 cars off the
road for an entire year. Considering that 1 in 4 Americans are expected to work
remotely in 2021 (approximately 39 million), that number jumps to 6,000,000 cars.
With an estimated 13 to 27 million people working from home in the coming years,
remote work could reduce commuting miles by 70 to 140 billion every year.
Limitation: The employee has less personal contact with managers and coworkers,
hindering communication. It can be more difficult for managers to supervise someone
working from home. The worker may also have more disruptions at home, resulting in
reduced productivity.
2. Encourage Cycling
Explanation: Cycling is an environmentally friendly mode of transport. By
encouraging cycling, more people will cycle instead of taking private transport,
reducing traffic congestion or pollution. Cycling is a very flexible and mobile
mode of transport. It is eco-friendly and sustainable.
Example: In Denmark, the government has built a large network of cycling lanes and
numerous bicycle parking lots, making cycling very convenient. According to 2013
statistics by the city of Copenhagen, 52% of the people commute via cycling.
Limitation: It may be dangerous for cyclists as they are very near to motor
vehicles. Some cities may not be suited for cyclists too because of their layout.

Geography Cheat Sheet (Done by XuMingyi)

Secondary Two Geography Exam Format 2021

Exam Duration & Format

Date: � � � � � � 2 July 2021, Friday �SPACE�, 8.00am to 9.15am
Duration: 1 hour 15 minutes

Format:�
Section A: Data Response
Questions����������������������������������������������������15 mSection B:
Structured Questions and Two Open Ended Questions�������20 mTotal:
�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������
���������������������35 m
Examinable Topics:

Points to look out for for every topic

1 Definition
2 Causes
3 Impacts (Negative/ Positive)
Economic
Social
Environmental
4 Measures
* Relevant examples for both LDCs and DCs

1.� Population

* Define population terms�

BR
The number of babies born per thousand people in the population per year.
DR
The number of deaths per thousand people in the population per year.
Infant mortality rate
The number of babies who die before reaching one year old per thousand babies alive
in a year.
Natural increase
The natural growth in the population resulting from an excess number of births over
deaths.
Natural decrease
DR exceeds BR
Zero population growth�
BR = DR
Replacement level
The amount of fertility needed to keep the population the same from generation to
generation.
Population explosion
The large and rapid increase in population.�
E.g.- The world population increased from 4 billion in 1974 to 5 billion in 1987.
Life expectancy
The length of time a person born in a given area can expect to live.
E.g.- The life expectancy was 75 for men and 79.2 for women in 1997.

* Interpret and explain population data (tables, charts, population pyramid)�

����������Pyramidal�
����������Broader base Indicating a higher BR
����������Pyramid narrows to the top indicates DR is high
����������A large proportion of population between 0 -14 years of age,
����������approx %�
����������A small proportion of elderly (65 years and above) about %
�
����������Bee-hived
����������Narrow base indicating a lower BR
Steeper sides and wider apex indicating lower DR
A lower proportion of young dependents approx %
A relatively large proportion of elderly approx %

* Population trends in Developed and Developing countries

* Causes, consequences and solutions of low and high population growth rates,
include examples

Developed�

1. Aging population - The population of younger people in a population decreases

while the proportion of the age increases.� (caused by decreasing birth rate,
decreasing death rate and increasing life expectancy) (Shrinking population)
Causes
* Better healthcare and medical services have increased life expectancy
* Healthy diet, staying active,continuing to work as you get older
* Women are more educated, choose to pursue a career before settling down and
having children.
* Those who marry later or delay having children have fewer children.
* More singles and fewer families, birth rate will fell
* Trend of smaller families as women find it difficult to balance work and family.
(high cost of raising a child)
Impacts�
* shortage of labour
* Increasing labour cost
* More strain on the working population (high dependency ratio)
* Require more healthcare (elderlies are more prone to health problems)
* Higher healthcare cost
Measures
* Hiring more foreign workers
* Ensuring funds and care for the aged
* Geriatric (specialty that focuses on health care of elderly people) medical
facilities and old people�s homes
* Increase retirement age - Singapore 62,63 to 67,68 next year

