GEOLOGIC NOTES AUTHORS

Lianbo Zeng
State Key Laboratory of

The influence of fracture cements Petroleum Resource and Prospecting, China
Petroleum University, Beijing, China;
lbzeng@sina.com
in tight Paleogene saline Lianbo Zeng is a professor of geology in the
Key State Laboratory of Petroleum Resource
lacustrine carbonate reservoirs, and Prospecting in China Petroleum University.
He received his M.S. degree from the China
western Qaidam Basin, University of Geosciences and his Ph.D from
the China Petroleum University. His interests
northwest China include tectonic stress fields, natural fracture
systems, and low-permeability reservoir
characterization.
Lianbo Zeng, Xiaomei Tang, Tiecheng Wang,
and Lei Gong Xiaomei Tang
College of Geosciences,
China University of Petroleum, Beijing, China;
tangxiaomei98@yahoo.com.cn
Xiaomei Tang received her B.A. and M.S. de-
ABSTRACT grees from Yangtze University and is now a
Paleogene saline lacustrine carbonate rocks are important frac- doctoral student at the China University of
tured reservoirs in the western Qaidam Basin. Core data show Petroleum. Her recent interest is in the study
and evaluation of fractured reservoirs.
that most fractures are small, steeply dipping faults; bedding-
plane slip faults; and subvertical opening-mode fractures. Other Tiecheng Wang
Research Institute of
fractures are diagenetic in origin. Fracture occurrence and abun- Petroleum Exploration and Development,
dance patterns are controlled by lithology, bed thickness, and Qinghai Oil Field Branch, PetroChina Com-
pany Limited, Dunhuang, China;
proximity to larger faults. Fractures are generally filled with
wtcqh@petrochina.com.cn
calcite, gypsum, or glauberite (Na2Ca[SO4]2); the degree of
Tiecheng Wang is a senior geologist for
fracture filling determines the effectiveness of fractures as fluid
PetroChina Company Limited. His research
conduits and the distribution of high-quality reservoirs. Open focuses on the exploration and development of
fractures not only provide the main pathways for fluid flow, fractured reservoirs in the western Qaidam
but also enhance the free fluid index and the free fluid sat- Basin, northwestern China.
uration measured by nuclear magnetic resonance and deter-
Lei Gong
College of Geosciences, China
mine the potential production rates of tight carbonate reser- University of Petroleum, Beijing, China;
voirs. The open fractures are parallel to and occur near faults, kcgonglei@foxmail.com
and many do not coincide with the present-day direction of Lei Gong received his B.A. degree from the
the maximum horizontal compressive stress. Hunan University of Science and Technology
and is now a doctoral student at China Uni-
versity of Petroleum. His recent interests in-
INTRODUCTION clude natural fracture systems and tight gas–
sandstone reservoir characterization.
Since 1950, 17 commercial oil and gas reservoirs have been
discovered in Paleogene saline lacustrine carbonate rocks in
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We thank Shao Wenbins, Zhang Min, Zhang
Daowei, Zhang Yongshu, and Si Dan, senior
Copyright ©2012. The American Association of Petroleum Geologists. All rights reserved. engineers at the Qinghai Oil Field Branch, Petro-
Manuscript received July 9, 2011; provisional acceptance December 7, 2011; revised manuscript received China Company Limited, for their constructive
January 21, 2012; final acceptance April 18, 2012.
DOI:10.1306/04181211090

