4.

Quantitative and Qualitative Economy and Marketing Research Procedures

Information and decisions in marketing

Information is a fundamental element in the world of business and marketing. The sources of
information that exist are of two types: secondary and primary.

o Secondary sources are those that already exist and can be consulted with elaborate
information: examples of this are encyclopedias, official documents of prestigious entities or
also the internal accounting reports of the company itself.

o Primary sources are those that are collected directly from reality and host information that is
not previously available. For example: surveys or the collection of environmental data using
sensors connected to the internet (based on the Internet of Things).

In addition, inside the companies, the Marketing Information System (MIS) is a stable structure of
interaction made up of people, teams and procedures that aim to gather, classify, evaluate and
distribute timely and truthful information to assist in decision-making. MIS consists of four related
subsystems:

o Internal data: generated within the company in its daily activity.

o Marketing intelligence: Data comes from the company environment already developed.

o B: Collect, analyze and interpret data on a specific marketing problem.

o Data analysis: data processing to be useful in decision-making. [1]

Data collection, classification and analysis provides business relevant information and marketing
strategy. The information helps to reduce uncertainty and make decisions about the 4 Ps of the
marketing mix: product, price, place, promotionincrease . It should be kept in mind that decisions
may have to take into account the target business or public target of the company or organization;
according to age, income, geographical location of customers, etc.

Kinds and types of market research

There are different types of market research according to the proposed objectives,
the needs and resources of each company or organization. They can generally be
classified according to quantitative or qualitative. Sometimes, they can be used
together in a complete research process:
o Quantitative research. This is market research that turns reality into
numerical data to treat with statistical techniques so as to be able to obtain
mathematical results. It focuses on studying the cause and effect of events
while maintaining objectivity, mainly using surveys.

o Qualitative research. This is market research that captures reality in a

subjective way through speeches of people. Descriptive data is obtained
with interviews and discussion groups.
In addition, it can be classified at the same time according to the objectives of the research:
exploratory, descriptive or explanatory.

o Exploratory: this is done to know the problem superficially and the starting hypotheses.
(WHAT).

o Descriptive: this describes the reality of the problem, defining the necessary analysis and
research processes. (HOW).
4. Quantitative and Qualitative Economy and Marketing Research Procedures

o Explanatory: this seeks to explain the causes that originated the situation that interested us,
establishing the conclusions to validate the initial thesis. (WHY). [1]

In practice, the most common types of market research are the following:

o Market segmentation: Segmentation studies aim to rank customers according to their needs,
values, attitudes, behavior and demographics. Thus, the enterprise can perform more
personalized and effective marketing actions.

o Product testing: Market research is conducted to understand whether a product meets the
needs of its customers. It is interesting to do so during the product development phase to
assess the final characteristics before release to the market. The result can be technical
viability and a competitive advantage over similar products/services.

o Pricing research: Aims to define the most convenient price for a given product according to
what customers would pay.

o Advertising testing: This is market research that is conducted to test advertising campaigns
on a sample of customers before being distributed to a mass audience; it aims to detect
possible points of improvement.

o Brand awareness: Market research techniques are used to see how popular the brand is
against its competitors. Here the brand identity (what the company wants to convey with the
brand) is analyzed and compared with the brand image (the customer's perception of the
brand).

o Satisfaction and loyalty analysis: This type of research aims to identify the reasons for the
satisfaction or dissatisfaction of the customer, to determine their degree of fidelity over
time. Loyalty factors are analyzed and used as the basis for the development of customer
loyalty and retention programs. [2]

The role of market research

Market research is one of the fundamental pillars for marketing; collecting and analyzing the reality
data that helps in decision-making for companies. Specifically, market research has the following
roles:

Helps locate business opportunities

In many cases, market research clarifies who the target customers are, the most appropriate
marketing channels and the new consumer trends to come. In this sense, for example, the following
marketing actions can be given:

o Create partnerships with other companies to reach a greater number of customers.

o Know the other products and services that customers buy to offer new set packs that
increase the degree of satisfaction.

o Manage new points of sale to reach more customers, for example: developing e-commerce.

Reduces business risks

Regular market research keeps the interest in the customers to see if needs are still satisfied.
Specifically, the following can be done:

o Test new product designs before launch.

4. Quantitative and Qualitative Economy and Marketing Research Procedures

o Find out why customers aren't as loyal as they used to be.

o Analyze why a product has greatly decreased its sales.

Contributes to the creation of successful advertising campaigns

With market research, the company will know what the interests of its target audience are and
create marketing actions. For example:

o Know which image customers expect to see about their products.

o Know the age range of customers to adapt the product message.

Find the most suitable site to advertise

The budget of the marketing department of companies is limited and investments are intended to be
optimized to achieve the best possible returns. Market research is all about getting the advertising
message placed on the media where you're most likely to see the company's pubic goal.

o If the use of digital support for online advertising is determined, research will be needed to
determine which social networks are the most accustomed.

o If the use of offline support to advertise is decided on, it is essential to determine the
location and orientation of the billboards and posters on the street.

