Table of Contents

Page 1 - - - - - - - - - Acid and Bases

Page 2 - - - - - - - - - pH Scale
Page 3 - - - - - - - - - Strong Acids and Strong Bases
Page 4 - - - - - - - - - Naming Acid and Bases
Page 5 - - - - - - - - - Nomenclature of common acids
Page 6 - - - - - - - - - Naming Bases
Page 7 - - - - - - - - - Brønsted Acids and Bases
Page 8 - - - - - - - - - Advantages of Brønsted-Lowry Theory
Page 9 - - - - - - - - - Acid-Base Titrations

Page 10 - - - - - - - - - titrant

Page 11 - - - - - - - - - Materials for a Titration Procedure

Page 12 - - - - - - - - - Acid-base titration setup
Page 13 - - - - - - - - - Titration of a weak acid by a strong base

Acid-Base
Acids dissociate into H+ and
lower pH, while bases dissociate
into OH- and raise pH; buffers can
absorb these excess ions to maintain
pH.

Key Points
A basic solution will have a pH above 7.0, while an acidic solution will have a pH below 7.0.

Buffers are solutions that contain a weak acid and its a conjugate base; as such, they can
absorb excess H+ ions or OH- ions, thereby maintaining an overall steady pH in the solution.

pH is equal to the negative logarithm of the concentration of H+ ions in solution: pH = -

log[H+].

Key Terms
buffer

a solution composed of a weak acid and its conjugate base that can be used to stabilize the
pH of a solution

alkaline

having a pH greater than 7; basic

acidic

having a pH less than 7

Self-Ionization of Water
Hydrogen ions are spontaneously generated in pure water by the dissociation (ionization) of a
small percentage of water molecules into equal numbers of hydrogen (H+) ions and
hydroxide (OH-) ions. The hydroxide ions remain in solution because of their hydrogen bonds
with other water molecules; the hydrogen ions, consisting of naked protons, are immediately
attracted to un-ionized water molecules and form hydronium ions (H30+). By convention,
scientists refer to hydrogen ions and their concentration as if they were free in this state in
liquid water.
The concentration of hydrogen ions dissociating from pure water is 1 × 10-7 moles H+ ions per
liter of water. The pH is calculated as the negative of the base 10 logarithm of this
concentration:

pH = -log[H+]

The negative log of 1 × 10-7 is equal to 7.0, which is also known as neutral pH. Human cells
and blood each maintain near-neutral pH.

pH Scale
The pH of a solution indicates its acidity or basicity (alkalinity). The pH scale is an inverse
logarithm that ranges from 0 to 14: anything below 7.0 (ranging from 0.0 to 6.9) is acidic, and
anything above 7.0 (from 7.1 to 14.0) is basic (or alkaline). Extremes in pH in either direction
from 7.0 are usually considered inhospitable to life. The pH in cells (6.8) and the blood (7.4)
are both very close to neutral, whereas the environment in the stomach is highly acidic, with
a pH of 1 to 2.

The pH scale
The pH scale measures the concentration of hydrogen ions (H+) in a solution.

Non-neutral pH readings result from dissolving acids or bases in water. Using the negative
logarithm to generate positive integers, high concentrations of hydrogen ions yield a low pH,
and low concentrations a high pH.

An acid is a substance that increases the concentration of hydrogen ions (H+) in a solution,
usually by dissociating one of its hydrogen atoms. A base provides either hydroxide ions
(OH–) or other negatively-charged ions that react with hydrogen ions in solution, thereby
reducing the concentration of H+ and raising the pH.

Strong Acids and Strong Bases

The stronger the acid, the more readily it donates H+. For example, hydrochloric acid (HCl) is
highly acidic and completely dissociates into hydrogen and chloride ions, whereas the acids in
tomato juice or vinegar do not completely dissociate and are considered weak acids;
conversely, strong bases readily donate OH– and/or react with hydrogen ions. Sodium
hydroxide (NaOH) and many household cleaners are highly basic and give up OH– rapidly
when placed in water; the OH- ions react with H+ in solution, creating new water molecules
and lowering the amount of free H+ in the system, thereby raising the overall pH. An example
of a weak basic solution is seawater, which has a pH near 8.0, close enough to neutral that
well-adapted marine organisms thrive in this alkaline environment.