AAPG Bulletin, v. 96, no. 11 (November 2012), pp. 2003–2017 2003

 help. We also thank the reviewers of this text,
Colin P. North, Stephen E. Laubach, Julia F. Gale,
Darryl Green, Stephen A. Sonnenberg, and
anonymous reviewers, who provided excellent
advice on the clarity of the text and figures. This
study is financially supported by the Founda-
tion of the State Key Laboratory of Petroleum
Resource and Prospecting, China University of
Petroleum, Beijing (PRPJC2008-03).
The AAPG Editor thanks the following reviewers
for their work on this paper: Colin P. North and
Stephen A. Sonnenberg.
EDITOR’S NOTE
Color versions of Figures 4–10, 13–17, and 19–20
can be seen on the online version.
2004 Geologic Notes
the western Qaidam Basin, northwestern China (Xu et al.,
2006). In the northwestern part of the basin, host rock–matrix
porosity and permeability are uniformly low, and all reservoirs
require natural fractures to produce (Fu, 2010). In the south-
western part of the basin, although some host rocks have higher
matrix porosity and permeability, more than half are fractured
reservoirs. Therefore, the occurrence and abundance of open
fractures determines the distribution of good reservoirs (Fu,
2010). Where no open fractures exist, little productive reservoir
is observed. The distribution of open fractures is therefore a
potential guide to exploring and exploiting these tight carbon-
ate reservoirs. The function of open fractures and cement de-
posits is increasingly appreciated as key to the evaluation of
reservoirs (Nelson, 1985; Hood et al., 2003; Laubach et al.,
2004b; Laubach and Ward, 2006; Gale et al., 2010; Ortega
et al., 2010).
Liu et al. (1998), Wei et al. (1999), and Li and Wang (2001)
reported the reservoir characteristics of lithology, pore type and
configuration, and porosity and permeability of fractured car-
bonate reservoirs in the Xianshuiquan oil field, Nanyishan gas
field, and Shizigou deep oil field in the western Qaidam Basin.
They thought that the major fractures were tectonic, which
associated with folds and faults from data of outcrops, cores, and
thin sections, and emphasized the significance of fractures on
storage and fluid flow. Peng et al. (2003) predicted the fracture
distribution in carbonate rocks of the northern Gasikule oil field
by the finite-element numerical simulation of the paleotectonic
stress field based on assumptions derived from the fault con-
figuration and regional plate tectonics. Tong and Cao (2004)
reported that fractures were mainly fold-related fractures par-
allel to and perpendicular to the strike of the axes of anticlines,
and the intensity of these fractures was developed with the in-
creased compressive folding in the Xianshuiquan and Shizigou
oil fields. Cao et al. (2007) predicted that fractures were better
developed near faults and along the axes of anticlines based on
dominant control of structures in the Nanyishan gas field.
In this study, we depict the types and distribution of the
fractures, interpret the controlling factors of fracture develop-
ment and preservation, and then evaluate the open fractures
and their contribution to the productivity of the Paleogene
carbonate reservoirs in the western Qaidam Basin. The reservoir
rocks described here are good examples of tight, fine-grained
carbonate reservoirs. The fractures in these rocks are commonly
cemented, which reduces fracture porosity and permeability.
This article provides an example of the important function
that cement deposits have in damaging natural fracture con-
duits. It also shows how the free fluid index (FFI) calculated
from nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) provides
evidence that can be used to identify zones having
effective natural fractures.
GEOLOGIC SETTING
Stratigraphy
The Qaidam Basin has a rhombic shape. It is 850 km
(528 mi) long from east to west, 150 to 300 km
(93–186 mi) wide from north to south, and has
an area of approximately 1.21 × 105 km2 (4.67 ×
104 mi2). It is an intermontane basin surrounded
by the Altyn Tagh (also spelled Altan) Shan to
the northwest, the eastern Kunlun Shan to the
southwest, and the Qilian Shan to the northeast
(Figure 1A) (Shan is Chinese for mountains).
At the front of the Altyn Tagh Shan, the west-
ern Qaidam Basin contains mainly Cenozoic strata
deposited in alluvial-fan, fluvial, and lacustrine set-
tings (Figure 2), which overlies Paleozoic and locally
Mesozoic granitic rocks along an angular unconfor-
mity. Paleogene and Neogene strata are complete,
whereas Quaternary rocks have been eroded by
neotectonic uplift movements (Fu et al., 2010; Chen
et al., 2011; Hui et al., 2011).
The Paleogene saline lacustrine carbonate res-
ervoirs are above the Eocene Xiaganchaigou For-
mation and the Oligocene Shangganchaigou For-
mation at depths of more than 3500 m (11,482 ft).
Rock types of reservoirs include lacustrine dolo-
mite, limestone, and muddy limestone (Fu et al.,
2010). The individual muddy limestone beds are
laminated and have high clay-mineral contents,
including hydromica and kaolinite (Ye et al., 1993;
Hui et al., 2011). Based on compositional analyses
of 400 samples, the average composition consists of
34.4% calcite, 27.4% dolomite, 20% clay mineral,
5.6% gypsum, 8.8% terrigenous debris, and 3.8%
pyrite.
The Eocene Xiaganchaigou Formation is dom-
inantly composed of red sandstone, conglomerate,
and mudstone in the lower part, and lacustrine gray
mudstone, carbonate rocks, and interbedded gyp-
sum and salt layers in the upper part (Fu et al., 2010;
Chen et al., 2011; Hui et al., 2011). The Oligocene
Shangganchaigou Formation is composed of inter-
bedded carbonate, sandstone, gypsum, and salt lay-
ers (Chen et al., 2011; Hui et al., 2011). The
combination of lithologies and evaporite-rich rock
assemblages are reflected in the types of cement
deposits in fractures in the western Qaidam Basin.
Structure
The Qaidam Basin is a Mesozoic and Cenozoic in-
tracontinental sedimentary basin superposed on a
pre-Jurassic block (Xia et al., 2001; Zhu et al.,
2006). It was a rifted basin in the Early and Middle
Jurassic, a foreland basin in the Late Jurassic and
Cretaceous, a weakly extensional basin in the Pa-
leocene and Eocene, and a foreland basin in the
Oligocene, and was in a fold-thrust setting from the
Miocene to the Pleistocene. The main structures
formed when the Altyn Tagh faults (Figure 1A)
had left-lateral strike slip, exhibiting a strong in-
fluence on the western Qaidam Basin (Zhou et al.,
2006; Yin et al., 2008). Uplift resulting from strong
compression is the main movement from the Ho-
locene to the present and resulted in a denudation of
more than 1000 m (3280 ft) in the western Qaidam
Basin (Zheng et al., 2004; Zhou et al., 2006; Zhu
et al., 2006).
Multiple styles of deformation in the western
Qaidam Basin exist. At depths of more than 3500 m
(11482 ft), high-angle thrust faults dominate in
Paleogene rocks (Figure 3). Most thrust faults cut to
the upper Shangganchaigou Formation (23.3 Ma)
(Figure 2) where they end in open folds. Some
faults have a large difference in bed thicknesses be-
tween the hanging walls and footwalls; these were
early synsedimentary normal faults and were re-
versed to high-angle reverse faults during later
compression (Zheng et al., 2004). Some thrust
faults cut to the Pliocene or even to the surface of
Earth, probably marking late reactivation of these
faults. Deformation at middle and shallow depths in
the Neogene rocks shows as fold thrusts (Figure 3).
These thrusts are steep angle on the top and low
angle on the bottom, with folds on the hanging
walls. The fold thrusts gradually develop in time
and spatially in magnitude from west to east and
from north to south (Zheng et al., 2004).
Zeng et al. 2005
Figure 1. (A) Location and
tectonic setting of the Qaidam
Basin in northwestern China.
NATF = northern Altyn Tagh
fault; SATF = southern Altyn
Tagh fault (northwestern
boundary fault of the Qaidam
Basin); NQLF = northern Qilian
Shan fault; MQLF = middle
Qilian Shan fault; SQLF =
southern Qilian Shan fault
(northeastern boundary fault of
the Qaidam Basin); SSTF =
Saishiten Shan fault; ELSF = Ela
Shan fault (east boundary fault
of the Qaidam Basin); NKLSF =
northern Kunlun Shan fault
(south boundary fault of the
Qaidam Basin); MKLSF = middle
Kunlun Shan fault; SKLSF =
southern Kunlun Shan fault;
SGHB = Suganhu Basin; KMKLB =
Kumukuli Basin. (B) Simplified
structural map of the study area
and field location. The box in-
dicates the location of Figure 5.