Study the competition

Market research can analyze the competitive structure of a sector to see its degree of concentration,
the size of companies and inflows of new competitors. In this sense, competing consumers can also
be analyzed for the following purposes:

o Asking dissatisfied customers of the competition to see what the weaknesses and
improvement points for future products would be.

o Find customer segments that are neglected by the competition.

Establish better objectives for the company's business model

Market research provides information to know whether the goals proposed by the organization are
achievable and realistic. Here are some examples:

o If we want to double sales by the end of the year, we would have to investigate whether the
current market size would allow it to.

o If we are to increase the customer base, we will have to investigate the growth possibilities
among the current audience or create a new market segment.

The market research process

Companies and organizations are usually in a process of conducting market research. This can be set
in the following steps:

1. Define the objectives of the project and the problem to be solved

This is the most important step in the research process. We need to understand the fundamental
research problem that needs to be solved. For example, some business problems may be: what price
to put, what features should the product have, what advertising to do? The proposed objectives
need to provide enough information to make an appropriate decision.
4. Quantitative and Qualitative Economy and Marketing Research Procedures

2. Go to the problem

The first approach to the problem is made through qualitative research, for example with interviews
or industry expert groups. The information is collected by saving the statements in speech
transcripts, which are then read and analyzed.

3. Formulate the design of the research

At this point, the type of research to be carried out is planned, specifically quantitative. The number
in the sample will also be chosen. Research tools are designed. If the survey is the most appropriate
tool, then the questions for the questionnaire will have to be written. Before completing the
questionnaire, it will be necessary to make real tests in a small sample group, to see possible errors.

4. Fieldwork for data collection

At this time, the survey is used and the information is collected, saving the encoded responses in
large numerical databases. Now, Blockchain technology can help to structure the data obtained in an
efficient way.

5. Data analysis

Once you have all the data collected, it is time to analyze it. The first thing to do is to perform a
correct encoding in digital spreadsheet. To do this, check that it is well structured and that there are
no errors. Then the numerical analyses are performed with software tools, such as excel or SPSS. As a
result, data, tables and explanatory causal relationships will be obtained.

6. Prepare and submit the report

All the information you analyze in a report must be understandable and visually appealing. The
objectives of the investigation are first recalled. Subsequently, recommendations are made from the
conclusions obtained in the analysis. As advice, it is necessary to develop critical thinking to
recommend different accusative business decisions.

2. Measure and scaling in economy and market research

Basics of measurement

Measurement is fundamental in the economy. The idea is to quantify the information that comes
from reality to facilitate the data analysis in a globally standardized way. Market research aims to
collect and numerically codify the information from our environment, to provide conclusions based
on statistical reasoning.

It is important to know the basic aspects of measurement theory. Scale is the fundamental
instrument for measuring the characteristics/properties of objects, phenomena and individuals. The
scales used in market research have four basic characteristics: description, order, distance, and
origin.

1. Description: This is used to select the scale values; for example, if you decide that
man=number 1 and woman=number 2. These types of scale have tags for defining the values
of the response options.

2. Order: In this case, no absolute values are given, there is talk of "less than", "greater than",
"equal to". For example, when asking for the preference of three clothing brands, the
respondent sorts them as first, second, and third.
4. Quantitative and Qualitative Economy and Marketing Research Procedures

3. Distance: Absolute differences between the descriptors of a scale can be expressed in units.
For example, a class with 20 people has one person more than a class with 19 people.
Distance implies order, but order does not necessarily involve distance.

4. Origin: The scale that has a single and fixed zero number starting point. This also implies that
it has description, order and distance. Some research scales do not have a fixed origin, for
example "it's worth the satisfaction of 0 to 4" (it could also be a scale of 1 to 5).

Scaling procedures

When collecting information, it is critical to decide what scaling procedure will be used for each
variable type. A good choice makes data analysis much easier. Therefore, the different types of scales
that exist are presented: basic, comparative and non-comparative.

Classification of data by basic scales

These are the scales that are used to collect and encode the information of individuals. Depending on
the nature of the data, scales of different types are:

o Nominal scale: this is responsible for identifying a category with a number. The numbers
represent labels. For example: sex -> Male (1), Female (2).

o Ordinal scale: this gives objects a hierarchy based on a criterion. Each type of response is
sorted. For example: preschool level -> (1), basic education (2), middle education (3), higher
education (4).

o Interval scale: this represents magnitudes and zero is arbitrary (cannot be compared or
multiplied or divided). For example: the temperature -> exists the same difference between
10 and 12 degrees as 15 and 17, but 10 degrees does not equal half of 20 degrees of
temperature.

o Ratio scale: Sorts and sets constant distances between elements. Zero is absolute and fixed
(can be easily compared between different subjects). For example: variables of height,
weight, distance or salary.

