Educ 204 LM No.1 Mid1st Sem 20 21 The TCHR The Community 1

Republic of the Philippines
CATANDUANES STATE UNIVERSITY

Virac, Catanduanes
Learning Material No. 1
EDUC 204:
THE TEACHER AND THE

COMMUNITY, SCHOOL CULTURE
AND ORGANIZATIONAL LEADERSHIP
Educ 204: The Tchrr & the Comm Sch Cul & Org Leadership LM no. 1 Compiled by: Dr. Leonor S Turbolencia,
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DISCLAIMER:
This learning material is used in compliance with the flexible

teaching-learning approach espoused by CHED in response to the
pandemic that has globally affected educational institutions.
Authors and publishers of the contents are well-acknowledged.
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College of Education
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“The aim of an educational

system is the same in every
age and in every society
where such a system can
exist: it is to improve man as
a man.”
Robert Maynard Hutchins
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EDUC 204: THE TEACHER AND THE COMMUNITY, SCHOOL

CULTURE AND ORGANIZATIONAL LEADERSHIP
Table of Contents Page

Cover page 1
Disclaimer 2
Quote on Philosophy of Education 3
Table of Contents 4
Module 1 6
 Overview 6
 Learning Outcomes: 6
 Core Instructional Activities 6
INTRODUCTION TO SOCIETY, COMMUNITY AND EDUCATION 6
 Defining Basic Concepts 6
 Society 6
 Community 6
 Education 6
 Social Interactions 6
 School Culture 7
UNIT 1- SOCIETY AND EDUCATUON 8
A- PHILOSOPHICAL PERSPECTIVE 8
 Overview 8
1. Classical Philosophies 10
 Understanding Classical Philosophies 10
 Four General or World Philosophies (Classical Philosophies) 10
 Idealism 10
 Realism 11
 Pragmatism 11
 Existentialism 11
2. Modern Philosophies 12
 Perennialism 12
 Essentialism 12
 Progressivism 12
 Reconstructionism/Critical Theory 13
 Humanism 13
3. Post Modern Philosophies 14
 Postmodernism 14
 The most important viewpoints of postmodernism 15
 Understanding The 4 Main Schools Of Philosophy: Principle Of
Postmodernism 16
 Comparing Modernist and Postmodern Educational Theory 17
 Postmodernism and The Challenges Facing 21st Century
Educators 17
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EDUC 204: THE TEACHER AND THE COMMUNITY, SCHOOL

CULTURE AND ORGANIZATIONAL LEADERSHIP
Table of Contents
Page
B. SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES 19
1. Social Dimensions Of Education 19
 What are theories in Sociology? 19
 Sociological Theories in understanding Social Dimensions of
Education 19
 Fig. 1. Schematic diagram showing the perspective of the major
sociological theories 19
 Functional Theories /Consensus Theories 20
 Conflict Theories 22
 Interactionist Theories 23
 Structural Functionalism 28
 Additional Readings/Information 28
2. Schools And Social Institutions 33
 Social Institutions 33
 Five major institutions in sociology 33
1) Political 33
2) Education 33
3) Economic 33
4) Family 33
5) Religion 34
 Additional Readings And Information 34
3. Education 4.0: Responding To The Demands Of Society 35
 Education 4.0. 35
C. EDUCATIONAL REFORMS: THE K TO 12 CURRICULUM EXAMPLE 39
 President Aquino Signs K+12 Program into Law 39
 Reforms in the Philippine education system: The K to 12 Program 39
 Frequently Asked Questions (On K to 12 Program) 45
Self-Assessment Test: (SAT) 50
Guide in writing Simple Document Analysis. 51
References 52
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Module 1
Overview
This module is about introduction to society, community and education which includes the
definition of the basic concepts and all the main topics and sub-topics in Unit 1 of the Syllabus.
Specifically the focus of discussion in this module are the Philosophical Perspectives which
includes the classical, modern, and post-modern philosophies. This also explains the Sociological
perspectives with social dimensions of education, schools and social institutions, education 4.0:
responding to the demands of society and educational reforms: the K to 12 curriculum guide as its
sub-topics.
Learning Outcomes:
At the end of the module you are expected to:
1. define basic concepts necessary to understanding the course;
2. describe the manifestations of various educational philosophies and applications of
sociological theories in practical classroom situations in response to community contexts
3. explain the importance of different philosophies and sociological theories to education and
how they change the education landscape in response to the needs of the society and the
community.
Core Instructional Activities

1. Read the module
2. Answer the Self-Assessment Tests (SAT).
_______________________________________________________________________________
INTRODUCTION TO SOCIETY, COMMUNITY AND EDUCATION
Defining Basic Concepts
1. Society - The aggregate of people living together in a more or less ordered community.
- The community of people living in a particular country or region and having shared
customs, laws, and organizations. https://www.lexico.com/en/definition/society
2.Community - the people living in one particular area or people who are considered as
a unit because of their common interests, social group,or nationality. https://dictionary .
cambridgeorg/us/dictionary/english/community
- A community is a social unit (a group of living things) with commonality such as norms,
religion, values, customs, or identity. Communities may share a sense of place situated in a
given geographical area (e.g. a country, village, town, or neighborhood) or in virtual space
through communication platforms.
3. Education - The process of receiving or giving systematic instruction, especially at a school or

university. https://www.lexico.com/en/definition/education
-Education is the wise, hopeful and respectful cultivation of learning undertaken in the belief that all
should have the chance to share in life.
4. Social Interactions - are the processes by which we act and react to those around us.
https://study.com/academy/lesson/social-interactions-definition-types-quiz.html
 In sociology, social interaction is a dynamic sequence of social actions between individuals
(or groups) who modify their actions and reactions due to actions by their interaction
partner(s).
 A social interaction is an exchange between two or more individuals and is a building block
of society. Social interaction can be studied between groups of two (dyads), three (triads) or
larger social groups.
 By interacting with one another, people design rules, institutions and systems within which
they seek to live. Symbols are used to communicate the expectations of a given society to
those new to it.
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 The empirical study of social interaction is one of the subjects of microsociology. Methods
includes symbolic interactionism and ethnomethodology as well as later academic sub-
divisions and studies such as psychosocial studies, conversational analysis and human-
computer interaction.
 With symbolic interactionism, reality is seen as social, developed interaction with others.
Ethnomethodology questions how people’s interactions can create the illusion of a shared
social order despite not understanding each other fully and having differing perspectives.
Key Terms
 dyad: A pair of things standing in particular relation; dyadic relation.
 Social Interaction: A social exchange between two or more individuals.
 social group: A collection of humans or animals that share certain characteristics, interact with
one another, accept expectations and obligations as members of the group, and share a
common identity.
5. School Culture - According to Fullan (2007) school culture can be defined as the guiding beliefs and
values evident in the way a school operates. School culture’ can be used to encompass all the
attitudes, expected behaviors and values that impact how the school operates.
ibo.org/contentassets/b53fa69a03d643b1a739d30 543ca8d65/darlenefishermadrid.pdf
School culture generally refers to the beliefs, perceptions, relationships, attitudes, and written
and unwritten rules that shape and influence every aspect of how a school functions, but the term also
encompasses more concrete issues such as the physical and emotional safety of students, the
orderliness of classrooms and public spaces, or the degree to which a school embraces and
celebrates racial, ethnic, linguistic, or cultural diversity. https://www.edglossary.org/school-culture/
School culture results from both conscious and unconscious perspectives, values,
interactions, and practices, and it is heavily shaped by a school’s particular institutional history.
Students, parents, teachers, administrators, and other staff members all contribute to their school’s
culture, as do other influences such as the community in which the school is located, the policies that
govern how it operates, or the principles upon which the school was founded.
Generally speaking, school cultures can be divided into two basic forms: positive
cultures and negative cultures. Numerous researchers, educators, and writers have attempted to
define the major features of positive and negative school cultures, and an abundance of studies,
articles, and books are available on the topic. In addition, many educational organizations, such as
the National School Climate Center, have produced detailed descriptions of positive school cultures
and developed strategies for improving them (given the complexity of the topic, however, it is not
possible to describe all the distinctions here).
Broadly defined, positive school cultures are conducive to professional satisfaction, morale,
and effectiveness, as well as to student learning, fulfillment, and well-being. The following list is a
representative selection of a few characteristics commonly associated with positive school cultures:
 The individual successes of teachers and students are recognized and celebrated.
 Relationships and interactions are characterized by openness, trust, respect, and
appreciation.
 Staff relationships are collegial, collaborative, and productive, and all staff members are held
to high professional standards.
 Students and staff members feel emotionally and physical safe, and the school’s policies and
facilities promote student safety.
 School leaders, teachers, and staff members model positive, healthy behaviors for students.
 Mistakes not punished as failures, but they are seen as opportunities to learn and grow for
both students and educators.
 Students are consistently held to high academic expectations, and a majority of students meet
or exceed those expectations.
 Important leadership decisions are made collaboratively with input from staff members,
students, and parents.
 Criticism, when voiced, is constructive and well-intentioned, not antagonistic or self-serving.
 Educational resources and learning opportunities are equitably distributed, and all students,
including minorities and students with disabilities.
 All students have access to the academic support and services they may need to succeed.
Reform
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School culture has become a central concept in many efforts to change how schools operate
and improve educational results. While a school culture is heavily influenced by its institutional history,
culture also shapes social patterns, habits, and dynamics that influence future behaviors, which could
become an obstacle to reform and improvement. For example, if a faculty culture is generally
dysfunctional—i.e., if interpersonal tensions and distrust are common, problems are rarely addressed
or resolved, or staff members tend to argue more than they collaborate or engage in productive
professional discussions—it is likely that these cultural factors will significantly complicate or hinder
any attempt to change how the school operates. This simple example illustrates why school culture
has become the object of so many research studies and reform efforts—without a school culture that is
conducive to improvement, reform becomes exponentially more difficult.
The following describe a few representative examples of common ways that schools may
attempt to improve their culture:
 Establishing professional learning communities that encourages teachers to communicate,

share expertise, and work together more collegially and productively.
 Providing presentations, seminars, and learning experiences designed to educate staff and
students about bullying and reduce instances of bullying.
 Creating events and educational experiences that honor and celebrate the racial, ethnic, and
linguistic diversity of the student body, such as hosting cultural events and festivals, exhibiting
culturally relevant materials throughout the school, inviting local cultural leaders to present to
students, or making explicit connections between the diverse cultural backgrounds of students
and what is being taught in history, social studies, and literature courses. For related
discussions, see multicultural education and voice.
 Establishing an advisory program that pairs groups of students with adult advisor to strengthen
adult-student relationships and ensure that students are well known and supported by at least
one adult in the school.
 Surveying students, parents, and teachers about their experiences in the school, and hosting
community forums that invite participants to share their opinions about and recommendations
for the school and its programs.
 Creating a leadership team comprising a representative cross-section of school
administrators, teachers, students, parents, and community members that oversees and leads
a school-improvement initiative. https://www.edglossary.org/school-culture/
Concepts on society, community, education, social interactions, and school culture are
further discussed in the succeeding topics in Unit 1 of this module.
UNIT 1- SOCIETY AND EDUCATUON
A. PHILOSOPHICAL PERSPECTIVES
Philosophy begins with wonder - Socrates
Overview
Philosophy means "love of wisdom." It is made up of two Greek words, philo, meaning love,
and sophos, meaning wisdom. Philosophy helps teachers to reflect on key issues and concepts in
education, usually through such questions as: What is being educated? What is the good life? What is
knowledge? What is the nature of learning? And what is teaching? Philosophers think about the
meaning of things and interpretation of that meaning. Even simple statements, such as "What should
be learned? Or what is adolescence?" set up raging debates that can have major implications. For
example, what happens if an adolescent commits a serious crime? One interpretation may hide
another. If such a young person is treated as an adult criminal, what does it say about justice,
childhood, and the like? Or if the adolescent is treated as a child, what does it say about society's
views on crime?
What is philosophical perspective education?

Your educational philosophy is your beliefs about why, what and how you teach, whom you
teach, and about the nature of learning. It is a set of principles that guides professional action through
the events and issues teachers face daily. Sources for your educational philosophy are your life
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experiences, your values, the environment in which you live, interactions with others and awareness of
philosophical approaches. Learning about the branches of philosophy, philosophical world views, and
different educational philosophies and theories will help you to determine and shape your own
educational philosophy, combined with these other aspects.
When you examine a philosophy different from your own, it helps you to "wrestle" with your
own thinking. Sometimes this means you may change your mind. Other times, it may strengthen your
viewpoint; or, you may be eclectic, selecting what seems best from different philosophies. But in
eclecticism, there is a danger of sloppy and inconsistent thinking, especially if you borrow a bit of one
philosophy and stir in some of another. If serious thought has gone into selection of strategies,
theories, or philosophies, this is less problematic. For example, you may determine that you have to
vary your approach depending on the particular learning needs and styles of a given student. At
various time periods, one philosophical framework may become favored over another. For example,
the Progressive movement led to quite different approaches in education in the 1930s. But there is
always danger in one "best or only" philosophy. In a pluralistic society, a variety of views are needed.
Branches of Philosophy
There are three major branches of philosophy. Each branch focuses on a different aspect and
is central to your teaching. The three branches and their sub-branches are:
Metaphysics: What is Epistemology: What is the nature of Axiology: What values
Branch
the nature of reality? knowledge? How do we come to know? should one live by?
–Do you think human –How would an anthropologist look at this –Is morality defined by
Educational beings are basically classroom? A political scientist? A our actions, or by what
Examples good or evil? biologist? is in our hearts?
–What are conservative –How do we know what a child knows? –What values should
or liberal beliefs? be taught in character
education?
Sub-branches –Ontology Knowing based on: –Ethics

What issues are related –Scientific Inquiry What is good and evil,
to nature, existence, or –Senses and Feelings right and wrong?
being? Is a child –From authority or divinity Is it ever right to take
inherently evil or good? –Empiricism (experience) something that does
How might your view –Intuition not belong to you?
determine your –Reasoning or Logic –Aesthetics
classroom management? What reasoning processes yield valid What is beautiful?
–Cosmology conclusions? How do we recognize
What is the nature and –Deductive: reasoning from the general a great piece of music?
origin of the cosmos or to the particular All children can learn. Bret Art?
universe? Is the world is a fifth grader. He has a learning Can there be beauty in
and universe orderly or is disability. Can Bret learn? destruction?
it marked by chaos? –Inductive: reasoning from the specific to
What would one or the the general. After experimenting with plant
other mean for a growth under varied conditions, students
classroom? conclude plants need water and light
1999 LeoNora M. Cohen, OSU - School of Educationhttps://oregonstate.edu/instruct/ed416/PP1.html
How does philosophy influence education?