Reservoir Characteristics granular and intergranular dissolved pores and frac-

For Paleogene saline lacustrine carbonate reservoirs,
core porosity from mercury injection is principally
between 3 and 8%, and permeability is from 0.01
to 1.0 md (Fu, 2010). When samples have micro-
fractures, their permeabilities can reach 10.0 md.
Porosity includes intercrystalline pores and intra-
tures; almost no primary pores exist. Scanning elec-
tron microscopy and mercury porosimetry reveal
that the matrix has micropores (<5 mm [1.97 ×
10−4 in.]; Figure 4A), with pore throats less than
0.04 mm (1.58 × 10−6 in.) across as well as dissolved
pore diameters ranging from 0.01 mm (0.394 ×
10–3 in.) to 0.5 mm (1.97 × 10–2 in.). Dissolution

2006 Geologic Notes

Figure 2. Schematic stratigraphy, source rock, and reservoirs in the western Qaidam Basin. The reservoirs discussed in this article are
marked by the gray box in the column on the right. The composite figure data are taken from two boreholes of cores and logs in the
Shizigou oil field.

pores are mainly in minerals like mirabilite and an-
hydrite (Figure 4B) and, secondarily, in the locally
dissolved brongniardit, anhydrite, halite, and calcite
fill in the fractures (Figure 4C). The diameters of
dissolution pores are from 1 to 20 mm (0.0394–
7.88 in.) (Figure 4D).
Hydrocarbon Production
The distribution of oil and gas is complex in the
Paleogene saline lacustrine carbonate reservoirs.
Adjacent wells may have markedly different pro-
duction patterns. Wells with high outputs are

Figure 3. Structural cross section based on surface geology and seismic data. The line location is shown in Figure 1B. , Paleocene
Lulehe Formation; , Eocene Xiaganchaigou Formation; , Oligocene Shangganchaigou Formation; , Miocene Xiayoushashan
Formation; , Miocene Shangyoushashan Formation; , Pliocene Shizigou Formation and Pleistocene Qigequan Formation.