Comparative scales

This type of scale is intended to compare an object with another, and a relative measure of
preference is obtained, for example: ´do respondents prefer one or another soft drink?´ The main
types of comparative scales are:

o Guttman scaling. This is a cumulative score scale. The respondent will accumulate points until
they no longer agree. Questions are asked in dichotomic format (yes or no). The first
questions are easier to agree on and progressively more complex things are asked.

o Rank-order scaling. This is an ordinal scale that is responsible for classifying a number of
elements. The maximum suggested number of items to classify is 6. For example: Place the
following TV channels from position 1 to 5.

o Constant sum scaling. The respondent is asked to distribute a value (typically 100 points)
among a given set of elements. The minimum reference value is 0. It is not recommended to
use many variables. For example: Distribute 100 points between the following car brands.

o Paired comparison scale. The set of elements that is to be analyzed is collected and then the
possible combinations of pairs are made. All the pairs that exist are presented and the
4. Quantitative and Qualitative Economy and Marketing Research Procedures

respondent sorts them according to their perception from highest to lowest similarity. For
example: A and B are more similar than B and C [1].

Non-comparative scales

The goal of this type of scale consists of a scale where each object is measured independently of the
other objects in the same test and absolute results are obtained. Types:

o Continuous rating scale. Also known as graphical classification scale, because respondents
classify items by placing a mark on a line at each end of the variable. It is more complex to
quantify numerically.

o Likert scale. Respondents are asked to indicate their degree of agreement or disagreement
with a number of statements. A gradual scale of 1 to 5 is usually indicated, where 1 equals
totally disagree and 5 is totally agree (3 would be the neutral point).

o Semantic differential scales. These ask for the characteristics of a product or brand image,
using a number of antagonistic attributes. For example: Is the brand modern or old?

o Stapel scale. This is a 10-point rating scale with a range from 5 to -5, where 5 is totally good
and -5 totally bad. It should be noted that 0 is not a neutral point.

Quality of scaling procedures

A number of considerations must be taken into account when performing an information scaling
process to ensure quality. Two criteria can be proposed for effective measurement and data
collection.

1. Validity

Validity is a measure to understand whether research is collecting interesting variables and using the
scales we need. A question is valid if you are looking for accurate and relevant information,
considering the selection of scales and wording. It is intended that the respondent will easily
understand the question, with no doubts. Validity can be:

o Content: if the measurement scale correctly represents the measured concept.

o Criterion: if the measurement scale is compared to an external criterion previously used in

other investigations

o Construct: if the measurement scale relates to other questions following the discourse posed
by the initial hypotheses [1].

2. Reliability

Reliability refers to the consistency of a research study or measurement test. Reliability is achieved
when measurements don´t have errors and consistent results are achieved over time. For example,
scales that measure weight or height offer a similar reading methodology over time (they always
measure according to the same criteria, although obviously the result of weight or height is different
depending on the person).

A question is reliable if it has the same meaning for all individuals who will answer it. There are two
types of reliability:
4. Quantitative and Qualitative Economy and Marketing Research Procedures

o Internal reliability: this evaluates the consistency of results between items within the test. To
evaluate internal reliability it is possible to use:

o The split-half method: this measures the extent to which all parts of the test also
contribute to what is being measured. The sample is divided into two equal parts (for
example: part one and part two or odd and even) and the results are compared from
one half and the other half, to see if they are similar.

External reliability: this evaluates the consistency and stability of the test versus the outside. These
are the methods to evaluate external reliability:

o Test re-test: this measures the external consistency of the scales. The same group of
individuals are tested on separate occasions to see if the results are realistic. The
duration between tests should be adequate, neither too short nor too long.

o Inter-rater: this refers to the degree to which evaluators give objective results,
especially when conducting interviews. The data obtained between the different
observers must be consistent and have no opinion biases. The results between
different interviewers are compared to detect possible differences in perception

International specialities

There are current trends for scaling in marketing research. Below are some web links with interesting
information to complete content related to measure and scaling in economy and market research.

Breaking away: The secrets to scaling analytics

More and more companies from all industries invest to integrate data collection throughout their
business and are guided by the scale analysis.

The Analytics Team At Wish

When creating the team responsible for measuring and analyzing the data, it is necessary to take into
account what the joint vision will be. This is necessary to establish the skills and role of each team
member.

3. Data collection in market research practice

Desk research

Primary research focuses on finding new data directly from reality. The main idea is
go out and discover stuff yourself. This type of research is conducted to address a
specific problem that needs to be analyzed in depth. Companies and organizations
themselves conduct primary research or contract other specialized companies.
These are the main examples of primary research that companies often use:
1. Focus groups. This research technique is used to collect data from a small
group of previously selected people because they are experts in the topic
theme. In this discussion group, there is a moderator who makes the
questions and the individuals contribute with their opinion and discuss.
2. Interviews. Interviews are a qualitative research method that involves
conducting a face to face interview or by phone call. To achieve a successful
interview, it is essential that the researcher has a great capacity to ask the
right questions and establish a natural dialogue with the interviewee.
4. Quantitative and Qualitative Economy and Marketing Research Procedures

3. Surveys. The survey is the most widely used tool for collecting primary reality
information. Surveys can be on paper, but currently most researchers use
online surveys and are emailed to be faster. These digital surveys have a set
time to be answered and should not be too long. In addition, individuals are
often rewarded to participate.
4. Observation: This method is the least invasive because there is no interaction
between the researcher and the subject being observed. For example: the
observer (mystery shopper) pays attention to consumer reactions to buying
products in a store.
Primary research

Primary research focuses on finding new data directly from reality. The main idea is go out and
discover stuff yourself. This type of research is conducted to address a specific problem that needs to
be analyzed in depth. Companies and organizations themselves conduct primary research or contract
other specialized companies. These are the main examples of primary research that companies often
use:

1. Focus groups. This research technique is used to collect data from a small group of previously
selected people because they are experts in the topic theme. In this discussion group, there
is a moderator who makes the questions and the individuals contribute with their opinion
and discuss.