Baby bonus
* Cash gift : $8000 for 1st,2nd,� $10000 for 3rd,4th
* Child Development Account, every dollar saved matched by government (to a certain
limit)

Developing

1. Overpopulation - Overpopulation occurs when there are so many people relative to

the resources and level of technology in an area or a country that a reasonable
standard of living is difficult to attain.
Causes (Factors influencing natural increase)
* An improved standard of living (brings down death rate)
* Improvement in areas like�
o Medical facilities, healthcare services and people�s access to them
o Housing
o Hygiene
o Water supply
o Sanitation and
o Nutrition
* Life expectancy increases and death rate falls, especially infant mortality rate.
* Less susceptible to infectious diseases and dying prematurely
* Help people live longer
* Women are less educated/ low level of literacy (early marriage and bear more
children)
Impacts�
* Poverty in rural areas results in increased rural-urban migration causing the
growth of slums and squatter settlements in cities
* People have poor hygiene and sanitation
* Unemployment leading to a public outrage among the educated youth
* Large working population(may see big increase in GDP )
* High unemployment rates and increase crime rates
* Strain on infrastructure and social structures
* Starvation and high death rates due to widespread poverty
* Large families unable to afford good healthcare and quality education.�
Measures
* Governments to implement measures to control birth rates, such as family planning
and fertility control.
* In India, the government encourages people to have smaller families and promotes
mass sterilisation campaigns, also providing incentives for women who underwent
sterilisation.�

One Child policy

* Implemented around 1970s (population explosion occurred in China around 1960 due
to the end of Cultural revolution and the reopening of China which lead to better
economy)
* Tax incentives - one child
* Forced abortion
* Free services for single child - fines for additional
* Men marry at 22 and women at 20 (This resulted in gender imbalances, shortage of
labour in the rural parts, high DP ratio, financial strain.� Also decreasing
population where 3.3% in 1970 to 2.1% in1990)
* Demographic time bomb
* Emergence of the strawberry generation due to only child
* Allowed to have two children from 2015 onwards

Youthful population
* Young children need health care - for example, immunisations. This is expensive
for a country to provide.
* Young people need to be educated - providing schools and teachers is expensive
* In the future, more children will reach child bearing age, putting more pressure
on the health service.

2. Housing shortage

* Causes of housing shortage�

Rural-urban migration�
Many people in the rural areas of a country want to move to Urban areas of the
country for a better life. However, they may not have the skills necessary for the
high skill jobs in the city. Hence, they cannot find a job, they don't have enough
income so they cannot afford the housing so they live in slums. �
E.g. People in rural areas of Brazil are attracted by work opportunities in S�o
Paulo, however, there may be insufficient jobs to cater to the migrants or they
lack the skills necessary for the high skill jobs.

High Population Growth�

Birth rates in cities may be high as there are usually a high amount of people in
their 20s and 30s who are more likely to want to marry and have a child resulting
in the high birth rate. Cities cannot build enough houses fast enough for the
increasing population thus there is housing shortage E.g. In London, there was a
natural increase of 86k from 2012-2013.

Competing Land Use�

Many uses of land such as industrial, housing, commercial and recreational. There
will be stiff competition for land in the city which may result in less land set
aside for housing. Not enough houses? housing shortage.�
E.g. One example is Singapore which has already set aside 17% of the land for
housing as it foresees that competition for the land may occur.

Limited Land Supply�

The presence of physical features like mountains and rivers results in less flat
land which is more preferred for building.�
E.g. One example is Hong Kong which is way bigger than Singapore in land area but
its usable land is only 1104km�, compared to 719km� of Singapore.

* Consequences of housing shortage in cities

Low level of health�

People living in slums and squatters usually have low health levels as they do not
have access to clean water and proper sanitation. E.g. In Nairobi, the death toll
of a hill below 5 years old is 2.5 times higher than a child living in other parts
of a city.