Zeng et al. 2007

Figure 4. Photographs of pores
in saline lacustrine carbonate res-
ervoirs of the Eocene Xiagan-
chaigou Formation, Shizigou oil
field. (A) Micropores from scan-
ning electron microscopy (SEM);
depth, 4064.8 m (13,335.0 ft).
(B) Dissolved pores in anhydrite
from SEM; depth, 4139.7 m
(13,581.7 ft). (C) Dissolved pores in
fillings of fracture; depth, 4145.6 m
(13,601.0 ft). P (pink) = dissolved
pore; G = gypsum filled in fracture
early. (D) Dissolved pores in
core; depth, 4142.5 m (13,590.9 ft).
The top of the core is at the left
side.

locally located in regions A and B in the Shizigou
structure (Figure 5). Reservoirs are mainly in the
Oligocene Shangganchaigou Formation in region A
and in the Eocene Xiaganchaigou Formation in
region B. In region A, wells A1, A2, and A3 are all
vertical wells in the same fault block. The initial oil
production per day is more than 200 t (1460 bbl) in
A1 and A2 but less than 10 t (73 bbl) in A3, which
is just tens of meters away from A1 and A2. In
region B, the oil rates in most vertical wells and

Figure 5. Map of reverse faults from

seismic and well data on the Paleogene
top of the Shizigou oil field and the well
location in regions A and B. The main
faults are northwest-southeast and the
secondary ones are north-south. The
vertical wells of A1, A2, B1, and B2 and
the inclined well of B3 and B4, located in
the hanging walls of northwest-southeast
reverse faults, are good producers versus
the vertical wells of A3, B4, B5, and C1,
which are poor producers. See Figure 1B
for the location.

2008 Geologic Notes

Table 1. Initial Oil Production Per Day in the Shizigou Structure
measure fracture attributes in outcrops along scan
Initial Oil lines perpendicular to fracture strike (Laubach and
Production Ward, 2006). This way, fracture attributes are ob-
Well Per Day, t/day tained perpendicular to each fracture set. More
Number Well Type Formation (bbl/day) than 5000 fractures were measured to determine
A1 Vertical well Shangganchaigou 290 (2117) fracture abundance in cores and outcrops. Fracture
Formation intensity is determined from scan lines by dividing
A2 Vertical well 328 (2394) the number of fractures by the total length of the
A3 Vertical well 6.9 (50) scan line. The average spacing between fractures
B1 Vertical well Xiaganchaigou 180 (1314) along a scan line is the inverse of the fracture in-
Formation tensity (Ortega et al., 2006). The data do not ac-
B2 Vertical well 955 (6971) count for fracture size or effectiveness.
B3 Inclined well 168 (1226) A total of 56 analyses of the NMR imaging
B4 Vertical well 0.9 (7) (NMRI) were obtained from core-plug samples
B4 Inclined well 168 (1226) from 8 wells. Samples were processed to 2.5 cm
B5 Vertical well 13.7 (100)
(1 in.) in diameter and were washed in alcohol and
C1 Vertical well 19 (138)
benzene to less than three-level x-ray fluorescence.
After being roasted to an invariable weight in a vac-
uum drying box at a temperature of 65°C, samples
inclined well B4 are more than 150 t/day (1095 bbl/ were saturated with simulant reservoir water and
day) but only 0.9 t (7 bbl) in the vertical well B4 were measured in NMRI. When samples were cen-
and 13.7 t (100 bbl) in vertical well B5 (Table 1). trifugal by 6.8 × 104 kgf/m2, they were measured
These abrupt differences in initial production can- in NMRI again. The T2 cutoff value can be deter-
not be accounted for by observed variations in host mined by comparing T2 relaxation time spectrums
rock–matrix porosity and permeability, which are before with those after being centrifugal; here, T2
uniformly low. Production rates from the best wells is the spectrum of the transverse relaxation time
are anomalous compared to the production that of precessional protons relative to static magnetic-
would be expected from the matrix porosity and field axis during the fluid flow (Kenyon, 1992). The
permeability of cores. Together, these production clay bound–water porosity (fCBW) and the irreduc-
characteristics are typical for reservoirs where natural ible porosity of the capillary bulk volume (fCBVI)
fractures influence production rates (Nelson, 1985). were obtained from T2 distribution (Kenyon, 1992;
Wang et al., 1998).

