Midterm Exam Lecture Reviewer: ITEC 90
What is network?
 A set of hardware devices connected
together, either physically or logically to
allow them to exchange information.
People expect interoperability from
electronic devices for their convenience.
History of the Interneting
 the term that describes the processes
involved in designing, implementing,
upgrading, managing and otherwise
working with networks and network
technologies.
Computer networks
 allows transfer of files, data, and shared
application
What if we want to expand our network?
Then, use a network device, either a switch or
a hub, to connect more than two computers
together.
Networking Terminology
Media
 Refers to the wire cabling that form the
connections in most networks
 Some networks use wireless transmission
media, such as infrared or radio signals
Media
Servers
 host the resources for the clients to use
and provide security
 contains the file, print, application,
security, and other services in a central
computer that is continuously available to
respond to client requests.
Client
 Is the computer that requests resources
from the server
In a client/server network arrangement,
network services are located in a dedicated
computer whose only function is to respond to
the requests of clients.
Network Types:
Peer-to-peer network
 When every computer on a network acts
as both a client and a server
 Also known as “workgroups”
1
Local area network (LAN)
 a group of computers connected to one
another in a single building.
Wide area network (WAN)
 spans multiple geographic areas and is
usually connected by common
telecommunication carriers.
Metropolitan area network (MAN)
 is a computer network that interconnects
users with computer resources in a
geographic region of the size of a city.
Storage area network (SAN)
 refers to a series of storage devices that
are networked together to provide very
fast data storage for a network or
subnetwork.
Networking Terminology (cont)
Network Operating System (NOS)
 Allows communication, security, and
distribution of data, files, and applications
over a network.
Network Interface Card (NIC)
 A device that allows a computer or other
device to connect to a network through
the media
Networking hardware
 Describes all the physical components of
a network, such as the NIC, cable, hub,
switch, router, and any related connectors
or devices.
Networking software
 The programs used to run a network.
Virtual private networks
 Network that uses a public
communications infrastructure (like the
Internet) to facilitate private
communication between a company LAN
and remote employees.
 Extranet is the part of the company’s
network that allows access to
nonemployees.
 Intranet is the part of the company’s
network that allows access to
employees
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Network Topology
 the link that ties end users to a data
center and serves as the link between the
devices within the data center.

4 topologies most commonly used to build

most networks:
 Star
 Bus
 Mesh
 Ring
Star topology
 is configured by connecting all of the
nodes on the network to central device.
The central connection allows the network to
continue functioning even if a single node or
cable fails. The major drawback to this
topology is that if the central device fails, then
the network will become unstable or cease to
function.
Mesh topology
 is one which all of the nodes are directly
connected with all of the other nodes.
two types of mesh network:
full mesh is one which every workstation is
connected to the other ones in the network.
partial mesh, the workstations have at least
two NICs with connections to other nodes on
the network.
Mesh networks are commonly used in
WANs.

Bus topology
 is one which all of the devices on the
network are connected with a single
cable with terminators on each end.

In this topology, messages sent from a node

are broadcast to all nodes on the network.
Only the intended recipient node accepts and
processes the message.
Ring topology
 is one which the network is a loop where
data is passed from one workstation to
another.
Each node in the network acts as a repeater
keeping the signal strong as it travels through
the network. A node will generate a signal that
is addressed to a specific computer on the
network, and then the signal will be sent
through the network in either a clockwise or
counterclockwise direction.
Open Systems Interconnection (OSI)
model
 Presented in 1984 by the International
Organization for Standardization (ISO) to
provides the architectural framework for
all of network and computing
communication.
 Based on examination of existing
protocols, ISO recommended a seven-
layer network model
 OSI allows different vendors to implement
networks that permit communication
among the wide variety of network
implementations
The OSI model is not an absolute standard
for computer networks
 Used as a reference model, a conceptual
framework, a blueprint of how communication
should take place.
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Reasons for Layering: 5. Session layer