Homelessness�
E.g.Department of Housing and Urban Development estimated around 600k people in the
US to be homeless in a single night in January 2013

Environment
E.g. For example, in Kibera slum, Nairobi, Kenya, Access to water is irregular as
water piped into the slum is often diverted away by individual dwellers or private
water companies to be sold for profit. (also leads to poor health)

Vulnerability�
Housing in slums are made up of makeshift materials that can be easily destroyed by
natural disasters and they are also fire hazards.��
E.g. Mumbai slum fire that occured in 2013 January.
256 people were killed after a house collapsed in Rio de Janeiro due to landslides
caused by heavy downpour.�

Insufficient Basic Services

E.g. In Dharat, India, up to 500 people share a single toilet�

* Strategies used by cities to manage housing shortage

Provision of public housing

Countries can provide houses with basic services for low-income households,
elderlies or disables.� These houses are reasonably priced compared to private
housing which can be quite costly.
E.g. Singapore implemented the Housing Development Board in 1960.� HDB provides
public housing due to increasing population and rising economics.� Around 80% of
Singapore�s population lived in HDB flats in 2013.

Self help schemes

E.g. Government in Brazil provided materials needed to build proper housing to the
people living in slums like Rio de Janeiro. Slum residents then use those materials
to build proper housing.

3. Transport

Characteristics of urban transport

Modes of urban transport can be classified into two categories, private and public
transport.��
Private transport - transport owned by individuals
Public transport - transport provided by the government or private companies.
Density of transportation networks
The greater the number of routes and nodes, the greater the network density.

Traffic congestion is a situation where there are more vehicles than the road can
handle.

Causes�

Separation of work and residential areas�

E.g.The United States Census Bureau 2011 report found that over 132 million
Americans commuted between work and residential areas daily.�
Movement within the city for Goods & Services
People need to move within the city to purchase goods from special stores and
attend classes.� Wholesalers deliver to retail and home delivery services deliver
products to homes using trucks.
E.g.1.6 million Amazon packages delivered globally per day, which adds into
congestion as more delivery trucks are on the road.�
Inadequate transport infrastructure and poor provision of transport services
Transportation services cannot handle the amount of traffic (the amount of people
riding the public transport exceeds its capacity ) Not enough trains or buses to
carry commuters, roads may not have enough lanes or the networks may not be well
connected.� People take private transport, causing more cars on the road, causing
congestion.�
E.g. In Mumbai, Buses are filled with passengers and trains are filled with many
times their capacity, therefore many people resort to buying private vehicles
leading to the Mumbai car population increasing by 51% in 6 years.�

Impacts

Air pollution�
Constant acceleration and brake wastes fuel, causing greenhouse gases to be emitted
and causes greenhouse effects.� Smog causes breathing difficulties, eye irritation,
dols, lung infections, and reduced life expectancies by 15 years.�
E.g.The United States Environmental Protection Agency reported that around half of
the air pollution in the country was caused by cars.
Noise pollution�
Disrupts human and animal life�
E.g. 2009 report by the UK environment association found that road traffic is the
biggest cause of noise pollution, disturbing more than 12 million people.
E.g. Excessive loud honking in Kolkata. Prolonged exposure causes heart disease,
high blood pressure, mental illness.�
Reduced Productivity
People spend more time waiting instead of doing activities that benefit the
economy.��
E.g.The Philippines loses 2.4 billion pesos a day of potential income due to
traffic congestion from poor infrastructure�
Stress on physical health
Long travel time leads to fatigue, loss of concentration, causing accidents or even
deaths.� Idle vehicles produce carbon monoxide, which in the long term causes
asthma, lung disease etc.
E.g.Frequent honking ranging from 80-93dB in Delhi causes residents there to have
stress-induced complications such as heart diseases.