2. Interviews. Interviews are a qualitative research method that involves conducting a face to
face interview or by phone call. To achieve a successful interview, it is essential that the
researcher has a great capacity to ask the right questions and establish a natural dialogue
with the interviewee.

3. Surveys. The survey is the most widely used tool for collecting primary reality information.
Surveys can be on paper, but currently most researchers use online surveys and are emailed
to be faster. These digital surveys have a set time to be answered and should not be too long.
In addition, individuals are often rewarded to participate.

4. Observation: This method is the least invasive because there is no interaction between the
researcher and the subject being observed. For example: the observer (mystery shopper)
pays attention to consumer reactions to buying products in a store.

Advantages and disadvantages of primary research

There are pros and cons when assessing primary research:

Advantages:

o There are no distortions because the data is known first hand.

o The research method is adapted to the needs of each company.

o The data focuses mainly on solving the specific problem, paying attention to those aspects
that are considered most interesting.

o Data collection techniques are standardized and validated globally.

Disadvantages:
4. Quantitative and Qualitative Economy and Marketing Research Procedures

o It is a very expensive research method not suitable for all companies.

o It can take a long time to reach final conclusions.

o Sometimes it needs another research method to obtain conclusive results.

New trends on primary research

Gamification

Mixing games with market research makes it more attractive for respondents to participate.
Individuals participate in surveys with a positive and committed mindset, answering in a proactive
way. Some of the most commonly used techniques in gamification are:

o Progress bar, to see the progress in the survey responses.

o Star ratings, to rate the survey at the end of it.

o Drag & drop, to introduce interactive media elements into surveys.

o Challenges among respondents, for example seeing ‘who can say quickly 5 brands of milk’.

o Virtual currency, creating virtual purchase decision scenarios as responses.

o Use a narrative discourse following a story to compose all the questions in the survey. Write
in the first person and informally.

Big Data

This is a term that refers to the large volume of data automatically collected daily on computer
systems. Big Data is characterized by the high volume, speed and variety of the data stored. Most
data is unstructured and must be processed to achieve structured databases that can be interpreted.
Big Data is used as a complement to market research, especially to:

o Collect massive data from the real environment and social networks.

o Perform more effective predictive analysis of behavior.

o Stablish the conclusions contained with traditional data collection methods

Selection of collection units

When starting an investigation, it is necessary to determine the sample units on which the
information will be collected. To this end, a segmentation of the target audience is carried out
considering the objectives of the research and the final purposes. Specifically, interesting individuals
can be classified based on two levels.

Level 1. The most superficial features are discussed here:

o Demographics: age, city where you live, gender, composition of the home.

o Socioeconomics: household income, level of education, occupation.

o Brand affinity: behavior before a brand or product.

Level 2. At this point, we go deeper into the attributes of individuals.

o Psychography: lifestyles, hobbies, personality, political opinions.

4. Quantitative and Qualitative Economy and Marketing Research Procedures

o Generation: attributes related to the age generation of the individual, with a similar attitude.

o Geography: Attributes specific to the place where the individual lives.

o Benefits sought: the needs that individuals seek to meet.

Following this series of attributes, we can choose the target audience that will be part of the research
sample. In many cases, it will match the company's current customers, but other times it will be a
new audience if you want to reach another segment of customers. For example, if a company sells
fries for young people, but now aims to sell old-town fries.

The information collection tools used will adapt to the type of individual detected as interesting. For
example, if it is a sample of young people, you will opt for online surveys, but if it is a more adult
audience, it may be interesting to conduct previous interviews to gain confidence [1].

If our target research audience is very large, we must take a representative sample. When choosing
the sample size, there are mathematical procedures that consider two key concepts:

o Population size: the total number of people in the group you want to study.

o Margin of Error: This is a percentage that indicates how the sample is similar to reality. When
there is less margin of error, the estimate is more reliable. It is measured with the standard
deviation.

International specialities

There are current trends for data collection in market research. Below are some web links with
interesting information to complete content related to data collection in market research practice.

4 Recent Data-Driven Marketing Trends and How to Use Them

The term data-driven Marketing refers to marketing ideas and decisions that come from data
collected from consumers. Currently, analysis with Big Data is very important, as are Artificial
Intelligence, people-based marketing, a cross-channel view and predictive analysis.

Why Social Media Data Collection is Essential for Marketing

Social media is a fundamental element in people's day-to-day lives. With social media data collection,
business can analyze exactly how clients interact with the brand. It is essential to determine that
social data can tell you how to optimize the social media content strategy.