 Simplifies the networking model
 Enables programmers to specialize in a
particular level or layer
 Provides design modularity
 Encourages interoperability
 Allows networking vendors to produce
standardized interfaces
Protocol
 Defined method for communicating
between systems
Computers must use a common protocol to
communicate properly
Examples: TCP/IP and IPX/SPX
Peer communication
 Each layer will only talk to its peer on the
opposite side of the communications
process
 Each layer is unaware of the activities of
all other layers of the model
OSI model 7 layers
this a conceptual framework that describes
the functions of a networking or
telecommunication system.
- Keith Shaw
1. Physical layer
 Defines the physical characteristics of the
network hardware, including cable and
connectors
2. Data Link layer
 NIC software functions, including the
identification of the source and destination
nodes via their physical addresses (Media
Access Control addresses)
 Definition of how data is packaged for
transport in smaller units known as frames
The Data Link sublayers:
Logical Link Control (LLC) layer
Media Access Control (MAC) layer
3. Network layer
 Software/logical addressing for data packets
 Data routing and connectivity
4. Transport layer
 End-to-end, error-free transmission and
delivery between the ultimate sender and
ultimate receiver
 Control for data exchange (full or half
duplex)
 Clocking or timing
6.Presentation layer
 Data translation
 Data formatting
 Data syntax restructuring
7.Application layer
 Initiating the request for network services
 Providing network services to
applications such as email and Web
browsers
 concerned with user interaction with the
computer and the network
Note for OSI Model:
 The four lower layers (called the data
flow layers) define connection protocols
and methods for exchanging data.
 The three upper layers (called the
application layers) define how the
applications within the end stations
communicate with each other and with
users.
What is TCP/IP model?
Internet Protocol (IP)
 is the primary OSI network layer (layer
three) protocol that provides addressing,
datagram routing and other functions in
an internetwork.
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
 is the primary transport layer (layer four)
protocol, and is responsible for
connection establishment and
management and reliable data transport
between software processes on devices.
4 layers of TCP/IP model
1. Network access or Link layer
 defines the protocols and hardware
required to deliver data across a physical
network.
2. Internet layer
 defines the protocols for the logical
transmission of packets over the network.
3. Transport layer
 defines protocols for setting up the level
of transmission service for applications.
4. Application layer
 Defines protocols for node-to-node
application
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Data Encapsulation and De-encapsulation 2 types of twisted-pair cabling:

in network
Encapsulation - adding header and trailer to Unshielded twisted pair (UTP) - ability to
the data cancel interference. Used for telephone wiring
De-encapsulation - removing header and Shielded twisted pair (STP) - protect against
trailer to the data signal degradation. Use in Ethernet network
installations

Cisco Three-Layer Hierarchical model

 Does not describe how communications 3 types of UTP implementation
take place 1. Straight through - Used in local area
 Focuses on how best to design a network networks to connect a computer to a network
hub such as a router. Also called as patch
Access Layer cable.
 The layer closest to the users, where it is
attach to the network 2. Cross-over - connects two computers
together without using a switch (or two
Distribution Layer switches directly). It is most often used to
 Separates the Access layer from the connect two devices of the same type: e.g.
Core layer two computers (via network interface
 Implements network policies, and controller) or two switches to each other.
provides many networking services such
as Network Address Translation (NAT), 3. Rollover Wired Cables - most commonly
firewall protection, and quality of service called rollover cables, have opposite Pin
(QoS) assignments on each end of the cable. Not
 IP addressing hierarchy is managed at intended to carry data but instead create an
this layer interface with the device.

IP addressing is the process of assigning Coaxial (or coax) cable

unique IP addresses to devices on the
network
Core Layer
 Responsible for switching large amounts
of data quickly and efficiently
 is a type of transmission line, used to
carry high frequency electrical signals
with low losses.
Fiber-Optic cabling
 used to carry light from the transmitting
device to the receiver.