Measures

Integrated public transport system�

Integrated public transport system connects different modes of transportation so it
functions as a whole.��
E.g.Tokyo transport system that can be paid using a rechargeable contactless smart
card, speeding up movement. � Public transport timings are precise for commuters to
plan their travel routes more effectively�
? Benefits: more convenient, accessible, efficient, commuters can use different
modes of transport to move from places to places faster.�
? Challenges: Requires extensive planning and cost�

Bus lane schemes�

Bus lanes are specifically set aside for private and public buses on specific
times.� These lanes allow buses to enter and exit bus stops smoothly and quickly,
improving bus speeds and reliability�
? Benefits: Allow buses to move quickly so it will not be held up during
congestion. Will make travel by bus more appealing as it is reliable�
? Challenges: Success of bus lanes depend on drivers� compliance. Road capacity is
taken away for the lane, causing traffic congestion for private cars.�

Expansion of rail networks�

An Increased number of locations trains can reach, more locations to have access to
trains.�
E.g.Dallas Area Rapid Transit(DART) expended from 14 stations and 17 km in 1996 to
61 stations and 137 km in 2014�
? Benefits: High capacities, can travel to more destinations which were only
accessible by car or bus�
? Challenges: Expensive to build rail networks, may cut through housing estates and
buildings causing inconvenience to people in the affected area
�
Increasing capacity and frequency of buses and rail services�
By upgrading bus and rail systems, it allows more people to be carried more
frequently.��
E.g.The Singapore government partnered with bus operators and frequency through the
Bus Service Enhancement Programme (BSEP). Programme is expected to reduce waiting
time for buses.� Train signalling system will be upgraded for trains to arrive
every 100 secs, carrying 20% more passengers.
? Benefits: More people can be transported in a short time�
? Challenges: Costly�

Road pricing�
Traffic management measure that charges drivers when using certain roads. Most
commonly during peak hours to discourage drivers from using certain roads.
E.g. The Electronic Road Pricing (ERP) system in Singapore deducts money from cash
cards in IUs and money is deducted using short wave radio communication. As a
result, there was a 15% reduction, higher speeds and traffic volumes remain the
same despite higher car ownership rates.�
? Benefits: Higher cost discourage driving during peak hours, encourage people to
use public buses etc�
? Challenges: Traffic diverted may lead to congestion in nearby roads�

Increased parking fees�

Higher fees increase the cost of driving, especially in the city center.��
E.g.This leads to people starting to �carpool� which is sharing a car to share the
cost.�
? Benefit: Increase in cost, discouraging private car ownership�
? Challenges: Drivers might park illegally to avoid high fees�

Enhanced traffic monitoring�

Use technology to monitor traffic and alert drivers of congestion so they can avoid
the road, stopping car queues�
E.g. Environmental Management Association of Singapore (EMAS) will make available
live information in the event of a vehicle breakdown or an accident. Many drivers
will opt to take an alternative route�
? Benefits: Drivers can avoid places with congestion�
? Challenges: Only encourages drivers to drive elsewhere, not reduce the number of
vehicles on the road, not solving the root problem

Encouraging cycling�
Bikes are an environmentally friendly and convenient mode of transport due to
mobility and flexibility�
E.g. In Copenhagen, the government has built a network of cycling lanes that cover
a lot of the city, making it convenient for a cyclist to travel from place to
place, as well as bike parking lots. As of 2013, 52% of the ppl in Copenhagen
commute by bicycle.
? Benefits: Provides flexibility and mobility, as well as being environmentally
friendly and sustainable�
? Challenges: Dangerous as cycling lanes are near a road. Some cities are not
suitable for cycling due to layout, traffic or topography
Note:�
* Study relevant chapters of textbook, notes and other online learning materials�
* Go through all exercises, tests
* Read exam questions carefully, underline key words to ensure relevance
* Include relevant egs�
* Spend time wisely (15 � 18 minutes on each open ended question)
* Write neatly
* Leave 2 lines between answers
* Leave one line between paragraphs
* Label Section A and Section B clearly
* Do not write anything in the top, bottom and side margins of the writing paper