LESSON 11: Elements and Principles of Art.

The Elements of visual arts.

- The building blocks or ingredients of art.

LINE –Line

 Is the path of a moving point: horizontal, vertical, diagonal

 Is the mark left by a tool: brush, pencil, and pen.
 Defines the position and direction of a design, image or form.
 Types of line include vertical, horizontal, diagonal, contour or a combination of
these.
 They may be curved, straight, thick, thin, smooth, long, and short and so forth.
 Lines are used to create shape, pattern, texture, space, movement and optical
illusion in design.
 The use of lines allows artist to demonstrate delicacy or force.
 Curves may take us slowly uphill, or turn sharply twisting our mind as they turn.
 A line can express various moods and feelings...

Engraving. Germany, 1568. Pablo Picasso

Shape

A shape is an element of art. Specifically, it is an enclosed space, the boundaries

of which are defined by other elements of art (i.e.: lines, colors, values, textures,
etc.). Shapes are limited to two dimensions: length and width...

Positive and negative shapes.

A shape will be either:

Positive. Term to describe the figure or subject.

Negative. Term to describe the background.

But, not always is it easy to distinguish the difference. Look at the examples of the
contrast and ambiguity of positive and negative shapes given below:

Figure 1Yin Yang

Figure 2shigeofukada

Geometric shapes- can be defined as figure or area closed by a boundary which is

created by combining the specific amount of curves, points, and lines. Different
geometric shapes are Triangle, Circle, Square, etc.
Organic shapes- Are shapes with a natural look and a flowing and curving appearance.

Organic shapes and forms are typically irregular or asymmetrical.

Organic shapes are associated with things from the natural world, like
plants and animals.

COLORS AND VALUE

Hue- these are the purest and brightest colors. They form the full spectrum of colors
which progress around the primary color wheel in gradual increment.

This color wheel shows the six major hues. There is an infinite number of hues between
these colors.

Hue is the most obvious characteristic of a color. There is really an infinite number of
possible hues. A full range of hues exists, for example, between red and yellow. In the
middle of that range are all the orange hues. Similarly, there is a range of hues between
any other two hues. This color wheel shows each of its six colors with medium value,
and high saturation.

Tint- It’s simply any color with white added.

Shade- A shade is any color with black added.

Tone- is created by adding both white and black. Any color that is “greyed down” is
considered tone.
COLOR HARMONIES.

Complementary
Colors that are opposite each other on the color wheel
are considered to be complementary colors (example:
red and green).
The high contrast of complementary colors creates a
vibrant look especially when used at full saturation. This
color scheme must be managed well so it is not jarring.
Complementary colors are tricky to use in large doses,
but work well when you want something to stand out.
Complementary colors are really bad for text.

Analogous
Analogous color schemes use colors that are next to each
other on the color wheel. They usually match well and
create serene and comfortable designs.
Analogous color schemes are often found in nature and
are harmonious and pleasing to the eye.
Make sure you have enough contrast when choosing an
analogous color scheme.
Choose one color to dominate, a second to support. The
third color is used (along with black, white or gray) as an
accent.

Triad
A triadic color scheme uses colors that are evenly spaced
around the color wheel.
Triadic color harmonies tend to be quite vibrant, even if
you use pale or unsaturated versions of your hues.
To use a triadic harmony successfully, the colors should
be carefully balanced - let one color dominate and use
the two others for accent.
Split-Complementary
The split-complementary color scheme is a variation of
the complementary color scheme. In addition to the base
color, it uses the two colors adjacent to its complement.
This color scheme has the same strong visual contrast as
the complementary color scheme, but has less tension.
The split-complimentary color scheme is often a good
choice for beginners, because it is difficult to mess up.

Rectangle (tetradic)
The rectangle or tetradic color scheme uses four colors
arranged into two complementary pairs.
This rich color scheme offers plenty of possibilities for
variation.
The tetradic color scheme works best if you let one color
be dominant.
You should also pay attention to the balance between
warm and cool colors in your design.

Square
The square color scheme is similar to the rectangle, but
with all four colors spaced evenly around the color circle.
The square color scheme works best if you let one color
be dominant.
You should also pay attention to the balance between
warm and cool colors in your design.
TEXTURE.

Texture refers to the surface quality in a work of art. We associate textures with the
way that things look or feel. Everything has some type of texture. We describe things as
being rough, smooth, silky, shiny, fuzzy and so on. Some things feel just as they
appear; this is called real or actual texture. Some things look like they are rough but
are actually smooth. Texture that is created to look like something it is not, is
called visual or implied texture.