Education with philosophy has a close relationship because philosophy is a view of life that leads to
the goal of education. ... The perennialism view at the moment that education is regarded as a
container to direct the center of culture. While human beings are able to solve the problem and
achieve its goals rationally.https://www.google.com/search?ei=g1oqX-rkIf2Hr7wP6pO24Ak&q=society
+and+education+a+philosophical+perspective&oq=Society+and+Education++A.+Philosophical+Persp
ectives ++&gs_lcp=CgZwc3ktYWIQARgAMggIIRAWEB0QHjoOCAAQ6gIQtAIQmgEQ5QJQzIuBA
VjMi4EB YKC0gQFoAXAAeACAAegFiAHoBZIBAzYtMZgBAKABAaABAqoBB2d3cy13aXqwAQb
AAQE&sclient=psy-ab
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1. Classical Philosophies
Understanding Classical Period
 The Socratic or Classical period of the Ancient era of philosophy denotes the Greek
contemporaries and near contemporaries of the influential philosopher Socrates.
 It includes the following major philosophers:
Socrates (464 - 399 B.C.) Greek Diogenes of Sinope (c. 412 - 323 B.C.) Greek
Plato (c. 428 - 348 B.C.) Greek Aristotle (384 - 322 B.C.) Greek
 Socrates developed a system of critical reasoning in order to work out how to live properly
and to tell the difference between right and wrong. He and his
followers, Plato and Aristotle maintained an unwavering commitment to the truth, and
between them they organized and systematized most of the problems of philosophy.
 Important philosophical movements of the period include Cynicism, Hedonism,
Platonism and Aristotelianism. By Historical Period > Ancient >Socratic https://www
.philosophybasics .com/historical_socratic.html#:~:text=The%20Socratic %20or%20
Classical %20period,of%20the%20influential%20philosopher% 20Socrates.&text=
Socrates % 20developed%20a%20system%20of,difference%20 between%20right
%20and%20wrong.
Four General or World Philosophies (Classical Philosophies)

The term metaphysics literally means "beyond the physical." This area of
philosophy focuses on the nature of reality. Metaphysics attempts to find unity across the domains of
experience and thought. At the metaphysical level, there are four* broad philosophical schools of
thought that apply to education today. They are idealism, realism, pragmatism (sometimes called
experientialism), and existentialism. Each will be explained shortly. These four general frameworks
provide the root or base from which the various educational philosophies are derived.
* A fifth metaphysical school of thought, called Scholasticism, is largely applied in Roman

Catholic schools in the educational philosophy called "Thomism." It combines idealist and realist
philosophies in a framework that harmonized the ideas of Aristotle, the realist, with idealist notions of
truth. Thomas Aquinas, 1255-127, was the theologian who wrote "Summa Theologica," formalizing
church doctrine. The Scholasticism movement encouraged the logical and philosophical study of the
beliefs of the church, legitimizing scientific inquiry within a religious framework.
Two of these general or world philosophies, idealism and realism, are derived from the
ancient Greek philosophers, Plato and Aristotle. Two are more contemporary, pragmatism and
existentialism. However, educators who share one of these distinct sets of beliefs about the nature of
reality presently apply each of these world philosophies in successful classrooms. Let us explore each
of these metaphysical schools of thought.
Idealism
Idealism is a philosophical approach that has as its central tenet that ideas are the only true
reality, the only thing worth knowing. In a search for truth, beauty, and justice that is enduring and
everlasting, the focus is on conscious reasoning in the mind. Plato, father of Idealism, espoused this
view about 400 years BC, in his famous book, The Republic. Plato believed that there are two worlds.
The first is the spiritual or mental world, which is eternal, permanent, orderly, regular, and universal.
There is also the world of appearance, the world experienced through sight, touch, smell, taste, and
sound that is changing imperfect, and disorderly. This division is often referred to as the duality of mind
and body. Reacting against what he perceived as too much of a focus on the immediacy of the
physical and sensory world, Plato described a utopian society in which "education to body and soul all
the beauty and perfection of which they are capable" as an ideal. In his allegory of the cave, the
shadows of the sensory world must be overcome with the light of reason or universal truth. To
understand truth, one must pursue knowledge and identify with the Absolute Mind. Plato also believed
that the soul is fully formed prior to birth and is perfect and at one with the Universal Being. The birth
process checks this perfection, so education requires bringing latent ideas (fully formed concepts) to
consciousness.
In idealism, the aim of education is to discover and develop each individual's abilities and full
moral excellence in order to better serve society. The curricular emphasis is subject matter of mind:
literature, history, philosophy, and religion. Teaching methods focus on handling ideas through lecture,
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discussion, and Socratic dialogue (a method of teaching that uses questioning to help students
discover and clarify knowledge). Introspection, intuition, insight, and whole-part logic are used to bring
to consciousness the forms or concepts which are latent in the mind. Character is developed through
imitating examples and heroes.
Realism
Realists believe that reality exists independent of the human mind. The ultimate reality is the
world of physical objects. The focus is on the body/objects. Truth is objective-what can be observed.
Aristotle, a student of Plato who broke with his mentor's idealist philosophy, is called the father of both
Realism and the scientific method. In this metaphysical view, the aim is to understand objective reality
through "the diligent and unsparing scrutiny of all observable data." Aristotle believed that to
understand an object, its ultimate form had to be understood, which does not change. For example, a
rose exists whether or not a person is aware of it. A rose can exist in the mind without being physically
present, but ultimately, the rose shares properties with all other roses and flowers (its form), although
one rose may be red and another peach colored. Aristotle also was the first to teach logic as a formal
discipline in order to be able to reason about physical events and aspects. The exercise of rational
thought is viewed as the ultimate purpose for humankind. The Realist curriculum emphasizes the
subject matter of the physical world, particularly science and mathematics. The teacher organizes and
presents content systematically within a discipline, demonstrating use of criteria in making decisions.
Teaching methods focus on mastery of facts and basic skills through demonstration and recitation.
Students must also demonstrate the ability to think critically and scientifically, using observation and
experimentation. Curriculum should be scientifically approached, standardized, and distinct-discipline
based. Character is developed through training in the rules of conduct.
Pragmatism (related to Experientialism)

For pragmatists, only those things that are experienced or observed are real. In this late 19th
century American philosophy, the focus is on the reality of experience. Unlike the Realists and
Rationalists, Pragmatists believe that reality is constantly changing and that we learn best through
applying our experiences and thoughts to problems, as they arise. The universe is dynamic and
evolving, a "becoming" view of the world. There is no absolute and unchanging truth, but rather, truth
is what works. Pragmatism is derived from the teaching of Charles Sanders Peirce (1839-1914), who
believed that thought must produce action, rather than linger in the mind and lead to indecisiveness.
John Dewey (1859-1952) applied pragmatist philosophy in his progressive approaches. He
believed that learners must adapt to each other and to their environment. Schools should emphasize
the subject matter of social experience. All learning is dependent on the context of place, time, and
circumstance. Different cultural and ethnic groups learn to work cooperatively and contribute to a
democratic society. The ultimate purpose is the creation of a new social order. Character development
is based on making group decisions in light of consequences.
For Pragmatists, teaching methods focus on hands-on problem solving, experimenting, and
projects, often having students work in groups. Curriculum should bring the disciplines together to
focus on solving problems in an interdisciplinary way. Rather than passing down organized bodies of
knowledge to new learners, Pragmatists believe that learners should apply their knowledge to real
situations through experimental inquiry. This prepares students for citizenship, daily living, and future
careers.
Existentialism
The nature of reality for Existentialists is subjective, and lies within the individual. The physical
world has no inherent meaning outside of human existence. Individual choice and individual standards
rather than external standards are central. Existence comes before any definition of what we are. We
define ourselves in relationship to that existence by the choices we make. We should not accept
anyone else's predetermined philosophical system; rather, we must take responsibility for deciding
who we are. The focus is on freedom, the development of authentic individuals, as we make meaning
of our lives.
There are several different orientations within the existentialist philosophy. Soren Kierkegaard
(1813-1855), a Danish minister and philosopher, is considered to be the founder of existentialism. His
was a Christian orientation. Another group of existentialists, largely European, believes that we must
recognize the finiteness of our lives on this small and fragile planet, rather than believing in salvation
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through God. Our existence is not guaranteed in an afterlife, so there is tension about life and the
certainty of death, of hope or despair. Unlike the more austere European approaches where the
universe is seen as meaningless when faced with the certainty of the end of existence, American
existentialists have focused more on human potential and the quest for personal meaning. Values
clarification is an outgrowth of this movement. Following the bleak period of World War II, the French
philosopher, Jean Paul Sartre, suggested that for youth, the existential moment arises when young
persons realize for the first time that choice is theirs, that they are responsible for themselves. Their
question becomes "Who am I and what should I do?
Related to education, the subject matter of existentialist classrooms should be a matter of
personal choice. Teachers view the individual as an entity within a social context in which the learner
must confront others' views to clarify his or her own. Character development emphasizes individual
responsibility for decisions. Real answers come from within the individual, not from outside authority.
Examining life through authentic thinking involves students in genuine learning experiences.
Existentialists are opposed to thinking about students as objects to be measured, tracked, or
standardized. Such educators want the educational experience to focus on creating opportunities for
self-direction and self-actualization. They start with the student, rather than on curriculum content.
https://oregonstate.edu/instruct/ed416/PP2.html
2. Modern Philosophies
Educational Philosophies
Within the epistemological frame that focuses on the nature of knowledge and how we come
to know, there are four major educational philosophies, each related to one or more of the general
or world philosophies just discussed. These educational philosophical approaches are currently used
in classrooms the world over. They are Perennialism, Essentialism, Progressivism, and
Reconstructionism. These educational philosophies focus heavily on WHAT we should teach, the
curriculum aspect.
Perennialism
For Perennialists, the aim of education is to ensure that students acquire understandings
about the great ideas of Western civilization. These ideas have the potential for solving problems in
any era. The focus is to teach ideas that are everlasting, to seek enduring truths which are constant,
not changing, as the natural and human worlds at their most essential level, do not change. Teaching
these unchanging principles is critical. Humans are rational beings, and their minds need to be
developed. Thus, cultivation of the intellect is the highest priority in a worthwhile education. The
demanding curriculum focuses on attaining cultural literacy, stressing students' growth in enduring
disciplines. The loftiest accomplishments of humankind are emphasized– the great works of literature
and art, the laws or principles of science. Advocates of this educational philosophy are Robert
Maynard Hutchins who developed a Great Books program in 1963 and Mortimer Adler, who further
developed this curriculum based on 100 great books of western civilization.
Essentialism
Essentialists believe that there is a common core of knowledge that needs to be transmitted to
students in a systematic, disciplined way. The emphasis in this conservative perspective is on
intellectual and moral standards that schools should teach. The core of the curriculum is essential
knowledge and skills and academic rigor. Although this educational philosophy is similar in some ways
to Perennialism, Essentialists accept the idea that this core curriculum may change. Schooling should
be practical, preparing students to become valuable members of society. It should focus on facts-the
objective reality out there--and "the basics," training students to read, write, speak, and compute
clearly and logically. Schools should not try to set or influence policies. Students should be taught hard
work, respect for authority, and discipline. Teachers are to help students keep their non-productive
instincts in check, such as aggression or mindlessness. This approach was in reaction to progressivist
approaches prevalent in the 1920s and 30s. William Bagley, took progressivist approaches to task in
the journal he formed in 1934. Other proponents of Essentialism are: James D. Koerner (1959), H. G.
Rickover (1959), Paul Copperman (1978), and Theodore Sizer (1985).
Progressivism
Progressivists believe that education should focus on the whole child, rather than on the
content or the teacher. This educational philosophy stresses that students should test ideas by active
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experimentation. Learning is rooted in the questions of learners that arise through experiencing the
world. It is active, not passive. The learner is a problem solver and thinker who makes meaning
through his or her individual experience in the physical and cultural context. Effective teachers provide
experiences so that students can learn by doing. Curriculum content is derived from student interests
and questions. The scientific method is used by progressivist educators so that students can study
matter and events systematically and first hand. The emphasis is on process-how one comes to know.
The Progressive education philosophy was established in America from the mid-1920s through the
mid-1950s. John Dewey was its foremost proponent. One of his tenets was that the school should
improve the way of life of our citizens through experiencing freedom and democracy in schools.
Shared decision making, planning of teachers with students, student-selected topics are all aspects.
Books are tools, rather than authority.
Reconstructionism/Critical Theory
Social Reconstructionism is a philosophy that emphasizes the addressing of social questions
and a quest to create a better society and worldwide democracy. Reconstructionist educators focus on
a curriculum that highlights social reform as the aim of education. Theodore Brameld (1904-1987) was
the founder of social Reconstructionism, in reaction against the realities of World War II. He
recognized the potential for either human annihilation through technology and human cruelty or the
capacity to create a beneficent society using technology and human compassion. George Counts
(1889-1974) recognized that education was the means of preparing people for creating this new social
order.
Critical theorists, like social Reconstructionist, believe that systems must be changed to
overcome oppression and improve human conditions. Paulo Freire (1921-1997) was a Brazilian whose
experiences living in poverty led him to champion education and literacy as the vehicle for social
change. In his view, humans must learn to resist oppression and not become its victims, nor oppress
others. To do so requires dialog and critical consciousness, the development of awareness to
overcome domination and oppression. Rather than "teaching as banking," in which the educator
deposits information into students' heads, Freire saw teaching and learning as a process of inquiry in
which the child must invent and reinvent the world.
For social Reconstructionist and critical theorists, curriculum focuses on student experience
and taking social action on real problems, such as violence, hunger, international terrorism, inflation,
and inequality. Strategies for dealing with controversial issues (particularly in social studies and
literature), inquiry, dialogue, and multiple perspectives are the focus. Community-based learning and
bringing the world into the classroom are also strategies. 1999 LeoNora M. Cohen, OSU – School of
Education https://oregonstate.edu/instruct/ed416/PP3.html
Humanism
The roots of humanism are found in the thinking of Erasmus (1466-1536), who attacked the
religious teaching and thought prevalent in his time to focus on free inquiry and rediscovery of the
classical roots from Greece and Rome. Erasmus believed in the essential goodness of children, that
humans have free will, moral conscience, the ability to reason, aesthetic sensibility, and religious
instinct. He advocated that the young should be treated kindly and that learning should not be forced
or rushed, as it proceeds in stages. Humanism was developed as an educational philosophy by
Rousseau (1712-1778) and Pestalozzi, who emphasized nature and the basic goodness of humans,
understanding through the senses, and education as a gradual and unhurried process in which the
development of human character follows the unfolding of nature. Humanists believe that the learner
should be in control of his or her own destiny. Since the learner should become a fully autonomous
person, personal freedom, choice, and responsibility are the focus. The learner is self-motivated to
achieve towards the highest level possible. Motivation to learn is intrinsic in humanism. Recent
applications of humanist philosophy focus on the social and emotional well-being of the child, as well
as the cognitive. Development of a healthy self-concept, awareness of the psychological needs,
helping students to strive to be all that they can are important concepts, espoused in theories of
Abraham Maslow, Carl Rogers, and Alfred Adler that are found in classrooms today. Teachers
emphasize freedom from threat, emotional well-being, learning processes, and self-fulfillment.
*Some theorists call Rousseau's philosophy naturalism and consider this to be a world or metaphysical
level philosophy (e.g.Gutek)https://oregonstate.edu/instruct/ed416/PP4.html#:~:text=Humanism% 20
was%20developed%20as%20an,follows%20the%20unfolding%20of%20nature.
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3. Post Modern Philosophies