MATERIALS AND METHOD

Fracture characterization and observations of frac-
ture abundance and cements were based on three
outcrops at the Nanyishan, Xianshuiquan, and Shi-
zigou fields (Figure 1B), 780 m (2559 ft) of core and
420 thin sections from 16 wells, and Formation
MicroImager (FMI) logs from 6 wells. We calcu-
lated fracture porosities from 251 samples of cores
by the Monte Carlo method (Howard, 1990) and
from interpretations of FMI logs in 6 wells. We
measure fracture attributes in cores along scan lines
parallel to axes then revise and calculate according
to the cross angle between fracture and axes. We
FRACTURE CHARACTERIZATION
Based on data from cores, thin sections, and image
logs, fractures in the Paleogene carbonate reser-
voirs can be divided into small faults, opening-
mode (or extension) fractures, and bedding planes
that have slipped or extended. The small faults
are in en echelon patterns with downdip striations
(Figure 6) and strike northeast-southwest. The
opening-mode fractures have steep dips and are
aligned with the northwest-southeast strike of the
fold-thrust belt. These fractures are generally short
(<20 cm [8 in.]) in vertical dimension (height),

Zeng et al. 2009

Figure 6. The surface of the high-angle small fault (shear frac-
ture) in the core of the Oligocene Shangganchaigou Formation
from the vertical well, Nanyishan gas field, limestone; depth,
3031.5 m (9945.9 ft). Calcite and striations mark the fracture
surface (arrow in slip direction). The top of the core is at the left
side. See Figure 1B for the Nanyishan gas field.
have large fracture apertures (range, 0.5–5 mm
[0.0197–0.197 in.]), and show wedge shapes with
wide tops and narrow lower tips (Figure 7). Bed-
ding surfaces that show striations that mark slip
are found where bed dips are high near thrusts and
probably mark flexural slip during folding or thrust-
ing during post-Miocene shortening (Figure 8).
Bedding planes have also been locally dilated, form-
ing bed-parallel fractures or veins along laminae
(Figure 9); these lack striations and we interpret
them to be of diagenetic origin. A similar assemblage
of fractures can be found in outcrops of the pro-
ducing units at the Xianshuiquan and Nanyishan
fields (Figure 1B).
Formation MicroImager logs show four sets of
fracture orientations: northwest-southeast, north-
south, northeast-southwest, and east-west strikes
Figure 7. Vertical opening-mode (extension) fractures of the
northwest-southeast strike in the vertical cores of the Eocene
Xiaganchaigou Formation from the B1 well, Shizigou oil field,
limestone; depth, 4169.5 m (13,679.5 ft). Fractures filled with
calcite are short and wide. See Figure 5 for the well location.
2010 Geologic Notes
Figure 8. Bedding-plane slip fractures with striations in the
cores of the Eocene Xiaganchaigou Formation from the inclined
B3 well. The arrow indicates slip direction. No cement fill on the
fracture surfaces exists. Shizigou oil field, calcareous mudstone;
depth, 4146.5 m (13,604.0 ft). The top of the core is at the left
side. See Figure 5 for the well location.
in the Paleogene carbonate reservoirs (Figure 10).
Fracture strikes mimic the orientations of faults
and fold hinge lines. The development degree of
every fracture set orientation is relevant to faults as
well as fold thrusts. Calculations with the Monte
Carlo method (Howard, 1990) and logging inter-
pretations indicate that the porosities of fractures
in 251 samples are distributed generally between
0.1 and 0.8%, with a peak value of 0.2 to 0.3% and
a maximum value of 2.08%. Fractures are the im-
portant storage spaces of the tight saline lacustrine
carbonate reservoirs.
If cement is deposited while fractures are open-
ing, the age of cement can give the age of fractures
Figure 9. Bed-parallel fractures along laminae in the core of the
Eocene Xiaganchaigou Formation from the B5 well, Shizigou oil
field, limestone; depth, 4063.2 m (13,330.7 ft). Dark areas (A) are
open-fracture pore space along bed-parallel fractures. Lighter
areas (B) within fractures are isolated calcite deposits. See Figure 5
for the well location.