Texture may be used in a work of art to:

 create visual interest or a focal point in a composition

 to create contrast within a design composition
 to help visually balance a design composition

Real Texture

Visual texture is the real thing. Real texture cannot be represented here because a
computer screen, even with the highest quality photographs can only create simulate
textures. However for the purpose of providing examples assume that these images are
real.

Visual or Implied Texture

Visual or implied texture can be simulated or invented. Simulated texture is the type

that is created to look like something it is not. For example, in drawing or painting of a
cat where its fur is made to look like real fur. Invert texture, on the other hand may look
rough, smooth or any other feel but is purely made up by the artist. It does look like
"real" texture.

FORM:

Form is very similar to the element of design shape. The difference is that the
term is form is used in art work that has three dimensions instead of two as shapes. The
three dimensions are length, width and depth
Geometric Forms

As with geometric shapes. Geometric forms are based on mathematical descriptions.

Since they are threedimensional (3D) instead of two dimensional, they are objects such
as cubes, cylinders, cones and spheres. They are often the type of form that manmade
objects are constructed with.

 Free-form or Organic Forms

Organic forms are irregular and are the type of forms that most things in nature are.
Cloud formations, mountains, trees and bushes are all relatively free- form. animals and
even humans tend to be more free- form too, as they are ever changing forms.

Three Dimensional (3D) Media

Sculpture is the term most often used for art that is made using three dimensional
media. Media (plural) or medium (singular), by the way, means the material that is used
to make art. Here are some common media used for 3D design.

 lay  string
 wood  cardboard
 stone  fibers
 cast metal  cloth
 sheet metal  plaster
 wire  papier mache

COMPOSITION OF VISUAL ARTS.

Harmony

Think of the elements of art as your raw materials, and the principles of art are how you
mold and shape them. It is where the style of an artist manipulates the substances he
or she choose to use. Rhythm, harmony in art, balance, contrast, movement,
proportion, and variety — all principles of art that can be used solo or in concert with
one another.
 Circular Forms by Robert Delaunay, 1930

Harmony in art overall is achieved when the elements of an artwork come together in a
unified way. Certain element can be repeated, yet they still look and feel like they are
lending themselves to a whole. Harmony is definitely not monotony but also not chaos.
It is that perfect pairing of the two.

Harmony is conveyed in several ways. You can have harmony in art using color as your
vehicle, as well as the marks you make and the forms you paint.

athers at Asnières by Georges Seurat, 1884

Color Harmony in Art

The power and appeal of color is what draws many artists to the easel for the first time.
But color comes with its own share of complications. There are a number of color
theories around creating harmonious color.

One is the use of complementary colors. Another is using split complementaries, which
is where a complement’s flanking color is used. For example: yellow with blue-purple
and purple-red. Other painters create harmony in art with analogous color schemes,
which feature colors that are in close proximity to one another (as opposed to opposite)
on the color wheel.

Greee by James Carroll Beckwith, 1887

Another way to assure color harmonies is to make sure to remember value is almost
more important than color. Whether employed subtly or boldly, colors in a painting have
to share a relationship and that is often established through similar color values.
Otherwise, they appear unnatural.

Color associations can also come into play to achieve visual harmony. A certain subject
or place (or time of day) may have color associations. A viewer will almost instinctively
accept these if not take them for granted. But in the end, the relationship, or harmony,
of color is steered by you, the artist, foremost, with all of these options at your disposal.
Forms and Marks

Experimenting with forms and marks is key for any painter. Describing forms and
making marks that are harmonious is often a matter of taking into the consideration of
how the eye itself sees. For example, directing your gaze means that certain things
come into focus and other things are blurred and hazy. The human eye does not see
everything in detail all at once.

Front Door by Christian Rohlfs, 1882

Painters often chase this phenomenon with harmony of edges, both lost and found, hard
and soft, rather than relying on such precise, uniformly delineated lines or forms.

Soft edges recede and are often used to indicate distance or a form turning. Hard edges
bring forms, patterns and texture into focus. Lost edges are key to giving your painting
life. An excess of “found” edges lead you to hyperrealism–an appealing style of art all on
its own but definitely not realistic.

Shapes and Proportions

Shapes that have similar characteristics are visually read as harmonious. It is introducing
contrasting shapes that leads to visual discord: jagged edged lines against curves for
example.

Proportion is a slightly different case. The same sizes repeated in a painting may
actually be too similar for true harmony. Instead, shapes that differ in shape by
consistent ratios achieves good balance.

Auditory Arts Elements.

Music- Composed of tones and silences organized in such a manner to convey the
emotions and ideas conceived by the composer.