Postmodernism, also spelled post-modernism, in Western philosophy, a late 20th-century
movement characterized by broad skepticism, subjectivism, or relativism; a general suspicion
of reason; and an acute sensitivity to the role of ideology in asserting and maintaining political and
economic power. https://www.britannica.com/topic/postmodernism-philosophy
 The aims of education in Postmodernism are teaching critical thinking, production of
knowledge, development of individual and social identity, self-creation. In postmodern
education teachers just lead students to discover new things. They tolerate others criticism
and try to think in critical way.
.https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1877042811004629#:~:text=
Regarding%20postmodernist%2C%20the%20aims%20of,students%20to%20discover%20ne
w%20things.&text=They%20tolerate%20others%20criticism%20and%20try%20to%20think%2
0in%20critical%20way
 Also Post-Modernism is a broad movement in late 20th Century philosophy and the arts,
marked in general terms by an openness to meaning and authority from unexpected places,
and a willingness to borrow unashamedly from previous movements or traditions. It is
often defined negatively as a reaction or opposition to the equally ill-defined Modernism,
although some claim that it represents a whole new paradigm in intellectual thought.
 The term "Post-Modernism" (literally "after Modernism") originated in architecture to denote a

reactionary movement against the perceived blandness and hostility of the Modernist
movement, and also against the pretensions of high Modernism, with its pursuit of an ideal
perfection, harmony of form and function, and dismissal of frivolous ornamentation. It came to
be used in art, music and literature (and, by analogy, in philosophy) for any pluralistic or
reactionary style that is often more ornamental than Modernism, and which is not afraid
to borrow from previous artistic styles, often in a playful or ironic fashion. It tends to lack a clear
central hierarchy or organizing principle, although it often embodies extreme complexity,
contradiction, ambiguity, diversity and inter-connectedness or inter-referentiality, and is typically
marked by a revival of traditional elements and techniques.
 Some see Post-Modernism as just another phase in the continued unfolding of Modernism;
some see it as a complete replacement for, and backlash against, Modernism. The
burgeoning anti-establishment movements of the 1960s can be considered as the constituting
event of Post-Modernism in a more general sense. With the current wide availability of the
Internet, mobile phones, interactive television, etc., and the instantaneous, direct, shallow and
often superficial participation in the culture they allow, some commentators have even posited
that we are now entering the Post-Post-Modern period.
 In Philosophy specifically, Post-Modernism was heavily influenced by Continental

Philosophy movements like Phenomenology, Structuralism and Existentialism, and it is
generally skeptical of many of the values and bases of Analytic Philosophy. It is generally
viewed as an openness to meaning and authority from unexpected places, so that the ultimate
source of authority is the actual "play" of the discourse itself. It can be considered a "pick-and-
mix" approach, whereby basic problems are approachable from a wide range of theoretical
perspectives.
 Post-Modernism is a broad and non-specific movement (if it can be described as a movement

at all), and movements like Deconstructionism and Post-Structuralism (among others) can both
be considered Post-Modernist. Post-Modernists often defend themselves from criticisms of
philosophical incompetence and excessive informality by claiming that they take a "wider" view
of what philosophy is, that their use of academic jargon is necessary to communicate their
ideas, and that their critics simply do not understand their work.
 Among the best-known Post-Modernist philosophers are Michel Foucault, Jacques

Derrida, Jean-François Lyotard (1924 - 1998), Richard Rorty (1931 - 2007), Jean
Baudrillard (1929 - 2007) and Roland Barthes (1915 - 1980). Lyotard is perhaps one of the
most identifiable Post-Modernists, and he has described Post-Modernism as a condition of the
present state of culture, social structure and self. He is largely concerned with the role
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of narrative in human culture, and particularly how that role has changed as we have left
modernity and entered a post-industrial or post-modern condition. Baudrillard has argued that
we live in a "hyperreal", post-modern, post-industrial, post-everything sort of a world, and global
reality has become dominated by an internationalized popular culture to such an extent that
people have great difficulty deciding what is real. https://www.philosophybasics.com/
movementspostmodernism.html
The most important of these viewpoints of postmodernism are the following:
1. There is an objective natural reality, a reality whose existence and properties are logically
independent of human beings—of their minds, their societies, their social practices, or their
investigative techniques. Postmodernists dismiss this idea as a kind of naive realism. Such reality as
there is, according to postmodernists, is a conceptual construct, an artifact of scientific practice
and language. This point also applies to the investigation of past events by historians and to the
description of social institutions, structures, or practices by social scientists.
2. The descriptive and explanatory statements of scientists and historians can, in principle, be
objectively true or false. The postmodern denial of this viewpoint—which follows from the rejection of
an objective natural reality—is sometimes expressed by saying that there is no such thing as Truth.
3. Through the use of reason and logic, and with the more specialized tools provided
by science and technology, human beings are likely to change themselves and their societies for the
better. It is reasonable to expect that future societies will be more humane, more just,
more enlightened, and more prosperous than they are now. Postmodernists deny this Enlightenment
faith in science and technology as instruments of human progress. Indeed, many postmodernists hold
that the misguided (or unguided) pursuit of scientific and technological knowledge led to the
development of technologies for killing on a massive scale in World War II. Some go so far as to say
that science and technology—and even reason and logic—are inherently destructive and oppressive,
because they have been used by evil people, especially during the 20th century, to destroy and
oppress others.
4. Reason and logic are universally valid—i.e., their laws are the same for, or apply equally to, any
thinker and any domain of knowledge. For postmodernists, reason and logic too are merely conceptual
constructs and are therefore valid only within the established intellectual traditions in which they are
used.
5. There is such a thing as human nature; it consists of faculties, aptitudes, or dispositions that are in
some sense present in human beings at birth rather than learned or instilled through social forces.
Postmodernists insist that all, or nearly all, aspects of human psychology are completely socially
determined.
6. Language refers to and represents a reality outside itself. According to postmodernists, language is
not such a “mirror of nature,” as the American pragmatist philosopher Richard Rorty characterized the
Enlightenment view. Inspired by the work of the Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure, postmodernists
claim that language is semantically self-contained, or self-referential: the meaning of a word is not a
static thing in the world or even an idea in the mind but rather a range of contrasts and differences with
the meanings of other words. Because meanings are in this sense functions of other meanings—which
themselves are functions of other meanings, and so on—they are never fully “present” to the speaker
or hearer but are endlessly “deferred.” Self-reference characterizes not only natural languages but also
the more specialized “discourses” of particular communities or traditions; such discourses are
embedded in social practices and reflect the conceptual schemes and moral and intellectual values of
the community or tradition in which they are used. The postmodern view of language and discourse is
due largely to the French philosopher and literary theorist Jacques Derrida (1930–2004), the originator
and leading practitioner of deconstruction.
7. Human beings can acquire knowledge about natural reality, and this knowledge can be justified
ultimately on the basis of evidence or principles that are, or can be, known immediately, intuitively, or
otherwise with certainty. Postmodernists reject philosophical foundationalism—the attempt, perhaps
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best exemplified by the 17th-century French philosopher René Descartes’s dictum cogito, ergo sum (“I
think, therefore I am”), to identify a foundation of certainty on which to build the edifice
of empirical (including scientific) knowledge.
8. It is possible, at least in principle, to construct general theories that explain many aspects of the
natural or social world within a given domain of knowledge—e.g., a general theory of human history,
such as dialectical materialism. Furthermore, it should be a goal of scientific and historical research to
construct such theories, even if they are never perfectly attainable in practice. Postmodernists dismiss
this notion as a pipe dream and indeed as symptomatic of an unhealthy tendency
within Enlightenment discourses to adopt “totalizing” systems of thought (as the French
philosopher Emmanuel Lévinas called them) or grand “metanarratives” of human biological, historical,
and social development (as the French philosopher Jean-François Lyotard claimed). These theories
are pernicious not merely because they are false but because they effectively impose conformity on
other perspectives or discourses, thereby oppressing, marginalizing, or silencing them. Derrida himself
equated the theoretical tendency toward totality with totalitarianism. https://www.britannica.com/topic/
postmodernism-philosophy
Understanding the 4 Main Schools of Philosophy: Principle of Postmodernism

Understanding philosophy is important for educators not only so that they possess an
individual philosophy but gain more awareness to the philosophies of their students and
administrators. In this series on the four main schools of philosophies idealism, realism,
postmodernism, and pragmatism will be reviewed to assist with understanding the elements of
philosophy. This article focuses on postmodernism.
Postmodernism describes the school of thought arising mainly from oppositional and radical
movements in contemporary society. The advent of the Industrial Revolution brought about major
societal changes, as well as several social inequalities that were previously unheard of. Although the
advances in science and technology continue to shape the world as we know it, the accompanying
social changes in power and class structure tend to persist in similar forms as well. It is in opposition to
these now established societal structures that postmodernist thought arose in very different areas of
the world.
Philosophers who contributed to postmodernism include Friedrich Nietzsche, Martin
Heidegger, Jacques Derrida, Michel Foucault, and Karl Marx. Friedrich Nietzsche (1844–1900) was a
German philosopher who contributed the notion of life-affirmation to postmodernism and questioned
even the most socially acceptable doctrines, such as religion and morality. Nietzsche focused on the
world around us rather than the afterlife.
Martin Heidegger (1899–1976), another German philosopher, is known for creating the
concept of existentialist phenomenology. Existentialist phenomenology concludes that we construct
our own truths from within, as opposed to theories that advocate one universal truth. Furthermore,
Heidegger inferred that we are not born into an existing reality but construct our own reality based on
our involvement in the world and on our innate intuitions.
Jacques Derrida (1930–2004), a French philosopher, was well known for his controversial
approach to understanding the world, the deconstruction method, and was a major contributor to
postmodernism. The deconstruction method is a process of criticizing literary texts, philosophical texts,
and political theories. It entails a breakdown of the rational purposes, or logos, of earlier Western
philosophy that was believed to govern the universe. Additionally, Derrida believed that universal
rationality was not found in objective reality, but in the text. Simply stated, deconstruction is simply a
method of exploring the text to find additional shades of meaning.
Michel Foucault (1926–1984) was a French philosopher who examined the theories of, and
relationship between, truth and power. Foucault established the presence of episteme in philosophy.
Epistemes are the knowledge or understanding that contribute to a society at a particular time in
history. He claimed that there is not one universal truth, but several truths, unique to each individual.
These multiple truths result in a constant shift in the relationship of truth and power. As a result, power
is not something that can be possessed, but something that can be implemented.
Postmodernist educators believe that there is no absolute or universal truth, arguing that truth changes
with the advent of new events and discoveries. This means that scientific events that took place
historically on one side of the world have influenced political and social events that are now taking
place on another.
Postmodernist educators embrace and encourage individual expression, going further to
encourage cross-cultural dialogue and debates as a necessary factor in the education process. An
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mportant point raised by postmodernists is that political factors and themes such as power and social
inequality must be addressed if a teacher is to provide a holistic education. These themes are as
relevant to science and mathematics as they are to social sciences, with the postmodernist view
rejecting the idea that subjects should be rigidly compartmentalized.
Based on this overview of postmodernism, what is your philosophy and does it align with your school’s
education system? It is necessary to know the philosophy behind your school because as a teacher
you are viewed as one who is upholding these values and beliefs. Continue reading the other sections
of this series to understand the schools of thought pertaining to philosophy.
https://www.theedadvocate.org/understanding-4-main-schools-philosophy-principle-postmodernism/
Comparing Modernist and Postmodern Educational Theory

Author: Dennis McCallum
Modernist Theory Postmodernist Theory
Educators ideally should be authoritative Educators are biased facilitators and co-
Knowledge
transmitters of unbiased knowledge "constructors" of knowledge.
The modernist goal of unifying society results in
Culture is something students should learn about, domination and exploitation, because unity is
but can also be a barrier to learning. Students always based on dominant culture. All cultures are
Culture from diverse cultures must be trained in a shared not only of equal value, but also constitute equally
language, or medium of communication, before important realities. Minority students must be
teachers can transmit knowledge to them. "empowered" to fight against Eurocentric
enculturation.
Traditional modernists believe that educators are Education should help students construct diverse
legitimate authorities on values, and therefore and personally useful values in the context of their
they should train students in universal values. cultures. Values are considered useful for a given
More liberal modernists argue that education culture, not true or right in any universal sense.
should be "values-neutral." Teachers help Since teachers cannot avoid teaching their own
Values
students with "values clarification"--deciding what values, it's okay for teachers to openly promote their
values each individual student will hold. Values values and social agendas in the classroom.
can, and should be separated from facts. The Important values to teach include striving for
most important values are rationality and diversity, tolerance, freedom, creativity, emotions
progress. and intuition.
Modernists generally believe in a stable, inherent
self that can be objectively known. In addition,
Students have no "true self" or innate essence.
since humans are thought to have a stable
Rather, selves are social constructs. Postmodern
essential nature, IQ tests, and other similar
educators believe self-esteem is a pre-condition for
"objective tests", can be used to discover
Human learning. They view education as a type of therapy.
students' innate intelligence. By giving them
Nature Education helps individuals construct their identities
mastery over subject matter, teachers enhance
rather than discover them. Individuals and society
students' self-esteem. Education helps individuals
progress when people are empowered to attain their
discover their identities. Individuals and society
own chosen goals.
progress by learning and applying objective
knowledge.
https://www.xenos.org/essays/comparing-modernist -and-postmodern-educational-theory
Postmodernism and the Challenges Facing 21st Century Educators

Much of what has been written relative to postmodernism is a critique of modernism
(Baumgartner, et al., 2003, p. 38). Because of this critical perspective, postmodernism does not lend
itself to full development as a comprehensive philosophy of education. Postmodernism is critiqued as
deconstructing the ideals of modernism rather than with laying down principles concerning the
development of knowledge and its relationship to higher education.
Hierarchies and Postmodernism
One of the criticisms that postmodernists direct at modernism is its reliance on the
development and maintenance of hierarchies. (Bloland, 1995, pp 526-530) Presidents are higher than
deans, deans higher than chairs, chairs higher than instructing faculty, instructors higher than
students. This is the manner of things in higher education — and, for that matter, in most modern
organizations. Hierarchies also exist in the relationship of higher education disciplines to each other
(sciences being higher than arts, and arts being higher than professions), credentials (doctoral degree
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over master’s degree over baccalaureate degree over associate degree) and institutions (university
over university-college over community college).
These hierarchies set up definitions about whom or what qualifies as being “in” or “out” or as “top” or
“bottom.” The minority student or minority institution is certainly not at the top of the list. (Bergquist,
1995) Making space in a hierarchy is making room for someone to be superior and someone to be
inferior. Hierarchical institutions are valuable if we believe that what the hierarchy perpetuates is more
important to the well-being of society than what individuals might want. We might not have the ability to
recognize what is important to the well-being of the greater society, this argument goes, but the
hierarchy keeps the society’s needs in balance.
Postmodernists rely upon their own definition of self. Their role is defined and
redefined by themselves. They forge a place for themselves in the world. They create their own space,
their own niche. That niche can be refashioned or discarded in changing circumstances. Their self can
remain intact, because it does not have to rely upon anyone else’s definitions. Postmodern teachers
and learners have differentiated roles, but these roles are not discreet. The learner is encouraged to
find personal meaning from the learning, as the teacher is allowed to discard the mask of authority and
be more themselves, modeling the lifelong learning value of postmodernism. Educators must find
connections for the learner to their true self. “In organizations, just as with individuals, a clear sense of
identity – the lens of values, traditions, history dreams, experience, competencies, and culture – is the
only route to achieving independence from the environment.” (Wheatley, 1999, p.86) Postmodern
implies a system that is open to the influences of the external environment. Consequently, the learner
(and teacher) must be secure in their own self-identity. This secure self-identity is needed in order for
the learner and teacher to maintain personal integrity in the face of this unclear, relative, disruptive
postmodern life.
Effects of Postmodernism on Ways Learners Learn and Instructors Teach
 Postmodern life is not predictable. We must live in the moment in order to be in tune with the
ever-changing conditions. We need meta-strategies or ways of thinking about which strategy to
employ. Better yet, we need ways of knowing how to create and tailor new strategies to respond
to the learning needs in our various contexts. It is critical that we know how to live and learn in an
open system, open to ambiguity, open to serendipitous development.
 Postmodern society is inundated with information. Information has become abundant and free
during the 21st Century. Information is now fully accessible. We live in a democratized society of
digital interactivity. Postmodern learners are required to know the difference between data,
information and knowledge. Students must develop information literacy skills and the awareness
of their own selection bias. The postmodern instructor must be able to walk with their students
through the data and information to the knowledge that is both involved with the purposes of the
course of studies and with the meaning relative to the life of each individual student.
 Modern thinking uses the executive brain. The executive brain is logical and serves control
functions. Life is structured, ordered and hierarchical. There is a proper place and a proper
function for everything. If it is not ordered or logical, let’s figure it out. Deductive, scientific thought
prevails in this world-that-can-be-known. The executive brain controls communication and
actions. Modern students rely on this kind of logic and on dogma. They rely on learning what they
are told because it is in the best interest of the role they are to play. Modern educational theory
attempts to classify and segment learning. The world is taken apart, split into disciplines,
objectified, quantified and then repackaged as courses with learner objectives. This model relies
on “the sage on stage” to parcel out the information to learners. Learners can utilize strategies to
improve learning. A grade is assigned based on the degree to which the learner has achieved
these teacher-determined objectives.
 Postmodern life is not just about rapid and turbulent change. It is also about fragmentation of old
systems and expectations. There are constant disruptions. It is hard to count on any one set of
values or any one paradigm. To deal with the fragmentation of the old paradigm, postmodern
students apply their own story and experience to the learning environment. They learn to trust not
only their own rational processes (housed primarily in their prefrontal cortex), but also their
exceptionally gifted intuition (housed primarily in their much older, larger and more mature limbic
brain). (Lehrer, 2009) The postmodern instructor engaged with a learner from an appreciative
perspective encourages this person to relate the directions of the course or program to their
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personal experiences, instead of viewing this as past baggage that should be left outside the
educational experience. Instructor/tutor and student co-create new learning and understandings in
the moment.
 Postmodern learning is a creative act. It involves ever-changing environments and learning