Naming Acids and Bases

Acid names are based on the anion they form when dissolved in water; base names follow
the rules for ionic,

Key Points

 Acids are named based on their anion -- the ion attached to the hydrogen. In simple
binary acids, one ion is attached to hydrogen. Names for such acids consist of the
prefix "hydro-", the first syllable of the anion, and the suffix "-ic".
 Complex acid compounds have oxygen in them. For an acid with a polyatomic ion, the
suffix "-ate" from the ion is replaced with "-ic."
 Polyatomic ions with one extra oxygen (as compared to the typical polyatomic ion)
have the prefix "per-" and the suffix "-ic."
 Polyatomic ions with one fewer oxygen have the suffix "-ous"; ions with two fewer
have the prefix "hypo-" and the suffix "-ous."
 Strong bases with "-OH" (hydroxide) groups are named like ionic compounds. Weak
bases are named like molecular compounds or organic compounds.

Key Term
polyatomic ion

A charged species (ion) composed of two or more atoms covalently bonded. Also known as a
molecular ion.

Naming Acids
Acids are named by the anion they form when dissolved in water. Depending on what anion
the hydrogen is attached to, acids will have different names.
Simple acids, known as binary acids, have only one anion and one hydrogen. These anions
usually have the ending "-ide." As acids, these compounds are named starting with the prefix
"hydro-," then adding the first syllable of the anion, then the suffix "-ic." For example, HCl,
which is hydrogen and chlorine, is called hydrochloric acid.

Nomenclature of common acids

This chart provides the nomenclature of some common anions and acids

More complex acids have oxygen in the compound. There is a simple set of rules for these
acids.

1. Any polyatomic ion with the suffix "-ate" uses the suffix "-ic" as an acid. So, HNO3 will
be nitric acid.
2. When you have a polyatomic ion with one more oxygen than the "-ate" ion, then your
acid will have the prefix "per-" and the suffix "-ic." For example, the chlorate ion is
ClO3-. Therefore, HClO4 is called perchloric acid.
3. With one fewer oxygen than the "-ate" ion, the acid will have the suffix "-ous." For
example, chlorous acid is HClO2.
4. With two fewer oxygen than the "-ate" ion, the prefix will be "hypo-" and the suffix
will be "-ous." For example, instead of bromic acid, HBrO3, we have hypobromous
acid, HBrO.

Naming Bases
Most strong bases contain hydroxide, a polyatomic ion. Therefore, strong bases are
named following the rules for naming ionic compounds. For example, NaOH is sodium
hydroxide, KOH is potassium hydroxide, and Ca(OH)2 is calcium hydroxide. Weak
bases made of ionic compounds are also named using the ionic naming system. For
example, NH4OH is ammonium hydroxide.
Weak bases are also sometimes molecular compounds or organic compounds because
they have covalent bonds. Therefore, they are named following the rules for
molecular or organic compounds. For example, methyl amine (CH3NH2) is a weak
base. Some weak bases have "common" names. For example, NH3 is called ammonia;
its name isn't derived from any naming system.

Brønsted Acids and Bases

A Brønsted acid is any species capable of donating a proton; a Brønsted base is any
capable of accepting a proton.

Key Points
 The Brønsted-Lowry theory is defined by the following reaction: acid + base <=>
conjugate base + conjugate acid. A conjugate base forms after the acid loses a proton,
while the conjugate acid forms when the base accepts the proton. The reaction can
proceed in either direction.

 The Brønsted-Lowry acid-base theory has several advantages over the Arrhenius
theory: for example, only the Brønsted theory describes the reaction between acetic
acid and ammonia, which does not produce hydrogen ions in solution.
 Water is amphoteric, which means it can act as either an acid or a base.