The composers work must be interpreted by another artist the performer who makes
the composers work come to life.
Music as auditory art.

 Music moves through time, thus it is called temporal

 Music appreciation is the acquired ability to listen to music intelligently

3 components:

 -ability to appreciate music is not inborn

 -acquired by anyone who makes up his mind to do so
 -conscious effort

Functions of Music

1.  An attempt to imitate the natural sound

2. Release of one’s emotions or feelings (therapeutic)

3.  As signals in wars

4. Means of worship and vehicles of rituals

5. Used to accompany dance

6. A form of entertainment in community celebrations 7. Symbols of life’s cycles

Sound (Tones): The Physical Material Property of Music

 Vibration is what produced a sound

 Regular vibrations produce tones or  musical sounds
 Irregular sounds yield noise

Sound in general has 4 qualities:

1. Timbre- This refers to the quality which enables us to distinguish one sound from
another 

A sound may not be audible unless it is amplified by something

Resonator- any object which amplifies the vibrations

2. Pitch - This refers to the relative highness or lowness or a tone

This is the result of the frequency of vibrations

The higher the frequency the higher the pitch

Scale- series of different tones which are arranged at definite fixed distances or
intervals from One another

Octave - western music uses a scale consisting of 12 pitches in 7 different tones

designated as: A, B, C, D, E, F, G or la, ti, do, re, mi fa sol.

Sharps mean a tone is to be raised

Flats- tone to be lowered

3. Intensity - This refers to the loudness or softness of a sound

This results from the pressure or force which is used to cause the
vibrations that produce a sound

Dynamics- the degree of loudness or softness in music

Indicators:

A. Forte- loudly

Fortissimo- very loudly

C. Piano - softly

D. Pianissimo- very softly

Crescendo- the music to become gradually louder 

Decrescendo or diminuendo to become gradually softer

Staff- five parallel lines and the spaces between the lines

4. Duration- It refers to the length of time which a sound occupies

Notes- relative time values indicated in musical notation by symbols

Types: 1. Whole note

2. Half note

3. Quarter note

4. Eighth note

5. Sixteenth note

6. 32nd note

7. 64th note

Elements of music.

1. Rhythm

The tones and silences of varying durations moving through time

Time signatures: 1. 2/4

2. ¾

3. 4/4

4.6/8

2. Melody.

Melody is the pitch added to the rhythm other synonymous terms: Tune, air, theme,
motif and melodic line

Characteristics:

A. Dimension - . Dimension

a. Length  

b. Range -distance between the highest and lowest notes

B. Progression-
The motion of upward or downward, the distance between one tone and the next as the
melody moves forward

C. Direction- considers the distance between individual, successive tones - Relate to the
climax of the repertoire

D. Register- considers the pitch of most notes Are they mostly high?

3. Harmony

The simultaneous sounding of tones

Melody is the horizontal aspect while harmony the vertical side.

Tonality - or key feeling results when a single key is used thus providing a tonal center

Chord -3 or more tones of different pitches sounded together 

Consonance -quality when the combination of sounds or tones is satisfying or   pleasant

If unpleasant - dissonance or discord (producing tension)

4. Tone Color

This is the result of tempo, dynamics and the timbre or  the medium or mediums.

Tempo - speed indicated into:

a. presto – very fast

 b. Allegro -fast

c. Moderato - moderate speed

d. andante- moderate slow

e. Adagio -slow

f . Largo -very slow

g. Ritardando -the gradual slowing down

h.Accelerando -gradual increase

i. Tempo rubato -music to be  played with irregularity

5. Texture

This is the characteristic disposition and relationship between melody and harmony.

Types of Textures:

1. Monophonic - one melody is sung or played with no accompaniment

2. Homophonic - song sung to the chordal accompaniment of a guitar or piano or any

instrument

Or two people sing one soprano and the other alto, homophonic music is
produced

3. Polyphonic - Polyphonic results when two or more melodies are played together 

4. Non melodic texture-

 Sonority- quality of richness or thinness of the music closely related to harmony than to
melody and measured by number of   parts, spacing of tones, register of tones and
timbre.

6. Form- The overall design or   plan is called a musical structure or musical form.

Sectional forms: 1. Binary 2. Ternary forms

7. Movements

Sonata -movement is fast and consists of 3 sections:

Exposition, development and recapitulation

Concerto -meant to be played by an instrument with an entire orchestra.

Activity 1.
Teachers Insight.
1. Why is the elements and principle of arts important in creating art?
Elements and principles of art is a common knowledge, without a common knowledge ideas,
2. It is important
philosophies, to… symbols will not be conveyed not understood by both observer and the artist.
emotions,

References:

LESSON 12: PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN.