arrangements. Individual plans can be created wherein the learner is an active participant. The
postmodern teacher and mature student are partners in learning a body of knowledge within a
contemporary context. Other methods are not discarded, but they are used, modified and
recreated to suit the situation at hand. The postmodern instructor is a “guide on the side” whose
role is more to facilitate learning experiences toward the meaningful aims. Alternate views and
content integration are encouraged. Ideas are brought together through a holistic approach to
form new ways of knowing the world. New learning relationships and knowledge creation potential
are heightened and become an exciting aspect of the postmodern class. Implications of the
Postmodern Condition for Adult Educationhttps://psychology.edu/about/four-models-of-adult
education/ postmodernism-and-the-challenges-facing-21st-century-educators/
B. SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES
1. SOCIAL DIMENSIONS OF EDUCATION

Sociological Theories that are useful in the study of Social Dimensions of Education
“Sociological paradigms are complex theoretical and methodological frameworks used to analyze and
explain objects of social study”-Craig J. Calhoun
What are theories in Sociology?

Theories – are essentially required to explain in an organized way of issues and problems about
school and society relationship, as well as the numerous concerns in social dimensions of education.
 They are the tools of sociologists in understanding schools, in guiding their search for
knowledge, and in contributing to informed decision-making.
 They are world views or general perspectives, which break down the complexity of the real
world.
 They attempt to explain, generate, and predict the patterns and practices of educational
systems.
 In a way, they are like “concrete puzzle solutions” of problems to a phenomenon under study.
Sociological Theories in understanding Social Dimensions of Education

The traditional and more widely used theories are functional, conflict, and interactionism. On
the other hand, the contemporary theories are critical the critical theory on cultural capital by Pierre
Bourdieu and language code by Basil Bernstein. The functional and conflict theories are macro
perspectives, while the interactionism is a microanalysis. The critical theories are a combination of the
macro and micro levels of analysis, for they argue that the structural and interactional aspects of the
system should be integrated.
Sociological Paradigm
MACRO VIEW MICRO VIEW

Functionalist Theory  Interactionist Theory
 Conflict Theory
Integration of
MACRO & MICRO VIEW
 Critical Theory
Fig. 1. Schematic diagram showing the perspective of the major sociological theories
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FUNCTIONAL THEORIES
Functional Theory is otherwise known as Structural Functionalism, Consensus, or Equilibrium
theory originally proposed by Emile Durkheim and Talcott Parsons. Today the theory is considered
obsolete by critics but remains to be useful in understanding school because it usually emphasizes the
noble goal, mission, purpose, benefit, and merit of school in a given society.
Romantic and Ideal Views on Education and Schooling Emanating from Functional Theory
The dominant set of assumptions underlying schooling in our society today is a product of
functional theory. As a matter of fact, the very romantic and ideal views we hold about education and
schools are products of this framework. Examples of these views, which picture the wholesome image
of education and schools are as follows:
1. Education is the great equalizer of the poor and the rich in the society;
2. Education is a solution to all individual, societal, and global problems;
3. Education promotes intercultural harmony, human liberation, and development;
4. Education is an agent toward ending discrimination, conflict and violence;
5. Education is an essential component in the preparation for national and global citizenship;
6. Education is a tool for the attainment of social efficiency and social effectiveness in a multicultural
society;
7. Education is the country’s last straw of hope for catching up with her neighbors;
8. Education is a ticket away from poverty;
9. School promotes political integration and develops a sense of national identity;
10. School is the institution that fulfills the social responsibility of preparing the future generation of any
modern society
Functional view on society

Functionalist view that all societies have needs. These include, among others, the need for
progress, justice, peace, economic sustainability, political stability, and productive human resources.
Essentially, social institutions are needed to unite and collaboratively work toward the satisfaction of
the basic societal needs, as this is imperative to establish social order. It is in this context why
functionalist assert that understanding societies in a holistic sense is more logical, rather than parts or
through individual’s life experiences, because it is the basis of social order in all societies. This is
congruent with the view that society is a whole living organism (or like parts of a machine), which has
autonomous, specialized, interrelated, and interdependent parts. Using the human body as a
metaphor, the society has parts, such as: the head, kidneys, lungs, limbs, and heart, which we call
social institutions. All these institutions play a function (its own “job to do”) in the life of the total
organism. Social stability, is achieved through institutions playing their part. Consensus,
characterized by common value system, agreement, consent, and harmony of members and groups is
an essential requisite to the functional view, as it holds all parts and members of the society together.
Once consensus is achieved, the society is assured of a well-functioning system. Social problems, are
then viewed as disruptions, and these may pose danger to the system’s social function and
equilibrium. Examples are the malfunctioning of government due to corruption and inefficiency; lack of
affection and broken relationships in the family; and irrelevant curriculum and poor quality of education
of school may affect social stability, order, and progress.
Functional theory believes that all social institutions have “jobs to do”
that ensure the stability and order of society.
Functional view on school
Functional theory states that schools have been positioned as essential to the process of
addressing all societal goals and concerns. Specifically, schools participate in solving the economic,
political, social, moral, and cultural problems of the nation. At the macro level, functionalism seeks to
explain how schools help society adjust and adapt to changing social conditions. The principal task of
school is to ensure that every member of the society shall grow to become citizens and workers who
can function in ways that allow the continued survival or maintenance of a society. In a complex and
hierarchically organized society, schools act as a rational means of selecting and preparing people to
assume various positions according to their abilities. This is reflected not only in the school curriculum,
where basic literacy and numeracy are taught, but also in numerous courses that prepare the young
for the future occupational skills.
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At the micro level, functional theory views the school as a system with several interrelated
subsystems, such as school administrators, teachers, students, facilitative staff, and parents. The
interrelationships of these subsystem make up the image of the school and the personality of those
who compose it. As a whole, the role of school in this perspective is to explain the different parts of
society in terms of their functions and how their interrelationships contribute to societal well-being and
progress.
Key ideas associated with functional theory

Two key ideas are associated with functional theory to ensure the fulfillment of society’s order,
stability, and harmony. These major roles are:
Role differentiation-stresses that there are various roles that have to be fulfilled in a given
society, which may require different knowledge, skills or attitudes. Examples of these roles include,
among others, policing, teaching, health servicing, moralizing, entertaining, selling, lawmaking, and
researching. These roles may not be equally attractive or valued, but schools have the function to
ensure that every member of the society is competent and trained to fulfill these roles.
Social Solidarity - guarantees that people occupying different roles in the society have a fair
level of importance as there is interdependence with one another for societal survival and
development. Such stability is established when people accept their roles and positions and view them
as mechanisms to establish an orderly and fully functioning society. The challenge here is that some
roles and positions do not have high prestige, status, and rewards, so, in this regard, competition may
not be avoided.
Presuppositions of Functional Theory

It is important to note that functional analysis of schools is grounded on some presuppositions.
If these assumptions are true and accepted in a given society, then the arguments of the theory make
sense.
The first basic assumption is that there is “Meritocratic Society” where high status positions
are achieved on the basis of merit, rather than ascribed or passed on from parents to child.
Meritocracy emphasizes the equal chances of everyone to obtain educational success in the society.
If individuals study and work hard, they can achieved anything since rewards and success
commensurate with hard work and competence. Significantly, meritocracy is made possible through
schooling because the intelligent, talented, and skills are elevated in the social hierarchy as compared
to their counterparts.
The second assumption of functional theory is that there is an “expert Society” which depends
preeminently on rational knowledge for economic growth and smooth running society. This assumption
stresses the requirement of a more highly trained or specialized individuals to fulfill the majority of job
positions, especially in postmodern society. Education in this regard, creates new occupations and
new specializations and places selected people to occupy them. For example, there were no sports
psychologists, medical transcriptionists, pharmacologists, economists, sociologists, genetics, and
accountants before universities set up these specialized bodies of knowledge. But because of schools,
experts are trained to perform these roles for the society.
The third assumption is the existence of a “democratic Society”. Functionalists believed that
with the democratic society, people are able to move gradually toward the achievement of humane
goals, social justice, and acceptance of diversity, and more fulfilling life for all. It is through democratic
principles that society creates a humanizing atmosphere whereby individuals develop themselves to
the fullest and become tolerant to individual differences.
Role of Schools According to Functional Theory

From the functional perspective, the role of schools is to enhance the operation and stability of
society. Schools teach the young the vital functions of the different institutions like family, government,
military, church, business sector and mass media in the making of a society. Curriculum content,
socialization process, as well as teaching and learning processes are seen to be the means in
promoting the value and purpose of these institutions. It is the job of schools to develop trust and
respect to these social institutions and to teach the young how to cooperate with the people in charge
of carrying out the functions of these institutions. For example, schools teach the young how to respect
and trust elected officials, government leaders, court judges, school authorities, church leaders,
businessmen, policemen, soldiers, and media practitioners. In addition, schools are expected to
socialize the students to trust their democratic processes and instrumentalities by providing school
campus election, writing in school paper, and establishing clubs and other interest groups. In so doing,
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the school plays in helping children make the transition in doing adult roles in the broader community,
like allegiance to political orders and learning the basic laws of the society.
CONFLICT THEORIES
Conflict theorists like Karl Marx and Christopher Hurn posit that the key to understanding
social life and human history is through class struggle. In their view class struggle is brought about by
competition over scarce resources in the society, that is, too many people are competing over few
resources available. The focus of conflict theorists is to analyze how social actors compete and how
they use their power to control, dominate, and exploit groups in the society.
Views of Conflict theory on education and schooling

Like functional theory, conflict perspective has developed a set of views on education and
schooling. These views are more or less critiques that unmask the defects of school as a social
institution. Generally, these take an opposing perspective from functional theory as follows:
1. Education reinforces the cultural mechanisms for perpetrating oppression and exploitation
of the poor and other marginalized groups in the society. (e.g. indigenous people, the
unschooled, and the women);
2. Education promotes foreign worship instead of being an instrument to develop nationalism,
identity, and culture;
3. School is a biased social institution favoring the elite (rich), with the curriculum reinforcing
oppressive structures of society;
4. School does not provide equal educational opportunities but perpetuates the existing
inequality in the society;
5. School mirrors and reinforces the inequality and gender stereotyping in the society.
6. School is an arena of competition and struggle over scarce resources like money, power,
position, and honor;
7. School is punitive rather than a humanizing agency; and
8. School resembles the prison cell (with school administrators and teachers acting as
wardens and police officers, respectively) strictly enforcing policies on wearing uniforms
and identification card, cutting classes, attendance to school activities, and the like.
Conflict view on society

Proponents of conflict theory assert that society is like a jungle where the principle of the
“survival of the fittest” applies. Human beings live in a divided and conflict-ridden society, where
groups compete for the control of scarce resources, such as wealth, occupations, positions in the
government, as well as power and prestige. In their view, it is the society and its instrumentalities (e.g.
government, business, courts, mass media, school) that cause the corruption of the moral values of
men, whom they believe are created to be inherently good. What really happens in the society is that
Institutions (like schools) are controlled by groups with power. The concept of order that is stressed by
these institutions is just part of the illusion that they advocate to hide their personal interests (Mooney
et.al., 1997)
Conflict theorist assert that students go to school to arm them with credentials needed to
obtain money and compete to occupy various occupations and positions in the business sector,
government, military, media, and church in the future. In this competition, they contend that socio-
economic status (upper, middle, and lower classes) is the most critical determinant of success.
Students who have the financial means are able to hurdle the changes of schooling, while the poor are
more likely to fail. This makes the conflict theorists aver that whenever such condition occurs or
whenever people are related in different ways to the means of production (who owns much of the land,
labor, capital, and technology), there is a class society, and each particular class is defined in terms of
this concept.
In contrast to functional theory, which focuses on integration, harmony, and stability, the
conflict theorists view conflict and change as natural and unavoidable. Conflict is expected in the
society as it is the engine of change and development. It should not be viewed as disruptive to social
systems and human interaction; rather, it is an important force for progress.
Conflict view on school

Conflict theorist criticize schools for using the illusion of equality to protect the status quo since
the biggest predictor of success in school is still the parents’ socio-economic status. They are skeptical
of the view that the school is the equalizer of the society. Rather than serving as leveler, the
transmission of learning has often reinforced the inequalities of society, reproducing the students’
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socio-economic status. Conflict theorist contend that poor students who go to school remain poor after
graduation as their credentials, knowledge, and skills could not approximate the kind of education of
the rich or middle class students who obtained it from costly, well-equipped, high standard and quality
schools. They assert that quality education is costly, which is only within the purchasing power of the
rich. This makes schools continue the existing conditions of inequality. In real practice, they make
inequality as an accepted rule and standard of life by establishing a customary practice that maintains
it. Elite groups who compete for control of schools use the rhetoric and myths of societal needs (e.g.
equality, justice, freedom, and progress) to conceal the fact that it is their interest and their demands
that they are trying to advance. The point is that the ruling group (elite) use schools to advance their
interests and retain their power. Thus, what really happens in school is a struggle on whose values
and ideals will be taught to the young and whose children will obtain the most prestigious jobs.
Contrary to the functionalist perspective on the real aim of education, conflict theorists believe
that schools sort students (through selection process or gatekeeping) into different categories
according to their ability and talent. This is evident in the school’s practice such as sectioning, seating
arrangement, admission examinations, and other screening processes. The unintended effect of this
selection process is that middle and upper class students are assigned to higher sections, academic
classes, college preparatory courses; whereas, lower class and minority students are frequently
assigned to lower sections, multi-grade classes, and vocational study programs. This is the general
picture as the rich and middle class students are provided with the essential requisites to hurdle the
selection process of school, such as good food that nourishes their brains, ample school allowance,
and adequate investments for Internet usage, books, encyclopedia, tutorial services, and other
educational opportunities, which are not usually accessible for poor students.
Role Of Schools According To Conflict Theory