Key Terms
conjugate acid

the species formed after a base accepts a proton; typically a weak acid

conjugate base

the species formed after an acid donates its proton; typically a weak base

Brønsted-Lowry base

any chemical species that acts as an acceptor of protons

Brønsted-Lowry acid

any chemical species that acts as a donor of protons

In chemistry, the Brønsted-Lowry theory is an acid-base theory, independently

proposed by Johannes Nicolaus Brønsted and Thomas Martin Lowry in 1923. In this
system, acids and bases are defined as follows: an acid is any species that is able to
donate a hydrogen cation (H+, a proton); a base is any species with the ability to
accept a hydrogen cation (H+). To that end, if a compound is to behave as an acid by
donating a proton, there must be a base to accept that proton; the Brønsted-Lowry
concept is therefore defined by the reaction:

acid + base ⇌ conjugate base + conjugate acid

The conjugate base is the ion or molecule that remains after the acid has donated its
proton, and the conjugate acid is the species created after the base accepts the
proton. The reaction can proceed either forward backward; in each case, the acid
donates a proton to the base.

Advantages of Brønsted-Lowry Theory

The Brønsted-Lowry acid-base theory has several advantages over the Arrhenius
theory. Recall that the Arrhenius theory defines an acid as any species that increases
the concentration of H+/H3O+ in solution. Consider the following reactions of acetic
acid (CH3COOH), the organic acid that gives vinegar its characteristic taste:

1. CH3COOH + H2O ⇌ CH3COO- + H3O+

2. CH3COOH + NH3 ⇌ CH3COO- + NH4+

Both theories easily describe the first reaction: CH3COOH acts as an Arrhenius acid
because it acts as a source of H3O+ when dissolved in water, and it acts as a Brønsted
acid by donating a proton to water. In the second example CH3COOH undergoes the
same transformation, in this case donating a proton to ammonia (NH3); this cannot be
described using the Arrhenius definition of an acid, however, because the reaction
does not produce H3O+.

Amphoterism of Water
Water is amphoteric, which means it can act as either an acid or a base. In the reaction
between acetic acid, CH3CO2H, and water, H2O, water acts as a base. The acetate ion
CH3CO2- is the conjugate base of acetic acid, and the hydronium ion H3O+ is the
conjugate acid of the base, water:

CH3COOH + H2O ⇌ CH3COO- + H3O+

Water can also act as an acid, as when it reacts with ammonia. The equation given for
this reaction is:

H2O + NH3 ⇌ OH- + NH4+

Here, H2O donates a proton to NH3. The hydroxide ion is the conjugate base of water,
which acts as an acid, and the ammonium ion is the conjugate acid of the base,
ammonia.

Acid-Base Titrations
Acid-base titration can determine the concentrations of unknown acid or base
solutions.
Key Points

 An acid-base titration is a quantitative analysis of acids and bases; through this

process, an acid or base of known concentration neutralizes an acid or base of
unknown concentration.
 The titration progress can be monitored by visual indicators, pH electrodes, or
both.
 The reaction's equivalence point is the point at which the titrant has exactly
neutralized the acid or base in the unknown analyte; if you know the volume and
concentration of the titrant at the equivalence point, you can calculate the
concentration of a base or acid in the unknown solution.

Key Terms
analyte

the unknown solution whose concentration is being determined in the titration

acid-base titration

determines the concentration of an acid or base by exactly neutralizing it with an acid

or base of known concentration

equivalence point

the point at which an added titrant's moles are stoichiometrically equal to the moles
of acid/base in the sample; the smallest amount of titrant needed to fully neutralize
or react with the analyte

titrant

the standardized (known) solution (either an acid or a base) that is added during
titration

Setting up an Acid-Base Titration

An acid-base titration is an experimental procedure used to determined the unknown
concentration of an acid or base by precisely neutralizing it with an acid or base of
known concentration. This lets us quantitatively analyze the concentration of the
unknown solution. Acid-base titrations can also be used to quantify the purity of
chemicals.