Is what we use to organize elements, or tools to make arts.

Balance- Visual equality in shape, form value, color etc. balance can be symmetrical or
asymmetrical. Objects, values, colors, textures, shapes, forms, etc. can be used in
creating a balance in a composition.

Balance in Art refers to the use of artistic elements such as line, texture, color, and
form in the creation of artworks in a way that renders visual stability. Balance is one of
the principles of organization of structural elements of art and design, along with unity,
proportion, emphasis and rhythm. [1] When observed in general terms balance refers to
the equilibrium of different elements. However, in art and design, balance does not
necessarily imply a complete visual or even physical equilibrium of forms around a
center of the composition, but rather an arrangement of forms that evokes the sense of
balance in viewers. It is through a reconciliation of opposing forces that equilibrium or
balance of elements is achieved in art. Balance contributes to the aesthetic potency of
visual images and is one of their basic building blocks. There are several different types
of balance. Regarding terminology, the most used terms are asymmetrical balance,
symmetrical balance and radial balance. These types of balance are present in art,
architecture and design. The history of their application and development is as long as
human history, but for this text we will focus on the importance of balance in art and
design and give some examples mostly from modern and contemporary art.

If we are to understand the importance of balance in art we need to apply the same
reasoning as when we observe a three-dimensional object. If a three-dimensional object
is not balanced it will most probably tip over. However, when it comes to two-
dimensional subjects painted on flat surfaces, we need to rely on our own sense of
space and balance. We need to apply the same analogy as with the physical object -
only now with one difference. If three-dimensional objects are easily evaluated
regarding balance as they share the same space with us, in modern and contemporary
art - especially in art made on flat surfaces - the sense of balance comes from a
combination of line, color and shape. If we evaluate the balance of physical objects
regarding the distribution of their weight, same applies to art but only now the
distribution of weight is not physical but visual. [2] When creating balance in two-
dimensional art pieces, artists and designers need to be careful in allocating weight to
different elements in their work, as too much emphasis on one element, or a group of
elements can cement viewers’ attention to that part of work and leave others
unobserved. However, regardless of media we are talking about, balance is important as
it brings visual harmony, rhythm and coherence to artwork, and it confirms its
completeness.

Symmetrical Balance

Symmetrical Balance is achieved by placing elements in an even fashion. If a design

has a symmetrical balance, it can be divided in the center with a line of symmetry. In
other words, symmetry occurs in any orientation as long as the object/image is the
same on either side of the central axis. The human mind almost always appeals to a
symmetrical design because we are also symmetrical beings. Symmetrical balance
guarantees left to right and top to bottom balances. Objects seem more stable if the
bottom is slightly heavier; however, if the top has more weight, it would seem
dangerous or risky. Symmetrical design gives a strong sense of unity since elements are
mostly repeated, yet at the same time lacks variety due to redundancy. However, with
its unity and repetition, a symmetrical design creates order and a strong sense of
structure.

Near symmetry occurs when one half is slightly different to an extent that does not
completely change its balance asymmetrically.
Biaxial symmetry is composition that contains more than one axis of symmetry.

Radial Balanced designs revolve around a central point, or seem to radiate out from
the center.

Asymmetrical Balanced designs have elements that do not mirror each other on a

linear axis. This type of balance does not rely on symmetry. Asymmetry can be a bit
more difficult to achieve, due to strategic placing and composition; however, the results
can be appealing to viewers. For example, a large, dark object placed on one side can
be contrasted by having lighter and smaller objects on the other side.
Contrast- offers some changes in value creating a visual discord in a composition.
Contrast shows the difference between shapes and can be used as a background to
being object out and forward in design.

As a principle of art, contrast refers to the arrangement of opposite elements and
effects. For example, light and dark colors, smooth and rough textures, large and small
shapes. Contrast can be used to create variety, visual interest, and drama in an artwork.

In this example of contrast in art, Caravaggio created a scene of action and energy by

contrasting both light/dark and directional lines.

Caravaggio, Crucifixion of St. Peter, 1601

Käthe Kollwitz adds contrast using the elements of art line, value, and shape, but she
also adds contrast of emotion showing the despair of the mother in dark values and
lighter sweeter elements like the heart on the chair in the background.

Käthe Kollwitz, Misery, 1897

Rhythm is a principle of design that suggests movement or action. Rhythm is usually

achieved through repetition of lines, shapes, colors, and more. It creates a visual tempo
in artworks and provides a path for the viewer’s eye to follow.a movement in which
some elements recurs regularly. It can be fast “tempo” or slow and more melodic.
In this rhythm example, the artist uses pattern, repetition of line, and contrast between
curved and straight lines to create rhythm in art.