How Customer Data Collection Trends are Transforming Marketing

With the exponential growth in the number of smartphones, tablets and the internet of things
technologies, more real-time online data is collected in more sophisticated ways. Digital marketing
can collect large volume of data that users generate to be more effective in their actions.

4. Qualitative market research

Qualitative research is part of the social sciences and does not work with numerical data. The idea is
to collect and interpret qualitative information that helps to understand the internal needs and
motivations of individuals. This type of research focuses on the micro level of social interaction, the
daily and deep life of the population. Sociology has always used qualitative research as its main tool.
Social researchers seek to discover the meanings that people give to their behavior, opinions and
interactions with others.
4. Quantitative and Qualitative Economy and Marketing Research Procedures

Quantitative research is responsible for identifying the relationships between generic and large scale
variables, such as price and purchase intent. However, qualitative research seeks to reveal the inner
meaning of those cause-effect relationships. In addition, the qualitative researcher must interpret
the descriptive data with systematic methods, being as objective as possible, and avoid conditioning
or distorting the opinions of individuals.

Generally, qualitative research seeks to gather information on 4 fundamental pillars of people:

perceptions, opinions, beliefs and attitudes

o Perceptions: they are a mental image that people make, considering their previous
experiences. For example: when you want to launch a new product, you wonder that you
think in relation to similar previous products.

o Opinions: these are beliefs rooted in the individual that are based on previous facts and
experiences. Opinions are the basis upon which people base their reasoning. For example:
when an individual says that, in his opinion, hybrid cars are more ecological than gasoline
cars.

o Beliefs: they form people's values and are harder to change than perceptions and opinions.
For example: when an individual says that products with saturated fats are bad and then
doesn't buy any of them.

o Attitudes: these are emotional positions or mental statements that a person has about
something. They can be changed more easily and determine future decisions. For example:
the observer can analyze the attitude to a topic being valued by listening to the tone of voice
and rhythm of the conversation, also the body language of individuals.

Methods of data collection

Researchers use their own eyes, ears and intelligence as tools to collect the perceptions, opinions,
beliefs and attitudes of individuals. All of this is collected using a number of methods that can be
done together to complement the conclusions. The following methods are the most prominent:

o Direct observation. The researcher watches individuals without interfering with them. It is
usually carried out in public environments, such as shopping malls, and subjects do not know
that they are being analyzed.

o Open polls. Surveys are typically used as a tool to gather quantitative information, but there
are surveys that can be designed to generate qualitative data through open questions. The
idea is to ask individuals ´Why?', so they will give longer answers.

o Focus group. The researcher creates a small group of expert participants to have their say on
the questions. These groups consist of 5 to 15 individuals and examine current market
trends.

o In-depth interviews. Researchers interview an individual in depth. A predetermined list of

questions is made to deal with the different topics and the individual has freedom to answer.
These interviews are made up of open questions and should be more than 30 minutes.

o Oral history. This is a question of drawing up a story that captures the evolution of the
opinions established by the individuals of a group or community. The idea is to conduct
interviews with several participants over time to see how speeches change.
4. Quantitative and Qualitative Economy and Marketing Research Procedures

o Participant observation. This method is similar to normal observation, but in this case, the
researcher is included as part of the environment participating in the experience, for
example: when the researchers are the salespersons in a shopping center.

o Ethnographic observation. Ethnographic observation is the most intensive and profound

method. The researcher introduces her/himself into the environment completely and lives
day to day with individuals for a period of months or even years.

o Context analysis. Researchers use this method to draw conclusions about social life in
general, analyzing documents of art, music and other cultural elements. It is now very
popular to analyze the context of digital material published on social networks.

Data analysis and data interpretation

Qualitative research data are not numerical. Such data may be transcriptions of individuals’
statements, schematic notes, audio and video recordings, images and text documents. Five types of
analyses are identified when analyzing content:

o Content analysis. This is about categorizing verbal or behavioral data using classifications,
summaries, and tabs.

o Narrative analysis. This analysis reformulates the statements submitted by respondents,

emphasizing the context of each case and the previous experiences of the individual.

o Speech analysis. This seeks to analyze the complete discourse of each individual,
summarizing the most important ideas.

o Analysis of the frame. This is the most advanced method of analysis and consists of several
stages: introduction, thematic framework, coding, graphics and interpretation.

o Grounded theory. This consists of analyzing a single individual and drawing conclusions, then
examining additional people and confirming the hypotheses.

Interpretation of data
The interpretation of qualitative research data is usually taken in three steps:

1. Developing and applying codes

Coding consists of categorizing qualitative data to begin interpretation. Codes will be
short words or phrases that represent a topic, an idea, opinions and/or behavior.
There are three types of encoding:

o Open encoding: This is sought to make sense of data by means of

personalized codes.

o Axial coding: This consists of interconnecting and linking the different

codes.

o Selective coding: A complete story is formulated using a number of

categories described above.

Encoding can be done manually or with data analysis software:

4. Quantitative and Qualitative Economy and Marketing Research Procedures

o Manually doing so often uses folders and cabinets to store grouped papers
according to similar topics. It's a slow and outdated process.

o Computer encryption uses a greater ability to store and process

information; with qualitative data analysis software programs such as
Atlas.ti, HyperResearch, Max QDA, NVivo.