Figure 10. Fracture traces of the Oligocene Shangganchaigou
Formation on Formation MicroImaging log, A1 well, Shizigou
oil field. Dark linear features on the unwrapped image of the
borehole wall mark conductive fracture traces of different set
orientations in bedded carbonates. See Figure 5 for the well
location.
(Laubach, 2003). Carbon and oxygen isotope anal-
ysis of calcite in all sets of filled opening-mode frac-
tures from nine samples in the Eocene Xiagan-
chaigou Formation in the Xianshuiquan structure
suggests that the time of fracturing is mainly from
the Late Pliocene to the early Pleistocene (Liu
et al., 1998), concurrent with the time of tectonic
deformation.
OBSERVATIONS OF FRACTURE ABUNDANCE
Based on data of outcrops and cores, we can mea-
sure fracture attributes. Fracture abundance is in-
fluenced by rock type (Nelson, 1985). The Paleo-
gene lithology categories are based on composition
Figure 11. Average intensity of all fracture types in different
lithologies in the Shizigou oil field.
analysis (Wei et al., 1999; Fu et al., 2010). Accord-
ing to the statistics of average intensity of all frac-
tures, lithology type is the most important factor
governing fracture development in the Qaidam
Basin Paleogene saline lacustrine carbonate rocks
(Figure 11). Fracture intensities are expected to
increase with increased content of brittle miner-
als such as dolomite and calcite (Ortega et al.,
2010). We found fracture abundances to be high-
est in limy dolomite and dolomitic limestone and,
secondarily, in the muddy dolomite and muddy
limestone.
The opening-mode fracture abundance also re-
flects mechanical bed thickness (Bai and Pollard,
2000; Underwood et al., 2003). The opening-mode
fractures are arranged within the bed perpendic-
ular to the bedding surface. For thin beds, the av-
erage spacing of fractures varies linearly with bed
thickness, that is, fracture spacing increases as bed
thickness increases (Figure 12).
Figure 12. Relationship between the spacing of the opening-
mode fractures of all sets and the bed thickness in the Nanyishan
gas field.
Zeng et al. 2011
Figure 13. (A) The raw image of
core in the Eocene Xiaganchaigou
Formation from the vertical well B1,
Shizigou oil field, limestone; depth,
4175.6 m (13,699.5 ft). (B) The
image with superimposed anno-
tation showing the relationship
between fractures and faults. The
early and later reverse faults are
marked by F1 (solid line) and F2
(dashed line), respectively. The
dashed rings mark regions with
fractures. Letter a indicates an
early fracture zone formed at the
tip of F1; letter B, later fracture
zone formed at the tip of F2.
Fractures are filled with calcite in
both regions. See Figure 5 for the
well location.

Faults control the location of fractures. For
example, in Figure 13, a small-scale reverse fault
formed in two phases of movement, and each phase
resulted in a fracture zone at the end of the fault.
The early reverse fault (F1) has a higher angle; the
later one (F2) has a lower angle. Both have frac-
ture zones filled with calcite at the end in regions A
and B, respectively. Usually, fractures are better de-
veloped along faults and in the regions of the hang-
ing wall of large faults. Wells with high hydrocar-
bon outputs are distributed at the hanging wall of
the reverse faults of the northwest-southeast strike
and along the reverse faults of the north-south
strike in the Shizigou field structure (Figure 5).
40% of fractures are filled in the Nanyishan struc-
ture distant from the depositional center of gypsum
and salt, where the gypsum and salt layers are less
than 100 m (328 ft) thick.
Observation of partially filled fractures shows
that the degree of filling varies with fracture size.
Cements preferentially seal smaller aperture frac-
tures (Figure 14). From fracture strikes from FMI
logs in the Shizigou field (Figure 15), most of the
open fractures strike northwest-southeast, coin-
cident with the main thrust faults in the basin. In
contrast, most of the filled fractures strike south-
north, approximately parallel to the present-day
maximum horizontal compressive-stress orientation
obtained from borehole breakouts and earthquake

OBSERVATIONS OF CEMENT FILL

IN FRACTURES

Observations of cement-filled fractures from cores

and thin sections show that more than 50% of the
fractures are filled with calcite, gypsum, or glau-
berite (sodium calcium sulfate) in the carbonate
rocks. The proportion of cement-filled fractures is
relative to the location of evaporite layers. For ex- Figure 14. Core photograph of open fracture caused by the dis-
solution of calcite fill in the fracture in the Eocene Xiaganchaigou
ample, more than 90% of the fractures are ce-
Formation from the inclined B3 well, Shizigou oil field, limestone;
mented in the Shizigou structure, where the de- depth, 4123.8 m (13,529.5 ft). P = fracture pore space (black); N =
positional center of gypsum and salt is locally more narrow fractures being preferentially filled with calcite. The top of
than 300 m (984 ft) thick. In contrast, approximately the core is at the left side. See Figure 5 for the well location.