Tughra (Official Signature) of Sultan Süleiman the Magnificent (r. 1520–66)

In this example of of rhythm in art, Mondrian repeats shape, color, and line to bounce
the viewer’s eye around the artwork.

Piet Mondrian, Broadway Boogie-Woogie, 1942-43

Emphasis- the focal point of an image, or one or more area stands out the most.

Means the giving the proper importance to the parts or the whole.

As a principle of art, emphasis refers to the area of an artwork that dominates attention
or draws interest. It is often the place a viewer looks first. Artists create emphasis by
contrasting the elements of art, such as color or shape.
In this example of emphasis in art, Goya highlights the man in white through putting
him in a spotlight, having the man wear bright clothes, having many lines throughout
the composition pointing to the man, and having his emotional face be one of the only
faces shown.

Francisco Goya, The Third of May 1808, 1814

Proportion- relationship to one part to another or the whole with respect to the size,
quality, or degree: a ration

Proportion is the size relationship between the various parts of an artwork. Artists can
use the scale and proportion to create sensations such as depth, realism, disorientation,
and drama.

The human figure is scaled to appear larger than the city skyline. The proportions could
indicate depth of perspective or could symbolize the relationship of laborers in building a
city.
In this example of proportion in art, the artist manipulates the individual proportions of
the child as well as create varying size relationship (scale) between the objects in the
painting and the child to create meaning in the artwork.

María Izquierdo, The Indifferent Child, 1947

In this proportion in art example, the artist make the hands out of proportion with the
rest of their bodies to enhance the meaning of the artwork. These men work with their
hands, and their hands are exaggerated to show how important their hands and work
are to all the people of France.

Ben Shahn, We French Workers Warn You..Defeat Means Slavery, Starvation, Death ,
1942

Unity or Harmony- when all the elements work together to create a pleasing image.

The wholeness and oneness

Unity, also known as harmony, is a design principle that refers to the cohesiveness of an

artwork—how whole, consistent, and complete it appears. Unity in art is not necessarily
just a repetition of the same element over and over again, but it is the pleasing
combination of elements to create a harmonious composition.

In this example of unity in art, Botero creates unity through subject matter, through
rhythm, and through repetition of form, shape, and color.
Movement

Movement can be thought of in two ways – the first refers to how an artist depicts
movement using the elements and principles of art. The second way refers to the visual
flow of an artwork, indicated by the path a viewer’s eyes take as they look at the
artwork.

Lines, edges, shapes, and colors can be utilized by the artist to point the way through
an artwork as a map for our eyes to follow.

In this example of movement in art, the artist shows the movement of the wind through
the shapes of the paper. The lines of the figures and the lines of the billowing clothing
convey movement in art as well.

Hokusai, Ejiri in Suruga Province, 1830

Variety

Variety refers to the elements of a composition that differ from one another. Variety
creates visual interest and energy.

A lot of variety can make an artwork look busy or overwhelming. When paired with
unity, variety offers the viewer points of interest.
In this example of variety in art, Kandinsky uses a variety of lines, shapes, values, and
colors.

Wassily Kandinsky, Der Sturm, Volume 10, Number 7, 1919

Teachers Insight.

What constitutes the “basic” principles of design is certainly up for debate. But understanding and

implementing the principles covered above is vital to the success of any design project.

Designers should aim to understand how each of these design principles actually impact their work.

Studying how other designers have implemented these ideas to structure their own designs is also an

incredibly valuable tool in learning to create better designs.

It’s entirely possible to create a good design without a thorough understanding of these elements and

principles of design. However, it’s typically done by “designer’s intuition” and may take a lot of trial

and error in order to create something that actually looks good and creates an optimal user

experience. Designers could save a lot of time and energy by practicing the principles we have

discussed until they become second-nature.

TOPIC 13: Art History: Western Art from Prehistory: Cave Art from Ancient
Egypt

Now we will travel back in time to discover the roots of how art began, and the journey
that art has taken over the years. Let's go way back. Before cars, TV's, name brand
clothes or log cabins. There were people that lived in simple caves and manmade
shelters that wore a simple piece of animal’s skin for clothing. These early civilizations
had to hunt for their food and relied on nature to provide for their needs. This period of
history, starting sometime before 10,000 BC and lasting till 1,000 BC is defined by its
lack of written language. As a result, what we are left with today are prehistoric works
of art that express the values and interests of the people during that time period,. The
discoveries of carved objects, painted images and creative shelters have opened the
door for people today to imagine life 25,000 years ago.