2. Identifying themes, patterns and relationships

In qualitative data analysis, there are no universally replicable techniques for all
research; it depends on the capabilities of the researcher. A set of methods to identify
common topics, patterns, and relationships within individual responses are often the
following:

o Repetition of words and phrases: this searches for which words and
phrases are most used by individuals, relating to the emotions of that
moment. The results are compared with the literature already written about
the behavior subject.

o Search for missing information: this analyzes which aspects of the problem
were not mentioned by individuals.

o Metaphors and analogues: the results of the statements in relation to

everyone are compared.

3. Summarize the data

The results of the research are analyzed and linked to the initial hypotheses. To
make the final report, the transcript citations can be used to write the highlight
conclusions. Real statements are presented in inverted commas, for example: as
professor Maria said ‘‘market research applies in most companies’’.

5. Statistical data evaluation with SPSS in the market research practice

When we want to evaluate and analyze data, there are different statistical software programs.
Researchers use these statistical software packages to do their work. There are two types of
software, depending on their ease of use:

o Statistical programs that require the researcher to know programming language to use them.
These programs can make more complex contrasts. The most used are:

o Free: R

o Pay-per-license: SAS, Matlab

o Statistical programs with a user friendly interface based on a windowed design with the
menus established for statistical procedures. The most commonly used programs are:

o Free: Microsoft Excel,

o Pay-per-license: SPSS, SPAD, Stata, Stagraphics, Minitab, GraphPad Prism

4. Quantitative and Qualitative Economy and Marketing Research Procedures

Introduction to SPSS

We will analyze the SPSS program in depth, which is pay-per-license, but it is the most commonly
recognized and has an easy classification of statistical procedures. SPSS is a software program that
means "Statistical Package for the Social Sciences" and was commercialized in 1968. Since SPSS
was acquired by IBM in 2009, it's officially known as IBM SPSS Statistics. It is a software with a
menu design focused on the end user, which makes it very versatile and attractive. The purpose of
SPSS is to edit and analyze all kinds of data from such sources as survey databases, Google Analytics,
website servers, etc. The SSPS program can open all file formats that are used to collect structured
data: Excel spreadsheets, .txt .csv text files, and related databases such as SQL, Stata, and SAS.

When you open SSPS, the first thing you see is the Data View, where all individuals are sorted by
rows and variables are sorted by columns. If, in the lower menu, you choose the variable view, you
will see the metadata associated with each data, with information about the tags and the meaning of
variables.

When analyzing the data in SSPS, the program has elaborated statistical options in its menus. When
you navigate through the different options in the analysis menu at the top, dialog boxes are opened
where you select the variables that interest you. For example: in our database, it is the variable with
the income of the respondents during 2018; with SSPS, we can calculate the average income and
relate it to other variables such as age.

When you process the data, a new window opens with a different layout and structure. It should be
noted that modifying the results window does not affect the original data. The outputs that are
obtained are mainly tables and graphs, which can be copied and exported to other programs, such as
Word.

Data preparation by descriptive statistics

Once the database is available, a large number of statistical analyses can be performed to obtain
conclusions. The descriptive statistic is intended to explain the information contained in the sample
data using Descriptive Statistics. Previously, it is necessary to take into account the nature of the
variable (quantitative or qualitative), because certain descriptive analyses can be performed.

o Quantitative variable: this is a variable expressed numerically, such as age, the number of
people in a household, people in a concert, weight, height, salary.

o Qualitative variable: this is a variable that expresses qualities such as eye color, degree of
formation, sex, etc. In the database, each of the options of the variable is categorized and
given a number (for example, man=0, woman=1).

Depending on the number of variables used in the analyses, there are three types of statistical
procedures: univariate, bivariate or multivariate.

Univariate statistical procedures

-OBJECTIVE: This consists of statistically analyzing a single variable, for example: age.

-In SSPS: ANALYZE -> DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS -> FREQUENCIES -> DESCRIPTIVES -> EXPLORE

o In the window that opens, you choose the variable that you want to analyze statistically. The
following descriptive statistics can be chosen according to their purpose.

o To measure centralization:
4. Quantitative and Qualitative Economy and Marketing Research Procedures

o Average: Average sample value (quantitative variable)

o Median: value the middle (quantitative variable)

o Fashion: most observed value (quantitative variable, nominal, ordinal)

o To measure dispersion:

o Amplitude: difference between maximum and minimum (quantitative variable)

o Standard deviation: average difference from mean (quantitative variable)

o To measure location:

o Minimum: lower sample value (quantitative variable)

o Maximum: higher sample value (quantitative variable)

o Quartiles: divide the sample into four equal frequency groups (quantitative variable)

o Centiles: divide the sample into 100 equal frequency groups (quantitative variable)

o To measure the sample shape:

o Bias: asymmetry coefficient (quantitative variable)

o Aiming: kurtosis coefficient (quantitative variable)

Bivariate statistical procedures

This statistical analysis process aims to locate the possible relationship between two variables; for
example, the possible relationship between age and salary. To do this, the following procedures are
the most important.