Acid-base titration
The solution in the flask
contains an unknown
number of equivalents of
base (or acid). The burette is
calibrated to show volume to
the nearest 0.001 cm3. It is filled
with a solution of strong acid (or
base) of known concentration. Small increments are added from the burette until, at
the end point, one drop changes the indicator color permanently. (An indication of the
approaching equivalence point is that the indicator changes color but changes back
after stirring.) At the equivalence point, the total amount of acid (or base) is recorded
from the burette readings. The number of equivalents of acid and base must be equal
at the equivalence point.

Alkalimetry, or alkimetry, is the specialized analytic use of acid-base titration to

determine the concentration of a basic (alkaline) substance; acidimetry, or
acidometry, is the same concept applied to an acidic substance.

Materials for a Titration Procedure

  burette
 white tile (used to see a color change in the solution)
 pipette
 pH indicator (the type depends on the reactants)
 Erlenmeyer or conical flask
 titrant (a standard solution of known concentration; a common example is
aqueous sodium carbonate)
 analyte, or titrand (the solution of unknown concentration)

Equivalence Point Indicators

 Before you begin the titration, you must choose a suitable pH indicator, preferably
one that will experience a color change (known as the "end point") close to the
reaction's equivalence point; this is the point at which equivalent amounts of the
reactants and products have reacted. Below are some common equivalence point
indicators:
 strong acid-strong base titration: phenolphthalein indicator
 weak acid-weak base titration: bromthymol blue indicator
 strong acid-weak base titration: methyl orange indicator the base is off the scale
(e.g., pH > 13.5) and the acid has pH > 5.5: alizarine yellow indicator
 the base is off the scale (e.g., pH > 13.5) and the acid has pH > 5.5: alizarine yellow
indicator
 the base is off the scale (e.g., pH > 13.5) and the acid has pH > 5.5: alizarine yellow
indicator
 the acid is off the scale (e.g., pH < 0.5) and the base has pH < 8.5: thymol blue
indicator

Acid-base titration setup

The pink color is caused by the phenolphthalein indicator.

Estimating the Equivalence Point's pH

The resulting solution at the equivalence point will have a pH dependent on the acid and
base's relative strengths. You can estimate the equivalence point's pH using the following
rules:

 A strong acid will react with a weak base to form an acidic (pH < 7) solution.
 A strong acid will react with a strong base to form a neutral (pH = 7) solution.
 A weak acid will react with a strong base to form a basic (pH > 7) solution.
When a weak acid reacts with a weak base, the equivalence point solution will be basic if the
base is stronger and acidic if the acid is stronger; if both are of equal strength, then the
equivalence pH will be neutral. Weak acids are not often titrated against weak bases,
however, because the color change is brief and therefore very difficult to observe.

You can determine the pH of a weak acid solution being titrated with a strong base solution
at various points; these fall into four different categories: (1) initial pH; (2) pH before the
equivalence point; (3) pH at the equivalence point; and (4) pH after the equivalence point.

Titration of a weak
acid by a strong
base
The pH of a weak acid
solution being
titrated with a strong
base solution can
be found at each
indicated point.

Titration Procedure
1. Rinse the burette with the standard solution, the pipette with the unknown solution,
and the conical flask with distilled water.
2. Place an accurately measured volume of the analyte into the Erlenmeyer flask using
the pipette, along with a few drops of indicator. Place the standardized solution into
the burette, and indicate its initial volume in a lab notebook. At this stage, we want a
rough estimate of the amount of known solution necessary to neutralize the unknown
solution. Let the solution out of the burette until the indicator changes color, and
record the value on the burette. This is the first titration and it is not very precise; it
should be excluded from any calculations.
3. Perform at least three more titrations, this time more accurately, taking into account
where the end point will roughly occur. Record the initial and final readings on the
burette, prior to starting the titration and at the end point, respectively. (Subtracting
the initial volume from the final volume will yield the amount of titrant used to reach
the endpoint.)
4. The end point is reached when the indicator permanently changes color.