Paleolithic Era

We begin our history in the Paleolithic era (prior to 10,000 BC). It is here that we come
into contact with the first art forms ever created. These figures were carved in bone,
ivory, stone and clay. Animals and unclothed women were the most common subject for
these small sculptures from the Upper Paleolithic period. You may have seen her
before...she is the most famous female figure from this period. She was found in Austria
and dates back to about 22,000-21,000BCE. She is carved from limestone and was
originally colored with red ocher. Although she may seem obese nowadays her figure
represents fertility, stability dignity and plentiful harvest. Her name is Venus of
Willendorf. 

About 30,000 years ago art in Europe entered a sophisticated and rich phase. The first
cave paintings were discovered in 1870 by a little girl who was playing in some caves at
Altamira, Spain. The paintings that she saw were full of running bison painted in a
variety of different colors. The dry air in the caves has preserved these ancient works of
art. Most ave images are paintings of animals either grazing, running or resting. The
most common animals represented were bison, wild horses, bears, panthers,
mammoths, owls, deer, ibex. Sometimes the artists would incorporate natural bumps or
depressions in the cave walls to give texture to their paintings. The artists used paints
made from chunks of red and yellow ocher ground into powder and applied with
brushes or blown onto the surface with hollow bones. Some of the places that have
these works are Spain, France, Italy, and Africa. Human figures, both men and women
are shown on the walls also.

Architecture is the art of designing and constructing buildings (structures) and other
environmental features. These people from the Upper Paleolithic period were building
shelters that were far from simple. These circular or oval huts made of branches and
animal hides, measured as much as 15-20 feet in diameter, Inside the hut there was
usually a fire-pit, where most of the food would have been cooked, and the place where
most other daily activities would have occurred; working stone, making clothes and
sleeping. Those that lived in less hospitable area, meaning they had no trees from which
to gather branches made their homes using the bones of a woolly mammoth.

Neolithic Era

Architecture was also a concern for the people of the Neolithic era (New Stone Age
8000-3000 B.C.) As people began to move out of caves, protection from the natural
elements came through the use of mud-bricks, grass and stone. An entire town has
been uncovered in the city of Jericho. There is a wall that surrounds this town which
dates back to 7500 B.C. the world’s earliest stone fortification.

Another civilization preserved from the Neolithic Era was that of a settlement at Skara
Brae, in the Orkney Islands off the northern coast of Scotland. This settlement was
constructed entirely out of stone. The village consisted of a compact cluster of dwellings
linked together by covered passageways. The walls of the homes were formed by layers
of flat stones, Stone made furniture has also been discovered in these homes.

One of the most famous stone structures which sits on the Salisbury Plain in England,
consists of round groupings of stones, It is called Stonehenge. This huge structure dates
back to around 2000 B.C. some of the stones weighing 50 tons were dragged from a
rock quarry 23 miles away, The upright stones are called cromlech and these tones that
were laid across the top are called lintels.

Stonehenge is believed to have been created to help the people of that time know when
the summer solstice and winter equinox would begin. There have been many other
ideas offered up on the purpose of this mysterious rock structure. Some believe that
Merlin or the Druids were the ones who brought it there. The exact usage still remains a
mystery today.

The people of this time period made sculptures of the human form out of blocks. They
looked very geometric.  Besides making stone structures these people commonly made
sculptures out of clay. These statures show a high level of technical skill. The earliest
pots were round and were made with built-in loops so that they could be strung up with
cords, Scratching the surface was a common form of decoration.
 

Ancient Egyptian

• Each summer the Nile River would flood its banks and deposit layers of fertile
soil (at least 3 months at a time; rich soil deposits with a depth of more than
9m (30 feet)

• Agriculture

• Increase in growth of villages and towns

The Old Kingdom

• Upper and Lower Egypt united by the Pharoah named Menes

• Menes established capital at Memphis and founded the first of the 31 Egyptian
dynasties

• Period of about 500 years

• Ended when the Pharaoh's rule was weakened by the rise of independent nobles

• Nobles- split the country into smaller states; civil war and disorder

The middle kingdom

• Time of law, order, and prosperity

• However around 1800BC, Egypt was overrun by foreign invaders—the Hyksos

(horse and chariot riding) from western Asia

• Hyksos inhabited lower Egypt and for two hundred years forced Egyptians to
pay tribute

• Egyptians finally learned to use the horses and chariots and drove the invaders
out of their country

The new Kingdom.