Linear association indices

-OBJECTIVES: Used to see the relationship between a quantitative variable and a qualitative variable.
In order to obtain covariance and correlation between variables, the correlation procedure is used.

-In SPSS: ANALYZE -> CORRELATION -> BIVARIATES

o In the window that appears, you choose the variables that you want to analyze.

o Next, the correlation type is selected: Pearson, Kendall, and Spearman. When the value of
the coefficient is higher, then there is a great ratio relation, positive or negative.

o It is also selected if you want to have the matrix of variances and covariances. This table
crosses the variables and compares the correlations.

To view the linear relationship graphically, use the menu: GRAPHICS -> SCATTERING

o You can see graphically whether the relationship is positive or negative between variables,
for example: when you are younger you earned less in your job.

ANOVA analysis

-OBJECTIVE: To analyze the relationship between a quantitative variable (for example: salary) and
another qualitative variable categorized into two or more levels, named factor (for example: sex->
male (0), female (1)). The ANOVA variance analysis method raises two hypotheses:
4. Quantitative and Qualitative Economy and Marketing Research Procedures

o H0: The averages in each category are the same, for example: men and women have the
same average salary.

o H1: when the average wage is said to be different between men and women.

-In SPSS: ANALYZE -> COMPARE MEDIA -> MEDIA

o In the result viewer, after running the ANOVA analysis, you can compare the means using the
p-value (if it is <0.05, H0 rejection, then there are significant mean differences). You can also
use the Tukey test to analyze, in depth, where the means change most from one group to
another.

Simple linear regression

-OBJECTIVE: this is a way to see the degree of influence that a quantitative variable has over another
quantitative variable. Predictive regression models analyze the relationships between variables and
allow predictions of the value that will be taken by one of the variables. Specifically, we would have
to determine what the role of each variable is in the mathematical expression: Y = a + bX

o Y: is the dependent variable or response; it is the variable that you want to be explained. The
Y variable is determined by the variable X.

o X: is the independent or explanatory variable; it is the variable that aims to explain the other
variable. The X variable influences the Y variable.

o a: is a constant value that the model estimates.

-In SPSS: ANALYZE -> REGRESSION -> LINEAL

o In the window, each variable is presented according to whether it is dependent or

independent.

o In the save tab, you choose to display the estimated values of the Y (Y’) and also the residuals
to see the degree of error (Y-Y’).

o In the result viewer:

o Attention is paid to R squared, because if it is high, it means that the model explains the
relationship between the variables well.

o The regression table tells us the estimated values of the constant (a) and also the beta (b)
associated with variable X. If the beta (b) of X has a high value, it means that a relationship
exists (positive with positive sign or negative with negative sign).

o You have to look at the p-value, because if it is <0.05, then there is a significant relationship
with Y. If the p-value>0.05, then the relationship is not considered important, it does not
explain much of Y.

Contingency tables
-OBJECTIVE: To analyze the relationship between two qualitative variables (nominal
or ordinal).

-In SPSS: ANALYSIS -> DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS -> CONTINGENCY TABLES

o It is also interesting to select the option to display the grouped bar charts.
4. Quantitative and Qualitative Economy and Marketing Research Procedures

o In the menu that comes out, click on the ‘box key’ to be able to select the
option of observed joint frequencies. In the percentage section, you can
check the row, column and total options.

o In the result viewer:

o The contingency table appears between the two variables, for example,
smoking (dichotomous variable, yes or no) and sex (male or female).

o Looking at the chart, you can see the total number of men who smoke or
the total number of women who smoke. Other interpretations can also be
made, such as: ‘30% of non-smokers are women, 40% of women are
smokers’.

Data preparation by descriptive statistics

Multivariate statistical procedures

These are a set of statistical methods that aim to analyze three or more variables. This allows you to
analyze and understand more complex phenomena. There are three groups of multivariate methods:
dependency, interdependence, and structural. The first two will be considered for their great utility
in SPSS.

Dependency methods

These methods are based on the idea that all variables are divided into two groups: dependent and
independent. The goal is to determine which variables are independent and how they affect
dependent variables. Next, you can see the types of analysis most commonly used:

Multiple linear regression

-OBJECTIVE: To establish the relationship that exists between a metric dependent variable (Y) and
several metric independents (X1, X2, X3, X4). Its function is to predict the behavior of some variables
from others. For example: ‘seeing how the profit variable of a movie (Y) depends on the quality of
the script (X1) and the investment in marketing (X2)’.

o The shape of the function will be: Y-B+B1*X1+B2*X2

-In SPSS: ANALYSIS -> REGRESSION -> LINEAL

o You have to look at the p-value of each variable because, if it is <0.05, then there is a
significant relationship with Y. If the p-value>0.05, then the relationship is not considered
important, it does not explain much of Y.

o After looking at the values of the Betas (B), you can see the positive or negative influence on
the Y variable.