Conflict theory believes that the school’s job is to identify competing interests in the school
system or in the society and determine how those in power maintain their position. With this role, the
teachers help the students determine the instrumentalities used by the school system or the society,
especially in teaching the dominant social, economic, and political status groups. Schools must
discuss, for example, how the rich become richer and the poor become poorer. This must be analyzed
in the context of how the rich control the ideas (political ideology that the country subscribes),
information (selective release or contents of mass media), technology (recent developments,
especially monitoring devices), and the maintenance of social network (the networks, business
contact, and other associations that link the elites to one another). In the same way, it is the role of
teachers to connect classroom discussions to the rallies and challenges faced by social movements in
the streets. Discussions should translate their private troubles and concerns into public actions and
arouse public interests over pressing social problems. In this way, students are able to ascertain the
process of reproducing the attitudes and dispositions that are required for the continuation of the
prevailing system dominated by the privileged class
Among conflict theorists, the focus of school is on conflict management, which is viewed as a
major factor that can lead to change. This implies that schools are responsible for preparing students
to acquire skills to accept and resolve conflict. At the macro level, schools are to be critical about the
relationship between the school system and the work place to determine mismatch of knowledge and
skills. They have to identify conflicting relationships and competing roles between public and private
schools and between rural and urban schools. At this micro level, conflict analysis may investigate the
kind of relationship that exists between principal-faculty, faculty-students, and faculty-parents.
Analysis of these relationships must be focused on how they manipulate school structures and
processes to push their own personal agenda in education. In such case, schools become catalyst of
change through violent or revolutionary overthrow of the dominant class and its ideology.
INTERACTIONIST THEORIES
Functionalism and conflict theories are macro-sociological and their approaches are said to be
deterministic. Determinism means a person’s behavior is controlled by an external force or forces. This
argues that what happens to an individual (either success or failure) is a product of the existing
structures in a given society. For example, determinism asserts that one is poor because of the unjust
social structure of society and not simply of his own making. The scarcity of job due to the
government’s negligence to uplift the life of the poor is the real cause of poverty and not because of
the individual’s laziness or lack of ambition. However, not all sociologists believe that human behavior
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is determined or controlled by external forces-these sociologists are known as interactionist or

interpretivists. Interactionist believe that human beings are not always shaped by external force,
because they era free to make a choice and to define themselves.
Central to interactionist theory is its focus on the interpretation (social meaning) that is given to
behavior, and the way such interpretation helps to construct that social world, the identities of the
people, and, ultimately how people behave. Using metaphor, interactionist are interested in seeing
individual trees not the whole forest. They are concerned with the way an individual meaning is
constructed that is founded on the following basic principles: (1) humans have capacity for thoughts;
(2) thought is shaped by social interaction; (3) through interaction, people learn symbols and meanings
that allow them to think; (4) meanings and symbols allow for human action; (5) people can interpret a
situation and modify their action or interaction; (6)people can freely create their own meanings; and
(7)groups and societies are made up of patterns of action and interaction. (publish.uwo.ca/-
pakvis/SymbolicInteractionism)
To elucidate these principles, take the example of financial problem. The problem on financial
inadequacy at any time in an individual’s life is a reality. But how the individual reacts and feels about
his circumstance, as well as how he solves his problems depend on the meaning he attaches to this
reality. In this case, the individual has the ability to think; hid thought is influenced by his lived-
experiences; and he freely makes a choice to resolve his condition.
Interactionist view on Society

Fundamentally, interactionists view society as an ongoing process of interaction based on
symbolic communication. Symbols are considered the foundation of society as they are basis upon
which people construct meaning, establish their interaction, and develop their attitude, as well as their
belief system.
In their view, life is essentially a product of interaction with the people individuals meet and
work with every day. Through face-to- face interaction in everyday life, individual make sense of the
world or construct meaning about themselves, their society, and life in general. For instance, one may
view society as nurturing, friendly, challenging, and peaceful, or destructive, unjust, oppressive,
lifeless, and so on, based on his day-to-day experiences and struggles in life. Interactionism also
stresses that society is a network of interlocking roles manifested in exercise of one’s position and
status. These interlocking roles are seen, for example, in the interaction and relationship between a
teacher and student, parent child; businessman and customer; military and civilians; rulers and
subjects; and many more. Social order in the society is constructed trough shared meaning, which is
developed through day-to-day interaction.
A striking fact about interactionism or interpretivism is that individuals choose how they want
to behave because of the way they perceive themselves from the interaction with other people. How
they define themselves and perceive life, society, education, schooling, government, and social life are
based on their interpretation and understanding of the meaning of their socio-cultural life or the “rules
of the game.” For example, a lady thinks that she does not have the right to express her feelings to the
man she truly loves, because she is taught not to do so in her interaction with people around her. Or a
student cannot just call his or her teachers with first names as they taught to say ma’am or sir to
school authorities.
Interactionist view on Man

What would people do when they are with one another’s presence? What do poor students do
when they do not have money to pay their tuition fee? Interactionism answers these questions with the
assumption that much of human behavior is guided not by instinct or stimuli but by the meanings that
people ascribe to their experiences. This happens because humans, as social beings, are
interpretative and interactive. They make meanings about their day-to-day experiences or encounters,
and they make choices that define their actions, thinking, and decisions in life. The concern of
interactionism is how to use symbols and experiences to create social life. For instance, meanings are
created by students when a teacher regularly uses a stick in teaching; consistently asks them to
lineup; and uses punishment and maximum security. Meanings are also developed among students
when emphasis is made on praying the rosary, holding masses on first Friday and holydays of
obligation in school. All these are possible experiences in the interaction process, but each individual
creates different meanings out of them. However, these meanings are also handled and modified from
time to time depending on the interaction process.
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Interactionist’s View on Schools
As a social-psychological frame of reference, interactionism focuses on the internal processes

within the school. Its central concern is the everyday behavior and interpersonal relationships of
students, teachers, and administrators as they interact with and adjust to one another. Interactionist
see the classrooms as a little society or a smaller picture of society, teeming with behavior. In their
view, school, particularly the classroom, is a site of interpretations, because everyday realities and
interactions in the classroom are replete with meanings and definitions. They try to find explanations in
the social interactions of the classroom by understanding the communication-action-reaction of
students and teachers. For instance, the scenario when some students feel sleepy in class cannot be
explained in terms of the structural conditions of the classroom, but seen as a product of a boring
classroom interaction. Interactionist believe that the same holds true with the problem of absenteeism.
Students are not motivated to go to school because they do not find the classroom interaction fun and
meaningful. In this way, interactionists, therefore, call forth teachers to reinvent themselves from their
traditional teaching methods, and infuse new learning approaches that will ensure a classroom
interaction, animated with the spirit of enjoyment, inquiry, liberation, dialogue, creative thinking, and
quest for more meanings about life.
The school is a site of differing interpretations. Usually, definitions

are based on one’s everyday experiences and interactions.
Teacher Expectancy
Teacher expectancy is an important concept associated with interactionism theory. It conveys
that teachers’ interactions with their students play a crucial role in the personality development and
academic success of the students. This happens because students learn to evaluate themselves
according to their teacher’s standards and attribution.
If teachers expect students to make good academically and to treat them accordingly. They
may be more likely to make such gains. Students who are expected to do well perform batter and
those whom teachers expect to achieve less, perform at low level. The direct relationship between the
teacher’s expectation and the student’s behavior is developed based on how the teachers relate,
teach, and express their attitudes or beliefs about their students. For instance, teachers tend to have
lower expectations from students in lower sections as they are perceived to have unfavorable attitude
toward studying, manifested through their poor study habits and misbehavior during class. Inasmuch
as this expectation is consciously or unconsciously communicated, students tend to live up to this
expectation.
The teacher expectancy theory also posits that by setting up situations in the classroom,
students come to evaluate themselves negatively or positively as troublemakers, messy, bad student,
smart, or good student, etc. With such evaluation, they tend to fulfill these expectations, which is
referred to as the pygmalion effect or self-fulfilling prophecy. It is a belief or prediction that a person
acts and behaves according to his beliefs and, thus, confirming the prophecy. The self-fulfilling
prophecy shows that merely applying a label has the effect of justifying the label.
But how does the self-fulfilling prophecy work? How are teaching expectations transformed
into reality? According to Recio et al. (2004), self-fulfilling prophecy operates on a three-step process.
(1) a teacher forms an impression of the student early in the school year. The impression may be
based on an IQ test score, or on student’s sex, background, reputation, or physical appearance. (2) a
teacher behaves in a way that is consistent with the impression. (3) the student adjusts his or her
behavior according to the teacher’s action.
In a table form, Alias (2009) summarized numerous factors which can lead teachers to hold
lower expectations from students. These factors include sex, socio-economic status, ethnicity, type of
school, appearance, oral language patterns, messiness, halo effect, and seating position. It is
noteworthy that this summary was generated from the researches made by Brookover et al. (1982),
Cooper (1984), and Good (1987). The table is presented below.
Table 1. Factors that influence teachers’ expectations by Alias (2009)

Factor Explanation
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Lower expectations are often held for older girls, particularly in scientific and
1.Sex
technical areas, because of sex role stereotyping.
Teachers sometimes hold lower expectations on students from lower socio-
2. Socio-economic status
economic backgrounds.
Students from minority races or ethnic groups are sometimes viewed as less
3. Race/ethnicity
capable than students from majority races or ethnic groups.
Students from either inner city schools or rural schools are sometimes
4. Type of school
presumed to be less capable than students from suburban schools.
The expense or style of students’ clothes and grooming habits can influence
5. Appearance
teachers’ expectations.
The presence of any nonstandard English-speaking pattern can sometimes lead
6. Oral Language patterns
teachers to hold lower expectations.
Students whose work areas or assignment are messy are sometimes perceived
7. Messiness/disorganization
as having lower ability
Immaturity or lack of experience may be confused with learning ability, leading
8. Readiness
to inappropriately low expectations.
Some teachers generalized from one characteristics a student may have,
9. Halo Effect thereby making unfounded assumptions about the students’ overall ability or
behavior
If students seat themselves at the side or back of the classroom, some teachers
10. Seating position perceive this as a sign lower learning motivation and/or ability, and treat
students accordingly.
Labeling theory
Closely related to teacher expectancy is the labeling theory or name-calling. Labeling happens
when teachers attach label to their students as dull or bright, hardworking or lazy, smart or stupid, and
troublesome or disciplined. Believers of this theory contend that students define themselves based on
how others (teachers and classmates) look or label them. This classification affects the way they
perceived themselves and, consequently, behave in accordance to these labels. Once labeled, the
label persists, regardless of its truth and accuracy. Interestingly, the teachers’ judgement and labels in
the school have great effects on the educational success of the students. Negative labels breed
student alienation, school failure, and foster attitudes that lead to mocking, taunting, and ostracism.
According to David Hargreaves (1967), one of the most important aspects of the interactionist
theory of education concerns the ways in which teachers make sense and respond to the behavior of
the pupils. In his landmark research titled Deviance in Classroom, he investigated how teachers
classified pupils. He found out that rather than categorizing pupils in the academic parameters,
teachers initially categorized them through non-academic way of stereotyping, such as categorizing
their appearance, ability, and enthusiasm for work, likeableness, their personality, their relationship
with other students, and their conformity to discipline. Significantly, he discovered that social class or
one’s socio-economic standing in the society played a major role in this classification.
Furthermore, labeling theory is akin to the looking-glass self of Charles Horton Cooley. In the
early 1900s, Cooley asserted that it is through the individual’s interaction with others that they learn to
know who they are. He used the metaphor looking-glass self to capture the idea that the development
of the self is a result of individual’s social interactions with other people (Schaefer, 2000). In this
concept, he argued that human beings acquire their sense of self by seeing themselves reflected in
the behavior of others and their attitudes toward them. The way others treat them is like a “mirror”
reflecting their personal qualities. They imagine how they appear to other persons and based on that
imagination, they judge their appearance. The development of identity in this process, according to
Cooley (1956). Consists of three elements: (1) how actors imagine their appearance; (2) how actors
believe others judge their appearance; (3) how actors develop feelings of shame or pride, feelings that
become an inner guide to behavior. This process is not a conscious process, and the stages can occur
quickly. The results can either be a positive or negative self-evaluation. One critic against this theory is
the possibility of distortion. Because the looking glass comes from one’s imagination, it can be
distorted, the: mirror” may not accurately reflect others opinion of oneself. Unfortunately, regardless of
whether or not others ae correct or incorrect about their perception, the consequences are just as real
as if they were.
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Role of the Schools According to Interactionist theory

Interactionist generally focus on micro-level classroom dynamics, such as the teachers’
expectations of their students and how these affect the students’ actual achievements. The role of
school, in this paradigm, is to observe and record the social drama in the school, especially inside the
classroom. For instance, schools must record: the life in school from the students’ perspective; the
stereotyping done by the teachers and students, particularly children of ethnic minority, children with
color, and children of the poor; the knowledge that counts most for students; and the rewards and
punishment given to them. Interactionist believe that awareness of these issues create a high chance
of leading the students to greater equality in the classroom and better interpretations of life and
themselves.
In their analysis of education, interactionists stress that the best tool to understand education
is through the socialization process. Hence, they believe that it is the duty of the school authorities and
teachers to examine their expectations and social interaction with the students as they are the strong
forces in the making of their students’ character and academic success. They should help the learners
develop a shared system of meanings by providing socialization where the students learn how to
interpret and take part in the social process.
Possible Meanings Constructed By Students in Their School Interaction

Students construct numerous meanings about life through their lives experiences inside the
classroom. The meanings become the guide to which they behave and relate them with their teachers
or fellow student. It also acts as standards to which they define their success or failure in school. Few
examples of possible meanings derived inside the school are elucidates as follows:
1. The teacher-dominated classroom atmosphere makes students form their identity as
passive receivers of knowledge and empty receptacles to be filled with lifeless information by their
teacher. Moreover, this type of set up conveys that knowledge comes only from the teacher, and
students cannot generate their own knowledge.
2. The strict implementation of disciplinary rules and regulations conveys that to succeed in
school, student must become conformist and obedient. Doing the contrary leads to poor grades and
unfavorable experiences with the teacher, principal, security guards, and prefect of discipline.
Students are made to understand that they could not succeed in school if they do not
follow the rules and regulations implemented inside the classroom.
3. The emphasis on testing after teaching implies that students have to learn in order to pass
the test to obtain good grades. Teaching is done for testing, not for the enjoyment of seeking
knowledge and the sublime purpose of learning. Also, using test to discipline students can be
interpreted as a form of punishment to them and not to measure their learning.
4. The common usage of lecture method by the teacher conveys that lecturing is the only and
the best method to teach and learn. In the lecture method, students are expected to listen patiently to
the lecturing teacher, paying attention to every details he says.
5. The dominant use of paper and pencil test to evaluate learning makes the students believe
that the only way to measure and evaluate learning is through written test. It is only through this
assessment that one’s academic performance, skills, and intelligence are determined.
6. The everyday conduct of classes inside the classroom makes the students believe that the
classroom is the only learning place. They do not realize that the world is a huge learning place.
7. The teachers’ inability to integrate concepts in different subjects makes students conclude
that Math, Science, Filipino, English, Social Studies, and other subjects are not interconnected but
simply isolated bits and pieces of instruction.
8. The highly regimented and programmed lessons in school make the students think that they
are not capable of independent learning, without the school and teachers.
Non- Verbal Interaction and Other Symbolic Languages Used In School