• Most brilliant period of Egyptian history

• Warrior Pharaohs used knowledge of horses and chariots to extend Egypt’s rule
over neighboring nations

• Thutmose III- greatest of these Warrior Pharaohs

Reigned for fifty-four years; great Military leader

• Amenhotep III- New Kingdom reaches peak of its power and influence

• Amenhotep IV- break with tradition:

- changes in Egyptian religion

- moved capital from Thebes to El Amarna

- established Aton, symbolized by sun-disk as supreme god vs. past

recognition of many gods

• Name change to Ikhnaton (“it is well with Aton”)

• Ikhnaton’s new religion died with him

• Tel- Amarna destroyed and old religion with many gods restored

Ended with Alexander the Great’s conquest in 332 BC

Egyptian Architecture

Influence of Religion.

 Importance on the resurrection of the soul and eternal life in a spirit world
after death
 Soul= ka
 At death, the ka would leave the body for a time; however it would
eventually return and unite with the body again for the journey to the next
world and immortality
 If the body would be lost or destroyed it would be forced to spend eternity
in aimless wandering
Pyramids.

 Tombs of Pharaoh
 Pharaoh was not only a king, but also a god in the eyes of the people
 He was expected to join the other gods when he died
 Ra/Re: the sun god
 Osiris: god of the Nile and the underworld
 Isis: the great mother god

Pyramid of Khufu/ Cheops

• 5.3 hectares (13 acres) (five of the larges cathedrals in the world could be
placed within its base with room to spare)

• Made by piling 2.3 million blocks of limestone, each averaging 2.3 metric tons,
to a height of 146.3 meters (480 feet)

• Wider than it is tall

• Sarcophagus- stone coffin where the Pharaohs body was sealed in

• Placed in burial chamber located in the center of the pyramid

• Dead end passages and false chambers were also added to the building

• These were meant to confuse tomb robbers and enemies

Evolution of the pyramid shape

• Originally, Egyptians buried dead in hidden pits and piled sand and stone over
the top

• Mastabas- low, flat tombs made from sun- dried bricks; rectangular tombs had
sloping sides ; also contained chapel and false burial chamber aside from the
true one

• Step pyramids- in time, several mastabas of diminishing size were stacked on

top of each other

• Finally, they were built without steps , and a point was added to the top, and
the true pyramid form was completed

Mastaba tomb, Saqqara

 Step Pyramid of King Zoser, Saqqara, c.2750 B.C.

Temples

• Evidence of genius of architects of New Kingdom

• Built by the command of the Pharaoh and dedicated to the Pharaoh’s favorite
god

• Became a chapel when the Pharaoh died; people would bring offerings for the
Pharaoh’s ka

• Often would be improved by succeeding Pharaohs

Egyptian Sculpture

• Despite precautions, tombs of pharaohs were soon broken into and robbed of
treasures

• Sculpture of the king- carved by sculptors and placed near the King’s
sarcophagus ; acted as substitutes for the body inside; alternative option for
the Ka to use for the journey to the next world if the body were destroyed

• Egyptian word for sculpture translates as ‘He who keeps alive’

Khafre, c. 2600 B.C

• seated portrait of the Fourth Dynasty Pharaoh Khafre

• Made from hard diorite stone

• Pharaoh is shown sitting up straight and attentive on a throne with inscriptions

proclaiming him King of Upper and Lower Egypt

• Wears a pleated garment fastened to the waist

• Left hand rests on knee, right hand forms a fist which must have once gripped
some symbol of high office

• Descendant of Re (the sun god); to show

Pharaoh’s divinity, sculptor has added a falcon

• Head of Khafre, not as stiff and rigid as the body; lifelike in appearance

• Beginning of a smile in firmly set mouth

Great Sphinx of Giza

• Carved from rock at the site

• Presents the head of the Pharaoh (most likely Khafre) placed on the body of a
reclining lion

• Towers to a height of almost 20 m (65 feet)

• Massive size intended to demonstrate power of the Pharaoh

• Probably done to show the Pharaoh has the courage and strength of a Lion
 2 theories on the missing nose

• Iconoclasm; A Sufi Muslim named Muhammad Sa im al-Dahr was outraged and

destroyed the nose when he found out that the Egyptian peasants made
offerings to the sphinx to increase their harvest

• Nose was broken by a cannonball fired by Napoleon’s soldiers

Fragment of a head of King Sesostris III

• Realistic expression suggest none of the confidence or aloofness noted in the

portrait of Khafre

• Firmly set mouth shows determination and strength but eyes indicate trouble
and weariness

Portrait of a Middle Kingdom Ruler

• Realistic expression suggest none of the confidence or aloofness noted in the

portrait of Khafre

• Firmly set mouth shows determination and strength but eyes indicate trouble
and weariness

• Many of Ikhnaton’s portraits show him as a homely man with strange elongated

head, pointed chin, heavy lips, and long, slender neck

• Showed the Pharaoh as he really looked

• Much of the sculpture during this period are more natural and lifelike
 Queen Nefertiti

Relief Sculpture and Painting

Portrait of Hesire

c.2700 B.C.