2012 Geologic Notes


source mechanisms (Wang et al., 2006). How-
ever, in the C1 well in the Shizigou field structure,
the orientations of open and filled fractures strike
northeast-southwest, coincident with the strike
of the main fault nearby the well (Figure 16). These
show that fractures occur in the fault damage zones,
and fractures would tend to dilate in the stress state
that formed the faults (Tamagawa and Pollard,
2008). Open fractures do not necessarily coincide
with the direction of the maximum horizontal com-
pressive stress; precipitated cements can seal any
orientation fracture (Laubach et al., 2004a). Later
fault activity is very important to create productive
fractures.
The filled fractures are also controlled by fac-
tors such as fracture timing and proximity to gyp-
sum and salt layers. The earlier the fractures de-
veloped, the more likely they are to be filled with
Figure 15. Rose diagram of all fracture
strikes from Formation MicroImager in
Paleogene carbonates in the Shizigou oil
field. (A) Orientation of open fractures.
(B) Orientation of sealed fractures. Open
fractures are northwest-southeast orien-
tations parallel to the main faults and are
south-north orientations parallel to the
secondary faults and the sealed fractures.
The main orientations of sealed fractures
strike south-north approximately parallel
to the present-day maximum horizontal
stress orientation obtained from borehole
breakouts and the earthquake source
mechanism (Wang et al., 2006).
minerals. So, fractures formed later are probably
more likely to be effective and of benefit to the
reservoir (Figure 17). The filling degree is also re-
lated to mineral content, either gypsum or halite.
Fractures closest to the gypsum and salt layers are
more commonly filled. Figure 18 shows the dis-
tribution of gypsum in fractures in a well in the
Nanyishan field structure. Observation of cement-
filled fractures shows that 67% of the fractures are
filled in section A (from 2950 to 2977 m [9678–
9767 ft]), 25% of the fractures are filled in section B
(from 2977 to 2999 m [9767–9839 ft]), and less
than 10% of the fractures are filled in section C
(from 2999 to 3040 m [9839–9974 ft]). With de-
creased gypsum content, the proportion of filled
fractures is also lower.
Dissolution and neotectonic uplift can make
filled fractures effective. Acidic water formed by
Figure 16. Rose diagram of all fracture
strikes from Formation MicroImager in
Paleogene carbonates in well C1. (A) Ori-
entation of open fractures. (B) Orientation
of sealed fractures. Open and sealed frac-
tures are parallel to the main fault nearby
the well.
Zeng et al. 2013
Figure 17. Microfractures of the Oligocene Shangganchaigou
Formation in a horizontal thin section from the A1 well, Shizigou
oil field. The host rock is argillaceous limestone; depth, 4004 m
(13,136 ft). Letter A indicates earlier fracture filled with gypsum;
letter B, later open fracture filled with crude oil; letter C, open
fracture that opened along an earlier fracture filled with gypsum
and subsequently filled with crude oil. See Figure 5 for the well
location.
organic maturation and clay-mineral transformation
from the Pliocene could have dissolved cements
and made filled fractures effective (Figure 19). The
Figure 18. The relationship between the gypsum content and
the proportion of all filled fractures in the Oligocene Shang-
ganchaigou Formation from one borehole of cores, Nanyishan
field structure. The gypsum beds are above layer A. In section A,
67% of the fractures are filled; in section B, 25%; in section C,
less than 10%. n = 150.
2014 Geologic Notes
Figure 19. Microfractures of the Eocene Xiaganchaigou For-
mation in a horizontal thin section from the B2 well, Shizigou
oil field. The host rock is lacustrine limestone; depth, 4102 m
(13,458 ft). F = earlier fracture filled with gypsum that has been
dissolved as fracture filled with crude oil. See Figure 5 for the
well location.
stronger the later dissolution, the more effective
the filled fractures. The Holocene uplift and ab-
normally high fluid pressure can also make filled
fractures crack again and improve their propensity
to be open (Figures 17, 20).
Figure 20. Microfractures of the Eocene Xiaganchaigou For-
mation in a horizontal thin section from the B2 well, Shizigou oil
field. The host rock is lacustrine limestone; depth, 4122.8 m
(13,526.2 ft). Early fractures filled with calcite and gypsum have
been broken by neotectonic uplift or abnormally high fluid
pressure and became open fractures filled with crude oil. The