In interactionist perspective, the tool people used to develop and modify meanings is through
the use of non-verbal and symbolic language, which may constitute physical social, and abstract
ideas. The stick used by the teachers, for instance, is a symbolic of their power and authority.
Similarly, dropping the names of the university president, principal, and school authorities to demand
compliance and to persuade other members of the academic community reveals the strength of their
power and authority.
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Symbolic languages, such as non-verbal communication (body language), are used during
interactions in school. These are so-called paralanguage, which are used as auxiliary communication
devices of interaction by the teachers. Gestures, glances, slight changes in tone of voice, facial
expression, and postures are examples of paralanguage. These body languages in the classroom may
be direct and explicit. For instance, there is difference between saying: Sit down, be quiet, and finish
your work NOW.” as compared to saying, “Please sit down, be quiet and finish your work.” The first
statement is a direct and explicit display of the teacher’s high regard to personal power in the
classroom; the second manifest the teacher’s indirect command and implicit use of his authority.
Social Dimension of Education by Antonio I. Tamayao, Ph.D 2014 1st edition Rex Bookstore Inc.
RBSI’s 856 Nicanor Reyes Sr. St, Sampaloc, Manila
STRUCTURAL FUNCTIONALISM
A broad historical paradigm in sociology, structural functionalism addresses social
structures in its entirety and in terms of the necessary functions possessed by its constituent elements.
A common parallel used by functionalists, known as the organic or biological analogy[14] (popularized
by Herbert Spencer), is to regard norms and institutions as 'organs' that work toward the proper-
functioning of the entire 'body' of society.[15] The perspective was implicit in the original
sociological positivism of Auguste Comte, but was theorized in full by Durkheim, again with respect to
observable, structural laws.
Functionalism also has an anthropological basis in the work of theorists such as Marcel
Mauss, Bronisław Malinowski, and Alfred Radcliffe-Brown, the latter of whom, through explicit usage,
introduced the "structural" prefix to the concept.[16] Classical functionalist theory is generally united by
its tendency towards the biological analogy and notions of social evolutionism. As Giddens states:
"Functionalist thought, from Comte onwards, has looked particularly towards biology as the science
providing the closest and most compatible model for social science. Biology has been taken to provide
a guide to conceptualizing the structure and the function of social systems and to analyzing processes
of evolution via mechanisms of adaptation…functionalism strongly emphasizes the pre-eminence of
the social world over its individual parts (i.e. its constituent actors, human subjects)."[17]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociological_theory
ADDITIONAL READINGS/INFORMATION: (on Sociological Perspective)

(Adapted from I. Robertson, Sociology, NY: Worth Pub. 1981)
The basic insight of sociology is that human behavior is shaped by the groups to which people
belong and by the social interaction that takes place within those groups. We are who we are and we
behave the way we do because we happen to live in a particular society at a particular point in space
and time. People tend to accept their social world unquestioningly, as something "natural." But the
sociological perspective enables us to see society as a temporary social product, created by human
beings and capable of being changed by them as well.
The sociological perspective invites us to look at our familiar surroundings in a fresh way. It
encourages us to take a new look at the world we have always taken for granted, to examine our
social environment with the same curiosity that we might bring to an exotic foreign culture.
The study of sociology leads us into areas of society that we might otherwise have ignored or
misunderstood. Since our world view is shaped by our personal experience and since people with
different social experiences have different definitions of social reality, sociology helps us to appreciate
viewpoints other than our own and to understand how these viewpoints came into being.
Sociology also helps us understand ourselves better. Without the sociological perspective
(which has been called the "sociological imagination"), people see the world through their limited
experience of a small orbit of family, friends, co-workers. The sociological imagination allows us to
stand apart mentally from our limited experience and see the link between private concerns and social
issues. It permits us to trace the connection between the patterns and events of our own and the
patterns and events of our society.
THE FIRST WISDOM OF SOCIOLOGY I-Things are not what they seem.
(Peter Berger) https://www.geneseo.edu/sociology/about
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Three Major Perspectives in Sociology

Sociologists analyze social phenomena at different levels and from different perspectives.
From concrete interpretations to sweeping generalizations of society and social behavior, sociologists
study everything from specific events (the micro level of analysis of small social patterns) to the “big
picture” (the macro level of analysis of large social patterns).
The pioneering European sociologists, however, also offered a broad conceptualization of the
fundamentals of society and its workings. Their views form the basis for today's theoretical
perspectives, or paradigms, which provide sociologists with an orienting framework—a philosophical
position—for asking certain kinds of questions about society and its people.
Sociologists today employ three primary theoretical perspectives: the symbolic interactionist
perspective, the functionalist perspective, and the conflict perspective. These perspectives offer
sociologists theoretical paradigms for explaining how society influences people, and vice versa. Each
perspective uniquely conceptualizes society, social forces, and human behavior (see Table 1).
Table 1 Sociological Perspective
Sociological Perspective Level of Analysis Focus

1. Symbolic Interactionism Micro Use of symbols: Face to face interactions
Relationship between the parts of society: How aspects of
2. Functionism Macro
society are functional (adaptive)
Competition for scarce resources: How the elite control the
3. Conflict Theory Macro
poor and weak
The symbolic interactionist perspective

The symbolic interactionist perspective, also known as symbolic interactionism, directs
sociologists to consider the symbols and details of everyday life, what these symbols mean, and how
people interact with each other. Although symbolic interactionism traces its origins to Max Weber's
assertion that individuals act according to their interpretation of the meaning of their world, the
American philosopher George H. Mead (1863–1931) introduced this perspective to American
sociology in the 1920s.
According to the symbolic interactionist perspective, people attach meanings to symbols, and
then they act according to their subjective interpretation of these symbols. Verbal conversations, in
which spoken words serve as the predominant symbols, make this subjective interpretation especially
evident. The words have a certain meaning for the “sender,” and, during effective communication, they
hopefully have the same meaning for the “receiver.” In other terms, words are not static “things”; they
require intention and interpretation. Conversation is an interaction of symbols between individuals who
constantly interpret the world around them. Of course, anything can serve as a symbol as long as it
refers to something beyond itself. Written music serves as an example. The black dots and lines
become more than mere marks on the page; they refer to notes organized in such a way as to make
musical sense. Thus, symbolic interactionists give serious thought to how people act, and then seek to
determine what meanings individuals assign to their own actions and symbols, as well as to those of
others.
Consider applying symbolic interactionism to the American institution of marriage. Symbols
may include wedding bands, vows of life‐long commitment, a white bridal dress, a wedding cake, a
Church ceremony, and flowers and music. American society attaches general meanings to these
symbols, but individuals also maintain their own perceptions of what these and other symbols mean.
For example, one of the spouses may see their circular wedding rings as symbolizing “never ending
love,” while the other may see them as a mere financial expense. Much faulty communication can
result from differences in the perception of the same events and symbols.
Critics claim that symbolic interactionism neglects the macro level of social interpretation—the
“big picture.” In other words, symbolic interactionists may miss the larger issues of society by focusing
too closely on the “trees” (for example, the size of the diamond in the wedding ring) rather than the
“forest” (for example, the quality of the marriage). The perspective also receives criticism for slighting
the influence of social forces and institutions on individual interactions.
The functionalist perspective

According to the functionalist perspective, also called functionalism, each aspect of society
is interdependent and contributes to society's functioning as a whole. The government, or state,
provides education for the children of the family, which in turn pays taxes on which the state depends
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to keep itself running. That is, the family is dependent upon the school to help children grow up to have
good jobs so that they can raise and support their own families. In the process, the children become
law‐abiding, taxpaying citizens, who in turn support the state. If all goes well, the parts of society
produce order, stability, and productivity. If all does not go well, the parts of society then must adapt to
recapture a new order, stability, and productivity. For example, during a financial recession with its
high rates of unemployment and inflation, social programs are trimmed or cut. Schools offer fewer
programs. Families tighten their budgets. And a new social order, stability, and productivity occur.
Functionalists believe that society is held together by social consensus, or cohesion, in which
members of the society agree upon, and work together to achieve, what is best for society as a whole.
Emile Durkheim suggested that social consensus takes one of two forms:
 Mechanical solidarity is a form of social cohesion that arises when people in a society
maintain similar values and beliefs and engage in similar types of work. Mechanical solidarity
most commonly occurs in traditional, simple societies such as those in which everyone herds
cattle or farms. Amish society exemplifies mechanical solidarity.
 In contrast, organic solidarity is a form of social cohesion that arises when the people in a
society are interdependent, but hold to varying values and beliefs and engage in varying types
of work. Organic solidarity most commonly occurs in industrialized, complex societies such
those in large American cities like New York in the 2000s.
The functionalist perspective achieved its greatest popularity among American sociologists in
the 1940s and 1950s. While European functionalists originally focused on explaining the inner
workings of social order, American functionalists focused on discovering the functions of human
behavior. Among these American functionalist sociologists is Robert Merton (b. 1910), who divides
human functions into two types: manifest functions are intentional and obvious, while latent
functions are unintentional and not obvious. The manifest function of attending a church or
synagogue, for instance, is to worship as part of a religious community, but its latent function may be
to help members learn to discern personal from institutional values. With common sense, manifest
functions become easily apparent. Yet this is not necessarily the case for latent functions, which often
demand a sociological approach to be revealed. A sociological approach in functionalism is the
consideration of the relationship between the functions of smaller parts and the functions of the whole.
Functionalism has received criticism for neglecting the negative functions of an event such as
divorce. Critics also claim that the perspective justifies the status quo and complacency on the part of
society's members. Functionalism does not encourage people to take an active role in changing their
social environment, even when such change may benefit them. Instead, functionalism sees active
social change as undesirable because the various parts of society will compensate naturally for any
problems that may arise.https://www.cliffsnotes.com/study-guides/sociology/the-sociological-
perspective/three-major-perspectives-in-sociology
Consensus Theories – Functionalism

The sociological perspective, functionalism, developed from the writings of the French
sociologist, Emile Durkheim (1858-1917).Emile Durkheim argued that society was like a human body
(the organic analogy). Society was made up of various institutions that acted like the organs of the
body: they all needed to be functioning properly for the body to function. Problems in one area of
society (such as high levels of crime, for example) could be a symptom of dysfunctions somewhere
else (just as a headache is not always caused by banging your head). In order for society to run
smoothly there has to be the correct balance of social cohesion and social control.
By social cohesion, Durkheim meant the extent to which people in society were bound
together in common purpose. By social control, he meant the extent to which people were prevented
from behaving in an anti-social manner. He believed the good society had neither too little nor too
much of either of these qualities. Too little social cohesion and you have a selfish society where
people do not look out for each other. Too much, and people do not seek personal advancement
which stifles progress. Too little social control and you have lawlessness and chaos. Too much and
you have oppression and tyranny. He argued that this balance was best maintained by consensus: i.e.
agreement.
Critical to functionalism is the idea of socialization. This is the process that creates a value
consensus and therefore social solidarity.
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There are two stages of socialization:

 Primary socialization: learning the particularistic values of family and community through
family (occurs at a young age).
 Secondary socialization: learning the universalistic values of wider society through education,
media and other institutions.
Functionalism is essentially a conservative idea, based on the view that social change is a
gradual process that happens naturally when the consensus shifts.
Key functionalists you might have encountered in other modules or go on to encounter,

include:
 Talcott Parsons
 Davis and Moore
 Young and Wilmott
 Robert Merton
 Walt Rostow
Key functionalist ideas include:
 Organic change (rather than radical change)
 Meritocracy (people achieve their position in society through effort and ability, rather than
through inheritance)
 Social institutions have positive functions
https://www.tutor2u.net/sociology/reference/what-is-functionalism
The conflict perspective

The conflict perspective, which originated primarily out of Karl Marx's writings on class
struggles, presents society in a different light than do the functionalist and symbolic interactionist
perspectives. While these latter perspectives focus on the positive aspects of society that contribute to
its stability, the conflict perspective focuses on the negative, conflicted, and ever‐changing nature of
society. Unlike functionalists who defend the status quo, avoid social change, and believe people
cooperate to effect social order, conflict theorists challenge the status quo, encourage social change
(even when this means social revolution), and believe rich and powerful people force social order on
the poor and the weak. Conflict theorists, for example, may interpret an “elite” board of regents raising
tuition to pay for esoteric new programs that raise the prestige of a local college as self‐serving rather
than as beneficial for students.
Whereas American sociologists in the 1940s and 1950s generally ignored the conflict
perspective in favor of the functionalist, the tumultuous 1960s saw American sociologists gain
considerable interest in conflict theory. They also expanded Marx's idea that the key conflict in society
was strictly economic. Today, conflict theorists find social conflict between any groups in which the
potential for inequality exists: racial, gender, religious, political, economic, and so on. Conflict theorists
note that unequal groups usually have conflicting values and agendas, causing them to compete
against one another. This constant competition between groups forms the basis for the ever‐changing
nature of society.
Critics of the conflict perspective point to its overly negative view of society. The theory
ultimately attributes humanitarian efforts, altruism, democracy, civil rights, and other positive aspects
of society to capitalistic designs to control the masses, not to inherent interests in preserving society
and social order.
https://www.cliffsnotes.com/study-guides/sociology/the-sociological-perspective/three-major-
perspectives-in-sociology
Theoretical Perspectives
Three theoretical perspectives guide sociological thinking on social problems: functionalist
theory, conflict theory, and symbolic interactionist theory. These perspectives look at the same social
problems, but they do so in different ways. Their views taken together offer a fuller understanding of
social problems than any of the views can offer alone. Table 1.1 “Theory Snapshot” summarizes the
three perspectives.
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Table 1.1 Theory Snapshot

Theoretical
Major assumptions Views of social problems
perspective
Social stability is necessary for a