• Hesire: proud official of the Pharaoh Zoser

• Wooden door relief panel from Zoser’s mastaba

• Hesire stands straight with Baton in hand indicating high office

• Left hands hold staff and writing materials; indicating he was a secretary to the
Pharaoh

• Legs, arms and feet in profile

• Shoulder and eye are shown as if seen in front

• Appears as though Hesire has two left feet since big toe is on the outside of
each foot

• Figure looks as if it has been twisted in some way, making it look flat

• All parts of the body seem to be the same distance from your eye; no
foreshortening

“Every part of the body mustbe shown in the most familiar point of view”
 Rules of the Egyptian art.

• Carving unusual features not due to lack of ability

• Head, arms, and legs are always shown in profile

• It was more important to make sure that all parts of the body were clearly
shown than making the image beautiful or accurate

• The ka also thrives in this images, if an arm were hidden it would mean that the
ka would enter the body without an arm

• At one time it was customary to bury a

Pharaoh’s wife, servants and slaves in the tomb when he died

• In time this practice was discontinued and painted relief sculptures were
substituted for real people in the tomb of the dead king

Wall Painting from the Tomb of Nakhtc.1450 BC

Paintings of Nakht and His Wife

• When it became difficult and costly to carve reliefs in the Middle Kingdom,
painting came into its own separate art form.

• Rough walls of tombs were carved and scraped till they were flat and smoothed
with a coating of plaster

• Artist then lined it with horizontal lines which they would fill with drawings about
the life of the deceased

• Painting were colored with rich red and yellow hues, with black and green added
for contrast

• Little shading was used making the painting appear flat

• Method of arranging in flat bands resulted in a style similar to comic strips

• Same set of rules that applied to reliefs also applied in paintings

• Figures of the priest and his wife are larger than the other figures showing that
they are more important

• Stiff and solemn, because Egyptians believes such a pose was fitting for people
of high rank
 • Smaller servants are shown in more natural positions as they labor in the fields
and take care of animals

Egyptian Hieroglyphics.

3 kinds of heiroglyphics

a) phonetic – single consonant characters that function like an alphabet

b) logographs- represent morphemes or small units with semantic meanings

c) determinatives- symbols fordivinities, people, parts of the body, animals

, which helped in reading but were not pronounced

It is hard to study the art of ancient cultures without looking at the influence and impact
of ancient Egypt. In this course we will focus our attention on the great Nile valley. By
2000 B.C.

Egyptians had learned to make bricks, sails for boats, and the wheel. They had also
discovered ways to combine copper and tin to make bronze. The ancient Egyptians were
very prosperous due to the effectiveness of their kings. The pride for the kings is
displayed in the tomb art and architecture with the image of the king often being the
center of interest. These kinds were hoping to live in eternal happiness which historians
today are able to gather from the artwork found in their tombs (pyramids). These
pyramids were stocked with everything a king might have needed in the afterlife,
including artwork.

The statues that were found around the great pyramids fall into three poses: standing,
seated or sitting on the ground. Usually the standing sculptures were carved from a
single piece of slate. The seated sculptures were carved from limestone and painted
with a realistic quality. The ability to create realistic sculptures at this time period made
the artist a revered and honored person.

The artwork from the Middle Kingdom reflected the life and culture of the Egyptian
people, Craftsmen would carve wood images of people, weapons boats and other
subjects relevant to daily life. During this time papyrus paper came on the scene. This
paper would be used for drawings that showed important characteristics of Egyptian art.
Figures in the drawings would often be placed in register, meaning they are stacked in
layers.  Legs, arms and faces were always shown in profile, while the upper body would
be facing the viewer. Also the eye would be looking directly at the viewer even though
the head would be turned to the side. This type of drawing is called formality. The more
important people in the image would have been drawn larger than the others. A huge
shift in the style took place during the time of Akhenaten. He wanted sculptures and
drawings to appear more realistic than they had in the past. He commissioned an artist
 to do a sculpture of his wife Nefertiti and the outcome would change that art
world forever. It became more realistic.

Teachers Insight

Art is a study where the origin is unknown but develop throughout the past millennia where human existed and
use for their benefit, themes and trends in arts are shaped by the society, time and condition therefore, it created
a variation of philosophies on art.