host rock is lacustrine limestone. See Figure 5 for the well lo-
cation. Fa indicates early fracture set 1; Fb, later fracture set. C =
fracture-filling calcite; G = fracture-filling gypsum; P = porosity.
COMPARISON OF CORE-FRACTURE
OBSERVATIONS TO FREE FLUID
Effective (open) fractures are the main storage
spaces and pathways for fluid flow in the Paleo-
gene saline lacustrine carbonate reservoirs in the
western Qaidam Basin. The fractures that are com-
pletely filled are likely to be ineffective as fluid
conduits (Laubach, 2003). Only those not filled
with minerals or those showing later dissolution
are effective (Figures 13, 14, 17, 19). Here, we
estimate the location of open fractures that are
effective fluid conduits using the FFI and the free
fluid saturation (SFF) derived from NMR. The FFI
refers to the bulk volume percentage of free fluid in
rocks, and the free fluid saturation (SFF) is a ratio of
the FFI and the total porosity (Coates et al., 2000):
FFI ¼ fT  fCBW  fCBVI
FFI f +f
SFF ¼ ¼ 1  CBW CBVI
fT fT
where FFI is the free fluid index, SFF is the free fluid
saturation, fT is the total porosity of rock, fCBW is
the clay bound–water porosity, and fCBVI is the ir-
reducible porosity of the capillary bulk volume.
Open fractures improve the FFI and the SFF of
the Paleogene saline lacustrine carbonate reservoirs
and determine the potential throughput. The Pa-
leogene carbonates have many micropores with
slim throats and have high contents of clay min-
erals. The strong capillary-bond forces and sorp-
tion of clay minerals in the micropores result in
low oil saturation and FFI (Zeng and Li, 2009). For
example, the total He porosities of 650 samples
from core-plug measurement mainly range from
2.2 to 8.5% in the Shizigou structure. Based on the
analysis of 14 samples using the scanning electron
microscope (SEM), the main clay minerals in the
carbonate reservoirs are montmorillonite, chlorite,
and illite. Component analysis from x-ray diffrac-
tion shows that the average clay-mineral abundance
is 20.5%. The NMR analyses show that the FFI is
between 0.25 and 2.8% and that the SFF ranges
from 0.97 to 43.9%. Open fractures are the sig-
nificant factor on improving the FFI and the SFF
because they connect the reservoir pores for fluid
Figure 21. Relationship between the free fluid saturation, a
measure of free fluid in rocks, and the porosity of all fracture
types in the Paleogene saline lacustrine carbonate reservoirs in
the Shizigou oil field. Free fluid saturation is from nuclear mag-
netic resonance data; fracture porosity is calculated from core
observations of fracture abundance and openness. The correla-
tion coefficient (R) is 0.92. N = 25.
to flow. The FFI and the SFF increase with fracture
porosity (Figure 21). Hence, the distribution of
the open fractures is the key factor on the crea-
tion of high-quality reservoirs in the Paleogene
saline lacustrine carbonate reservoirs in the west-
ern Qaidam Basin.
CONCLUSIONS
1. In the western Qaidam Basin, the main fractures
in the Paleogene carbonate reservoirs are small,
steeply dipping faults, near vertical opening-
mode fractures and bedding slip surfaces. Also
present are partly cemented opening-mode frac-
tures parallel to bedding planes, which we inter-
pret to be of diagenetic origin.
2. The main factors governing fracture develop-
ment are lithology, bed thickness and structure,
and, especially, proximity to large faults. Frac-
tures of all types are more abundant at fault tips,
along the reverse faults of the south-north strike
and in the hanging wall of the reverse faults of
the northwest-southeast strike.
3. Most fractures are filled with calcite, gypsum,
or glauberite in the carbonate rocks. Cements
Zeng et al. 2015
 preferentially seal smaller aperture fractures;
the amount of fill in a fracture is controlled by
the time of fracture initiation and the distance
from gypsum and salt layers in the succession,
with older fractures and those closest to evap-
orite layers being more completely filled. The
abundance of open fractures mainly coincides
with proximity to the regional main faults, not
with the direction of the maximum horizontal
compressive stress.
4. Open fractures are the main storage spaces and
pathways for fluid flow and improve the FFI and
the SFF and determine the potential through-
put. The FFI and the SFF increase with fracture
porosity. Uneven distribution of open fractures
resulted in differences between the production
rates of neighboring boreholes.
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