Social problems weaken a society’s stability
strong society, and adequate
but do not reflect fundamental faults in how
socialization and social integration
the society is structured. Solutions to social
are necessary for social stability.
problems should take the form of gradual
Functionalism Society’s social institutions perform
social reform rather than sudden and far-
important functions to help ensure
reaching change. Despite their negative
social stability. Slow social change
effects, social problems often also serve
is desirable, but rapid social change
important functions for society.
threatens social order.
Society is characterized by Social problems arise from fundamental

pervasive inequality based on social faults in the structure of a society and both
class, race, gender, and other reflect and reinforce inequalities based on
Conflict theory factors. Far-reaching social change social class, race, gender, and other
is needed to reduce or eliminate dimensions. Successful solutions to social
social inequality and to create an problems must involve far-reaching change
egalitarian society. in the structure of society.
People construct their roles as they

interact; they do not merely learn
the roles that society has set out for
them. As this interaction occurs, Social problems arise from the interaction
individuals negotiate their definitions of individuals. People who engage in
Symbolic of the situations in which they find socially problematic behaviors often learn
interactionism themselves and socially construct these behaviors from other people.
the reality of these situations. In so Individuals also learn their perceptions of
doing, they rely heavily on symbols social problems from other people.
such as words and gestures to
reach a shared understanding of
their interaction.
Functionalism, also known as the functionalist theory or perspective, arose out of two great
revolutions of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. The first was the French Revolution of 1789,
whose intense violence and bloody terror shook Europe to its core. The aristocracy throughout Europe
feared that revolution would spread to their own lands, and intellectuals feared that social order was
crumbling.
The Industrial Revolution of the nineteenth century reinforced these concerns. Starting first in
Europe and then in the United States, the Industrial Revolution led to many changes, including the rise
and growth of cities as people left their farms to live near factories. As the cities grew, people lived in
increasingly poor, crowded, and decrepit conditions, and crime was rampant. Here was additional
evidence, if European intellectuals needed it, of the breakdown of social order.
In response, the intellectuals began to write that a strong society, as exemplified by strong social
bonds and rules and effective socialization, was needed to prevent social order from disintegrating.
Without a strong society and effective socialization, they warned, social order breaks down, and
violence and other signs of social disorder result.
This general framework reached fruition in the writings of Émile Durkheim (1858–1917), a
French scholar largely responsible for the sociological perspective, as we now know it. Adopting the
conservative intellectuals’ view of the need for a strong society, Durkheim felt that human beings have
desires that result in chaos unless society limits them (Durkheim, 1952). It does so, he wrote, through
two related social mechanisms: socialization and social integration. Socialization helps us learn
society’s rules and the need to cooperate, as people end up generally agreeing on important norms
and values, while social integration, or our ties to other people and to social institutions such as
religion and the family, helps socialize us and integrate us into society and reinforce our respect for its
rules.
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Today’s functionalist perspective arises out of Durkheim’s work and that of other conservative
intellectuals of the nineteenth century. It uses the human body as a model for understanding society.
In the human body, our various organs and other body parts serve important functions for the ongoing
health and stability of our body. Our eyes help us see, our ears help us hear, our heart circulates our
blood, and so forth. Just as we can understand the body by describing and understanding the
functions that its parts serve for its health and stability, so can we understand society by describing
and understanding the functions that its parts—or, more accurately, its social institutions—serve for
the ongoing health and stability of society. Thus functionalism emphasizes the importance of social
institutions such as the family, religion, and education for producing a stable society.
2. SCHOOLS AND SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS
SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS
Social institutions have been created by man from social relationships in society to meet such
basic needs as stability, law and order and clearly defined roles of authority and decision making.
Every organization is dependent upon certain recognized and established set of rules,
traditions and usages. These usages and rules may be given the name of institutions. These are the
forms of procedure which are recognized and accepted by society and govern the relations between
individuals and groups.
Definition
Wood ward and Maxwell: An institution is a set of folkways and mores into a unit which serves
a number of social functions.
Horton: An institution is an organized system of social relationships which embodies certain
common values and procedures and meets certain basic needs of society.
Landis: Social institutions are formal cultural structures devised to meet basic social needs.
Characteristics
i. Institutions are the means of controlling individuals.
ii. Institutions depend upon the collective activities of men.
iii. The institution has some definite procedures which are formed on the basis of customs and
dogmas.
iv. Institution is more stable than other means of social control.
v. Every institution has some rules which must be compulsorily obeyed by the individual.in rural
Five major institutions in sociology are political, educational, economic, family and religion.
1. Political: Government as political institution, administers the regulatory functions of Law and order,
and maintains security in society. Form of government and its method of working depends on the
accepted patterns of behavior in a society. Development work is now-a-days a major responsibility of
the government. For effective implementation of programs, government may decentralize its
functioning by creating local self-government like panchayats at different level.
2. Education: is the process of socialization, which begins informally at home and then formally in
educational institutions. Education as an institution helps develop knowledge, skill, attitude and
understanding of the people and strive to make them competent members of the society. Education
widens the mental horizon of the people and make them receptive to new ideas.
3. Economic: Economy provides basic physical sustenance of the society by meeting the needs for
food, shelter, clothing, and other necessary supply and services. Economic institutions include
agriculture, industry, marketing, credit and banking system, co-operatives etc.
4. Family: is the most basic social institution in a society, and is a system of organized relationship
involving workable and dependable ways of meeting basic social needs.
 Family is defined by Burgress and Locke as a group of persons united by the ties of marriage,
blood or adoption; constituting a single household, interacting and inter communicating with
each other in their respective social roles of husband and wife, mother and father, son and
daughter, brother and sister, creating a common culture.
 Eliott and Merrill defined the family as "the biological social unit composed of husband, wife
and children".
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Characteristics of family
Family is the most universal group. Family is classified based on structure (patriarchal or
matriarchal) and residence.
1.) Patriarchal family

It is the family where male is the head of family inclusive of powers. He is the owner and
administrator of the family property and right. To him all persons living in the family are
subordinated.
2.) Matriarchal family

The authority vests in the woman head of the family. The male is subordinated to her. She is
the owner of property and rules over family. This type of family is said to prevail among the
primitive people, who led a wandering or hunting life.
3.) Based on residence the family is classified as

a) Matrilocal family: In this type of family husband goes to live in the house of his wife.
b) Patrilocal family: Wife goes and lives in the house of her husband.
4.) Based on the marriage the family is classified as:

i. Monogamous family: In which man marries one woman only at one time.
ii. Polygamous family: In this kind of family one man marries many women at one time.
iii. Polyandrous family: In. this kind of family one man marries many women and lives with all
of them or each of them alternatively.
5.) The family is also classified based on ancestry as follows:

i. Matrilineal family: Here woman is believed to be the ancestor of the family.
ii. Patrilineal family: Here the ancestry continues through the father.
5. Religion: -is belief in supernatural. Religion constitutes a set of beliefs regarding the ultimate power
in the universe, the ideal and proper pattern of behavior, and ceremonial ways to expressing these
beliefs. Religion also provides a foundation for the mores of the society. Taboos in various cultures
have religious sanction. Religion provides a means by which individuals can face crises and ups and
downs in life with strength and fortitude.
Function
1.) Sex regulation.
2.) Reproduction and perpetuation of the family and human race.
3.) Socialization
4.) Provision of economic maintenance and livelihood in many cultures.
5.) Provision of love, affection and security to the individual.
6.) Provision of class status to the individual of the family into which he has been born.
http://eagri.org/eagri50/AEXT391/lec07.pdf
ADDITIONAL READINGS AND INFORMATION (on School as a Social Institution)

How Is the School a Social Institution?
Education in the largest sense is any act or experience that has a formative effect on the mind,
character physical ability of an individual.
In its technical sense, education is the process by which society deliberately transmits its accumulated
knowledge, skills and values from one generation to another.
School is first and foremost a social institution
• established organization
• that has an identifiable structure
• a set of functions for preserving and extending social order
• primary function-to move young people into the mainstream of society
https://prezi.com/dd4z6qrqs4sp/school-as-a-social-
institution/#:~:text=Education%20prepares%20young%20people%20for,thus%20a%20form%20of%
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20socialization.&text=1530s%2C%20from%20L.&text=Social%20institutions%20are%20an%20imp
ortant,particular%20part%20of%20social%20life.
Social Institutions
A social institution is a complex, integrated set of social norms organized around the
preservation of a basic societal value. Obviously, the sociologist does not define institutions in the
same way, as does the person on the street. Laypersons are likely to use the term "institution" very
loosely, for churches, hospitals, jails, and many other things as institutions. According to Sumner and
Keller institution is a vital interest or activity that is surrounded by a cluster of mores and folkways.
Sumner conceived of the institution not only of the concept, idea or interest but of a institution as well.
By structure he meant an apparatus or a group of functionaries. Lester F Ward regarded an institution
as the means for the control and utilization of the social energy .L.T Hobhouse describe institution as
the whole or any part of the established and recognized apparatus of social life. Robert Maclver
regarded institution as established forms or conditions of procedure characteristic of group activity.
Sociologists agree that institutions arise and persist because of a definite felt need of the
members of the society. While there is essential agreement on the general origin of institutions,
sociologists have differed about the specific motivating factors. Sumner and Keller maintained that
institutions come into existence to satisfy vital interests of man. Ward believed that they arise
because of social demand or social necessity. Lewis H Morgan ascribed the basis of every institution
to what he called a perpetual want.
Primary Institutions
Sociologists often reserve the term "institution" to describe normative systems that operate in
five basic areas of life, which may be designated as the primary institutions.
(1) In determining Kinship;
(2) in providing for the legitimate use of power;
(3) in regulating the distribution of goods and services;
(4) in transmitting knowledge from one generation to the next; and
(5) in regulating our relation to the supernatural.
In shorthand form, or as concepts, these five basic institutions are called the family,
government, economy, education and religion.
The five primary institutions are found among all human groups. They are not always as highly
elaborated or as distinct from one another but in rudimentary form at last, they exist everywhere.
Their universality indicates that they are deeply rooted in human nature and that they are essential in
the development and maintenance of orders.
EDUCATION 4.0: RESPONDING TO THE DEMANDS OF SOCIETY
Education 4.0. . The future of learning will be dramatically different, in school and throughout
life. Global connectivity, smart machines, and new media are just some of the drivers reshaping how
we think about work, what constitutes work, and how we learn and develop the skills to work in the
future. The concept of a “100 year life” becoming the norm, and the majority of that spent studying and
working, means that learning will be a lot more important, and different, for the next generations. Most
people will have at least 6 different careers, requiring fundamental reeducating, whilst the relentless
speed of innovation will constantly demand new skills and knowledge to keep pace, let alone an edge.
I recently delivered a keynote on “Changing the Game of Education” … a vision for the future of
education, from schools to lifelong learning … how it will evolve, the drivers, inspirations and what will
matter most.
Educationalists debate the many ways in which the content of education – at all levels – and
the process of learning, will need to change over the years ahead. Disruptive innovation guru Clay
Christiansen, for example, points to the dramatic unbundling of education from its current forms so that
it can be personalized, repackaging, peer to peer and continuous. Whether it is classroom or
workplace, online or offline, structured or unstructured, taught or learnt, standardized or not,
certificated or not, then learning is likely to break free from our old mindsets in the coming years.
“Education 4.0” is my vision for the future of education, which
 responds to the needs of “industry 4.0” or the fourth industrial revolution, where man and
machine align to enable new possibilities
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 harnesses the potential of digital technologies, personalized data, open sourced content, and
the new humanity of this globally-connected, technology-fueled world
 establishes a blueprint for the future of learning – lifelong learning – from childhood schooling,
to continuous learning in the workplace, to learning to play a better role in society.
“Changing the game” is all about redefining the way an activity works. In general, it’s about
 who are the companies right now who are reshaping their industries, challenging the old rules
and creating new ones, new ways of working, new ways of winning
 in my Game changers book I explored 100 of them – they are audacious, harnessing the
power of ideas and networks to be intelligent, collaborative, and enabling people to achieve
more.
 taking the principles of how these companies change the game – how can we apply that to the
“The future of education” is therefore a new vision for learning, starting right now
 more important to know why you need something, a knowledge or skill, and then where to
find it – rather than cramming your head full … don’t try to learn everything!
 built around each individual, their personal choice of where and how to learn, and tracking of
performance through data-based customization … whatever sits you
 learning together and from each other – peer to peer learning will dominate, teachers more
as facilitators, of communities built around shared learning and aspiration.
Among the many discussions, innovations and general shifts in the world of learning – from
school children to business executive – there are 9 trends that stand out:
Diverse time and place.
Students will have more opportunities to learn at different times in different places. e-Learning
tools facilitate opportunities for remote, self-paced learning. Classrooms will be flipped, which means
the theoretical part is learned outside the classroom, whereas the practical part shall be taught face to
face, interactively.
Personalized learning.
Students will learn with study tools that adapt to the capabilities of a student. This means
above average students shall be challenged with harder tasks and questions when a certain level is
achieved. Students who experience difficulties with a subject will get the opportunity to practice more
until they reach the required level. Students will be positively reinforced during their individual learning
processes. This can result in to positive learning experiences and will diminish the amount of students
losing confidence about their academic abilities. Furthermore, teachers will be able to see clearly
which students need help in which areas.
Free choice.
Though every subject that is taught aims for the same destination, the road leading towards
that destination can vary per student. Similarly to the personalized learning experience, students will
be able to modify their learning process with tools they feel are necessary for them. Students will learn
with different devices, different programs and techniques based on their own preference. Blended
learning, flipped classrooms and BYOD (Bring Your Own Device) form important terminology within
this change.
Project based.
As careers are adapting to the future freelance economy, students of today will adapt to
project based learning and working. This means they have to learn how to apply their skills in shorter
terms to a variety of situations. Students should already get acquainted with project based learning in
high school. This is when organizational, collaborative, and time management skills can be taught as
basics that every student can use in their further academic careers.
Field experience.
Because technology can facilitate more efficiency in certain domains, curricula will make room
for skills that solely require human knowledge and face-to-face interaction. Thus, experience in ‘the
field’ will be emphasized within courses. Schools will provide more opportunities for students to
obtain real-world skills that are representative to their jobs. This means curricula will create more room
for students to fulfill internships, mentoring projects and collaboration projects (e.g.).
Data interpretation.
Though mathematics is considered one of three literacies, it is without a doubt that the manual
part of this literacy will become irrelevant in the near future. Computers will soon take care of every
statistical analysis, and describe and analyze data and predict future trends. Therefore, the human
interpretation of these data will become a much more important part of the future curricula. Applying
the theoretical knowledge to numbers, and using human reasoning to infer logic and trends from these
data will become a fundamental new aspect of this literacy.
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Exams will change completely.

As courseware platforms will assess students capabilities at each step, measuring their
competencies through Q&A might become irrelevant, or might not suffice. Many argue that exams are
now designed in such a way, that students cram their materials, and forget the next day. Educators
worry that exams might not validly measure what students should be capable of when they enter their
first job. As the factual knowledge of a student can be measured during their learning process, the
application of their knowledge is best tested when they work on projects in the field.
Student ownership.
Students will become more and more involved in forming their curricula. Maintaining a
curriculum that is contemporary, up-to-date and useful is only realistic when professionals as well as
‘youngsters’ are involved. Critical input from students on the content and durability of their courses is a
must for an all-embracing study program.
Mentoring will become more important.
In 20 years, students will incorporate so much independence in to their learning process, that
mentoring will become fundamental to student success. Teachers will form a central point in the jungle
of information that our students will be paving their way through. Though the future of education seems
remote, the teacher and educational institution are vital to academic performance.
These are exciting, provocative and potentially far-reaching challenges. For individuals and society,
new educational tools and resources hold the promise of empowering individuals to develop a fuller
array of competencies, skills and knowledge and of unleashing their creative potential.
Indeed, many of the changes underway call to mind the evocative words of Irish poet William Butler
Yeats that, “Education is not about filling a bucket but lighting a fire.”
Technology has become integrated into virtually every aspect of work. And because we spend so
much time working, work really is the place where we most directly feel the impact of developing
technologies. From collaboration to productivity; from new ways of approaching workspace design to
the increasing ability to work from virtually anywhere; and from hiring and recruitment to new skill
sets—it is a time of experimentation for companies and organizations as trends in technology
converge to change what it means to work. Peter Fisk January 24, 2017 https://www.thegeniuswork
s.com/2017/01/future-education-young-everyone-taught-together/()
ADDITIONAL READINGS/INFORMATION (on Education 4.0)

Everything You Need to Know About Education 4.0 (November 5th, 2019)
In order to prepare future graduates for work, universities must align their teaching and
processes with technological advancements. In the new millennium, technology began to infiltrate the
education process, and both students and teachers started to utilize technology in basic ways
(otherwise known as Education 2.0).
As this technology advanced, including the mass infiltration of a more user-generated
internet, Education 3.0 was formed. Students now had their own access to information, the option to
learn virtually, and platforms to easily connect with faculty and other students.
Education was no longer centered upon a back and forth between students and teachers, but
instead took on a more networked approach, with students having their own direct connection to a
variety of different information sources. This encouraged the development of a more personalized way
of learning where the student’s independence and unique approach to study was celebrated.
However, we’re now on the cusp of a new phase; Education 4.0.
What is Education 4.0?