What is Network Cabling? Network Segmentation

 referred to as communications cabling Segmentation
and the primary media through which  The breaking down of a single heavily
data is transferred. populated network segment into smaller
 This may be between computers, segments, or collision domains,
routers,switches and/or other network populated by fewer nodes
based devices.
 a major component in any LAN Segment
infrastructure.  Part of a network that is divided logically
or physically from the rest of the network
Types of Network Media
 twisted-pair cabling Command Error
 coaxial cabling Incomplete command – did not enter all the
 fiber-optic cabling keywords or values
 Wireless Ambiguous command – did not enter
enough characters
Twisted-pair Cabling Incorrect / Unrecognized command –
 A type of cabling in which two conductors wrong command or no command as such
of a single circuit are twisted together for
the purposes of improving
electromagnetic compatibility.
 Midterm Exam Lecture Reviewer: ITEC 90
Repeaters
 The number of nodes on a network and
the length of cable used Influence the
quality of communication on the network
Attenuation
 The degradation of signal clarity
Wireless Access Points
 Provide cell-based areas where wireless
clients such as laptops and PDAs can
connect to the network
Bridges
 Operate at the Data Link layer of the OSI
model
 Filter traffic between network segments
by
 examining the destination MAC address
Broadcast frame
 special frames that are delivered to every
device on the LAN
Broadcast – a process that send a switch of
frames or traffic to all member of broadcast
domain and ports.
Transparent Bridges
 Also called learning bridges
 Build a table of MAC addresses as they
receive frames
Mac-address table - A lists which MAC
address is connected to
which port.
Switches
 Increase network performance
reducing the number of frames
transmitted to the rest of the network
Routers
 Provide filtering and network traffic
control on LANs and WANs
 Connect multiple segments and multiple
networks
Internetworks – Networks connected by
multiple routers
Routing table - Lists a route for every
network that a router can reach.
Brouters
 Hybrid device
 Functions as both a bridge for
nonroutable protocols and a router for
routable protocols
5
Gateways
 Combination of hardware and software
 Translates between different protocol
suites
Ethernet
 A network access method (or media
access method) originated by the
University of Hawaii
Fast Ethernet
 Provides ten times the data transmission
rate
Gigabit Ethernet
 The next iteration of Ethernet, increasing
the speed to 1000 Mbps
 can work in half-duplex mode through
hubs
Half-duplex communications
 Devices can send and receive signals,
but not at the same time
Full-duplex communications
 Devices can send and receive signals
simultaneously
What is IP Address?
 Internet Protocol address
 is an identifying number for network
hardware connected to a network.
 allows a device to communicate with
other devices over an IP-based network
like the internet.
 Has made up of 32 binary bits
by  network prefix
 host number
 divided into four octets
 assigned by a central numbering
authority, the Internet Assigned Numbers
Authority (IANA).
Dotted-decimal notations used when binary
IP addresses are written in decimal format.
Octet - four decimal numbers separated by
dots, converted to its binary form.
Network Address – the first IP address in a
network. It is reserved and is only used to
identify a whole set of addresses on a
network.
Host Address - IP addresses assigned to
computers and interfaces.
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MAC Address – identifies a specific NIC in a The subnet address is used to identify the
computer on a network. network itself.

Broadcast Address – the address used by What is sub-netting?

computers to send to all codes in a network.  The word subnet is short for sub network,
a smaller network within a larger one.
Broadcast – a frame meant for the entire  Subnets have a beginning and an ending
network beginning number is the "Network ID“
ending number is the "Broadcast ID."
Broadcast Types:
1. Flooded broadcasts – Broadcasts for any Network ID - the official designation for a
subnet particular subnet
2. Directed broadcasts – are for a specific Broadcast ID - send data to everyone on the
subnet subnet (such as a multicast)

Broadcasts three types of IP packets:

Unicasts are packets sent from one host to
one other host
Multicasts are packets sent from one host to
a group of hosts
Broadcasts are packets sent from one host
to all other hosts on the local network

Domain Name System (DNS) maps a

readable name to an IP address.

Dynamically Allocated IP Addresses:

A network administrator is responsible for
assigning which devices receive which IP
addresses in a corporate network.

Static – by configuring the device with a

specific address
Dynamic – by letting the device automatically
learn its address from the network

Loopback Address – used for testing

purposes. Allows a computer to send packets
to itself without generating network traffic

Remember the following three rules:

 The first octet on an address dictates the
class of that address.
 The subnet mask determines what part of
an address identifies the network, and
what part identifies the host.
 Each class has a default subnet mask. A
network using its default subnet mask is
referred to as a classful network.

Getting the Subnet Masks Steps

1. Write down the 32-bit address and the subnet
mask (174.24.4.176/26).
2. Draw a vertical line just after the last 1 bit in the
subnet mask.
3. Copy the portion of the IP address to the left of
the line. Place all 0s for the remaining free spaces
to the right. This is the subnet number.
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