Logistic regression

-OBJECTIVE: To calculate the relationship between quantitative explanatory variables (X1, X2, X3) and
a qualitative dependent variable (Y, which is dichotomous with answers Yes (1)/No (0)). The idea is to
calculate the probability of one of the options of the dichotomous variable which is determined by
the metric explanatory variables. For example: ‘see the probability of a customer being sluggish (Y:
Yes/No) based on a series of metric variables (X1; debts, X2; age, X3; Number of children)’.
4. Quantitative and Qualitative Economy and Marketing Research Procedures

-In SPSS: ANALYSIS -> REGRESSION -> LOGISTICS

o As a result, you must first see which X variables are significant (see p-value<0.05 to make it a
significant variable).

o Then you need to look at the values of the Betas to see if the ratio is positive or negative,
more or less intense.

MANOVA analysis.
-OBJECTIVE: To analyze the simultaneous relationship of several quantitative
variables with the qualitative variable (factor). For example: ‘study, at the same time,
the average score of hardness and flexibility that is obtained in 3 types of plastics’.
The following hypotheses are established:

o H0: Hardness and flexibility means are similar in all 3 types of plastic.

o H1: Hardness and flexibility means are different between some types of
plastic.

-In SPSS: ANALYZE -> GENERAL LINEAR MODEL -> MULTIVARIATE

If the result of the p-value<0.05 is rejected, this means there are differences between
the mean of the different types of hardness.

Methods of interdependence

These methods aim to identify relationships between variables together, without distinguishing
between dependent and independent variables. All variables in the analysis play the same role,
aiming to summarize the information they contain between them to create a more synthetic
structure of the database.

Factorial

-OBJECTIVE: When the database has a large number of quantitative variables, then it is interesting to
find groups of variables that have a similar meaning to group them under a dimension (factor). It is a
data reduction technique that serves to find the minimum number of dimensions capable of
explaining the maximum information contained in the data. Specifically, it is about simplifying the
information that appears in the correlation matrix.

-In SPSS: ANALYZE -> DIMENSION REDUCTION -> FACTOR

o Result: Interpretation and characterization of factors according to the values of the variables
included in each of them.

-In SPSS: ANALYZE -> DIMENSION REDUCTION -> FACTOR

o Result: Interpretation and characterization of factors according to the values of the variables
that are included in each of them.
4. Quantitative and Qualitative Economy and Marketing Research Procedures

Correspondences
-OBJECTIVE: To summarize a large amount of data in a small number of
dimensions, losing as little information as possible. This method is applied to a set of
qualitative variables (nominal or ordinal). The idea is based on contingency tables,
where the variable appearing in the rows is the number of individual (item) and in the
columns we have the rest of the qualitative variables. The multi-correspondence
analysis is intended to summarize the information present in the rows and columns.

-In SPSS: ANALYZE -> DIMENSION REDUCTION -> CORRESPONDANCE

ANALYSIS

o Result: Interpretation and characterization of dimensions according to the

values exposed by the above variables.

Cluster
-OBJECTIVE: To classify a set of individuals into homogeneous groups called
clusters. The groups are unknown, so they need to be determined in advance. It is a
statistical technique that seeks to group elements to achieve maximum homogeneity
in each group and the biggest difference between the groups. There are two major
types of cluster analysis:

Hierarchical: This configures the groups following a tree structure; the clusters of
lower levels are encompassed in other higher clusters. Finally, as a result, similar
individuals appear united and the researcher will decide the most opportune number
of groups.

-In SPSS: ANALYZE -> CLASSIFY -> CLUSTER HIERARCHICAL

Non-hierarchical: Assign cases without order criterion, all clusters are entered at
once. The researcher has to propose in advance the number of groups to be
obtained, using the k-means procedure. In this case the system present a pertinence
to each group that can be evaluated by the researcher.

-In SPSS: ANALYSE -> CLASSIFY -> K-MEANS CLUSTER

Generalization by inductive statistics

Inductive or inferential statistics work on the sample with the aim of extrapolating conclusions for
the entire population as a whole. The most prominent types of analysis are:

Estimation

-OBJECTIVE: Give an approximate value of a parameter from the sample data:

o Punctual: In case the variable follows a normal distribution, the arithmetic mean of the
sample is a good estimator of the population mean. Also, the sample standard deviation is an
estimator of the typical deviation of the population. For example: the estimate of the
average sample value is 56; therefore, in the population, the mean will also be 56.
4. Quantitative and Qualitative Economy and Marketing Research Procedures

o By confidence intervals: This consists of getting an interval that contains the true value of the
mean with a high probability. The range consists of two values within which we affirm that
the true value of the parameter lies. For example: in a range of [50.60], the sample mean of
56 would fall inside and then be a correct value.

Hypothesis contrast
-OBJECTIVE: See if the sample data confirm population hypothese:

Parametric: Assume that the data comes from a population that has a normal
probability distribution. It works with a large size. Examples include statistical
techniques:

o For a variable: Average, Variance

o For two dependent and independent variables: difference in means,

ANOVAs one-factorial between subjects, test F comparison means,
Correlation and regression analysis, Contrast of hypotheses of coefficients.

Non-parametric: No claims are made about the distribution of the variable, with a
non-normal distribution of the population. It works with a smaller sample size.
Examples include statistical techniques like this:

o For one variable: chi2 binomial, Kolmogorov

o Two or more variables: Wilcoxon, Kruskal