Education 4.0 is a desired approach to learning that aligns itself with the emerging fourth
industrial revolution. This industrial revolution focuses on smart technology, artificial intelligence, and
robotics; all of which now impact our everyday lives. For universities to continue to produce successful
graduates, they must prepare their students for a world where these cyber-physical systems are
prevalent across all industries. This means teaching students about this technology as part of the
curriculum, changing the approach to learning altogether, and utilizing this technology to better
improve the university experience.
Preparing students for evolving industries

Cyber-physical systems are steadily becoming more integrated into various industries,
inevitably affecting the skills requirements for employees.
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Research by McKinsey Digital revealed that due to the fourth industrial revolution 60% of all
occupations could potentially have at least a third of their activities automated.
The topic of how artificial intelligence might affect jobs in the future was explored in our previous
blog: How will Artificial Intelligence Influence the Global Higher Education Sector?
However, there is much more to consider than the potential disruption to the hard skills required for
various job roles.
The fourth industrial revolution will also impact the soft skills that students will need in the
future. In 2016, the World Economic Forum produced a report exploring these changes. They
predicted that by 2020, “more than a third of the desired core skill sets of most occupations will be
comprised of skills that are not yet considered crucial to the job today.”
Some of the soft skills they claim will soon become indispensable include complex problem solving,
social skills, and process skills.
Technology also allows us to be constantly connected, and as a result, job roles are steadily becoming
more flexible and adaptable.
Education 4.0 is about evolving with the times, and for higher education institutions, this
means understanding what is required of their future graduates.
A new approach to learning

By aligning teaching and learning methods with the skills needed in the future, universities can
be sure they are successfully preparing their students for the fourth industrial revolution. One method
of doing so is by encouraging accelerated remote learning, which is the idea that students will learn
theoretical knowledge remotely using digital means, whilst ensuring any practical skills are still learnt
face-to-face.
This is a more flexible way of learning that requires accountability and good time
management; skills that will be relied on due to the rise in the freelance economy.
The move towards this way of working will also require students to learn how to adapt quickly to new
situations they may face in their evolving careers.
Project-based learning highlights the importance of studying a wide set of skills that can then
be applied to each scenario, as opposed to sticking to a set of skills directly linked to a specific job
role. Learning practices such as SCALE-UP are increasing in popularity, with institutions such
as North Carolina State University utilizing the practice.
A SCALE-UP way of learning has students sit at round tables scattered across the room, allowing the
teacher to freely walk through the space and approach students if necessary.
With this way of learning students are also “working out problems on laptops and whiteboards,
answering real-time quiz questions, and helping each other learn.”
The approach to exams and assessments will also change, moving away from the traditional
method of absorbing and relaying a vast amount of information; skills not as necessary in the future.
We may see students assessed instead “by analyzing their learning journey through practical and
experiential learning-based projects or field works.”
Of course, the biggest change we are likely to see as part of Education 4.0 is a deeper fusion of
technology into the teaching process. The ultimate purpose of utilizing this technology and
adopting new methods is to place students at the center of the education process, “shifting the focus
from teaching to learning.”
Adapting to new realities

Higher education institutions are moving towards a more personalized way of learning.
By utilizing data and tracking student performance, universities will be able to identify struggling
students and provide optimized learning strategies to suit their needs. The various ways data is being
used by universities is explored in more detail in our white paper: Your A-Z Guide to Data in Higher
Education.
Education 4.0 embraces this advance in analytics and uses it to treat each student as an
individual, understanding that everyone’s learning needs and desired outcomes will be different.
There have also been talks of entirely customizable degrees, whereby a student doesn’t have to pick
just one or two subjects to study, but instead can select modules from multiple programs.
There are some, however, who aren’t yet convinced by this approach and view this move away from
the traditional degree structure as problematic.
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For example, Oxford Professor of Higher Education, Simon Marginson, believes that, “as long
as they retain fixed curricula, flexibility makes other institutions look of lower quality.” Yet the new
approach to program structure is likely to create more versatile, well-rounded students who can adapt
themselves to various career options; something that will be extremely valuable in the future.
Regardless, in order to produce graduates who are prepared to take on the future state of
employment, universities must evolve, and accept that changes to some traditional processes are
inevitable. Frances James Birkbeck University.https://www.qs.com/everything-you-need-to-know-
education-40/
C. EDUCATIONAL REFORMS: THE K TO 12 CURRICULUM
President Aquino Signs K+12 Program into Law

In a historic moment for advocates of educational equity, President Benigno Aquino III
approved Republic Act (RA) 10533, signing into law the K+12 program on May 15, 2013.
The K+12 program covers kindergarten and twelve years of basic education — six years of
primary schooling, four years of junior high school and two years of senior high school. By adding two
years to the current educational system, K+12 aims to provide mastery of skills for lifelong learners
and prepare them for career opportunities. The program also contextualizes lessons to students, as
concepts will be explained using local culture with the use of the students’ respective mother tongues.
The curriculum also prepares graduates to acquire mid-level skills that will allow them more
opportunities even in the global job market.
During the signing ceremony, President Aquino stated that the K+12 program that “this law will
empower the next generation of Filipinos”. Teach for the Philippines shares that vision as we leave our
mark on our country through our goal of achieving educational equity.
https://teachforthephilippines.com/our_press/president-aquino-signs-k12-into-law/
Reforms in the Philippine education system: The K to 12 Program

By Cyril John Barlongo May 26, 2015
Each classes, three school hours per session is only being accommodated for they are lacking
in classrooms. The question is what a student can learn from a three-hour class. The Philippine
educational system is faced with a slew of problems, including lack of classrooms, dilapidated school
buildings and shortage of teachers.
QUALITY education is viewed as any country’s pillar of success. Restructuring the
Philippines’s basic educational system through the K to 12 Program is a tough but strategic move by
the government to ensure that it produces competent graduates who can serve as the backbone for a
highly skilled and employable work force.
Introduced in 2011 by the Department of Education (DepEd), headed by Secretary Armin
Luistro, FSJ, the K to 12 Program made kindergarten a prerequisite to basic education. It lengthened
basic schooling to include a two-year senior high school and offered technical and vocational courses
to students not planning to go to college, thus giving them more chances of getting employed in blue-
collar work.
The program replaced the 10-year basic education curriculum, which consisted of six years in
grade school and four years in high school that concentrated on the English language and Filipino, the
sciences, arithmetic and mathematics, and the social sciences.
It also incorporated these basic lessons to include basic science and technology, engineering,
mathematics, accountancy, business and management, humanities and social sciences, and general
academic courses such as technical-vocational-livelihood, arts and design, and sports.
The implementation of the program has aroused fear among 13,600 teachers and 11,400
nonteaching staff in higher education institutions (HEIs) that they would end up losing their jobs due to
the lack of college enrollees.
Petitions have been submitted to the Supreme Court to suspend the program because
politicians and groups find the new system as insufficient preparation for life after school.
Lack of infrastructure is also one of the issues confronting the DepEd prior to and during the initial
implementation of the program. Needed for the new curriculum are 30,000 new classrooms; 30,000
new teachers; and 6,000 nonteaching staff.
Like most government endeavors, public education cannot succeed without the support of the
private sector. With the help of companies and business groups, programs by the government are
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important in building a strong future for the country that would enhance our competitiveness in the
global community and would advance the competencies of Filipino graduates to stand at par with
global practices and be equipped with relevant skills and knowledge in their chosen professions.
Different programs will give the youth a steady and confident footing in pursuing a career that will
empower them to become able and productive participants in the shared task of nation-building.
Toward this end, business organizations have been supporting the K to 12 Program on its
continued and proper reform implementation. Consistent support has been provided by the Makati
Business Club, Philippine Business for Education (PBEd), Philippine Chamber of Commerce and
Industry, Management Association of the Philippines, the Information Technology and Business
Process Association of the Philippines, Employers Confederation of the Philippines, American
Chamber of Commerce of the Philippines, German-Philippine Chamber of Commerce and Industry,
and the Australia-New Zealand Chamber of Commerce of the Philippines.
Studies have repeatedly shown that “more schooling leads to a higher income, averaging a
10-percent increase for every additional year in school.” The League of Cities of the Philippines has
also expressed its full and unwavering support for the flagship education reform of the Aquino
administration, led by Quezon City Mayor Herbert Bautista.
Quality education is the best that the country can offer, a call that leads to quality employment
for a better quality of life. Hence, lawmakers should still be in the lookout for potential advancements in
the current status of our education system. As of January 2015, the Philippine Statistics Authority
Labor Force Survey showed a 6.6-percent unemployment rate from 7.5 percent the previous year.
Meanwhile, the survey also showed employment grew to 93.4 percent, up from 92.5 percent the
preceding year.
If industries, members of academe and society as a whole can work concertedly toward
empowering the students with global-standard competencies, the country’s employment rate will
improve further. Despite the massive number of graduates the country’s institutions of higher learning
produce annually, not all possess the life skills needed to enter and become productive members of
the work force.
Workers in the services sector dominated the largest proportion by 54.6 percent, comprised of
those engaged in wholesale and retail trade, or in the repair of motor vehicles as the largest
percentage. Meanwhile, workers in the agriculture and industry sector comprised the second and the
smallest group with 29.5 percent and 15.9 percent, respectively. Laborers and unskilled workers have
remained in the largest group, accounting for 31 percent.
Due to financial reasons, many high-school graduates today cannot proceed to college, which
contributes to the aggregate of about 15 million out-of-school youth, according to PBEd. The nonprofit
organization proposes a voucher system to the DepEd and Commission for Higher Education (CHED)
to give out-of-school youth a chance to pursue tertiary education. According to PBEd, the Unified
Financial Assistance System for Higher and Technical Education (UniFAST) and the Tertiary
Education Transition Fund (TETF) will facilitate the funding for the program if Congress will pass the
two bills into law. The UniFAST bill will harmonize government scholarships, grants-in-aid and loan
programs, while the TETF bill, in turn, will establish a development and welfare fund, PBEd says. The
UniFAST bill has been approved on third and final reading in the House of Representatives and on
second reading at the Senate.
The community where the students live is a key factor in collective assistance and
encouragement. With the help of volunteers through the DepEd’s Brigada Eskuwela program, the
public and private sectors unite to provide services and resources through the repair and ensuring the
safety and cleanliness of classrooms and schools for the opening of public schools this June.
The program brings together teachers, parents, community members and stakeholders every
third week of May in an effort to maximize civil participation and utilize local resources to prepare
public schools for the opening of classes. During the long week event, volunteers take time doing
minor repairs, painting and cleaning of school campuses.
The program has become the DepEd’s model of genuine public and private partnership to
curb challenges that Philippine education is facing and serves as one of its front-line initiatives.
The Gulayan sa Paaralan Program of the DepEd, which began in 2007, also helps to address child
malnutrition among elementary students. The crops harvested from school gardens, which were also
planted by the students, are used to sustain the school’s feeding programs. Children lacking proper
nutrients have lesser energy, physically and mentally, hence are unable to fully participate in class.
Because of significant inflation in the country and improvement of facilities, private institutions
have raised their tuition in 313 private colleges and universities for the coming school year, slightly
higher than the 287 HEIs allowed by the CHED last year, for an increase in tuition and other fees.
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The CHED said that of the 313 schools, only 283 HEIs were allowed to increase tuition, 212
would increase other fees, and 182 out of 313 schools were allowed to increase both tuition and other
school fees. Despite the higher number compared to that of last year, the increases were lower from
an average of P35.66 per unit to P29.86. Other school fees were also lowered to P135.60 from
P141.55 last year. Due to Super typhoon Yolanda that devastated a wide swath of land in Eastern
Visayas in 2013, the CHED did not approve any application from the schools affected to increase
tuition and other school fees.
As no applications were submitted to CHED, no increases were imposed in the provinces of
Batanes, Cagayan, Isabela, Nueva Vizcaya and Quirino in Region 2; Albay, Camarines Norte,
Camarines Sur, Catanduanes, Masbate and Sorsogon in Region 5; Bohol, Cebu, Negros Oriental and
Siquijor in Region 7; Camiguin, Misamis Oriental, Lanao del Norte, Bukidnon and Misamis Occidental
in Region 10.
For a program to go through, right appropriation is essential to deliver a smooth program
implementation. Mandated by the Philippine Constitution, the government must allocate the highest
proportion of its budgetary needs to education. As part of the Aquino administration vow, of the
P2.606-trilliion national budget, the Department of Budget and Management (DBM) allocated P367.1
billion for the DepEd, the highest among the government agencies. The 2015 budget increased by
18.6 percent from last year.
Among the DepEd’s programs are Abot-Alam Program, Alternative Delivery Mode Projector e-
IMPACT, Basic Education Madrasah Program, Computerization Program, Redesigned Technical-
Vocational High School Program and Government Assistance to Students and Teachers in Private
Education.
Modernizing the higher public education system is an integral part of making school facilities a
conducive environment for students to learn. Hence, to improve the country’s state universities and
colleges (SUCs), a total of P44.4 billion was allocated to the SUCs, 16.8 percent higher from last year.
The P2.5-billion allocation is designed to aid 40,453 Pantawid Pamilyang Pilipino Program
beneficiaries.To aid students who want to earn a college degree, the DBM allotted P7.9 billion for
scholarship grants and financial assistance. Under this allocation, the CHED’s Students Financial
Assistance Program was appropriated a total of P763 million that will help 54,208 students nationwide.
https://businessmirror.com.ph/2015/05/26/reforms-in-the-philippine-education-system-the-k-to-12-
program/
ADDITIONAL READINGS/Information (on the K-12 Curriculum)

WHAT IS K TO 12 PROGRAM?
Naninindigan pa rin po tayo sa ipinangako nating pagbabago sa edukasyon: ang gawin itong sentral
na estratehiya sa pamumuhunan sa pinakamahalaga nating yaman: ang mamamayang Pilipino. Sa K
to 12, tiwala tayong mabibigyang-lakas si Juan dela Cruz upang mapaunlad—hindi lamang ang
kanyang sarili at pamilya—kundi maging ang buong bansa. – Pangulong Benigno S. Aquino III
The K to 12 Program covers Kindergarten and 12 years of basic education (six years of primary
education, four years of Junior High School, and two years of Senior High School [SHS]) to
provide sufficient time for mastery of concepts and skills, develop lifelong learners, and prepare
graduates for tertiary education, middle
SALIENT FEATURES
Building proficiency through language (mother tongue-based multilingual education)
Gearing up for the future (senior high school)
Nurturing the holistically developed Filipino (college and livelihood readiness, let century skills)
STRENGTHENING EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION (UNIVERSAL KINDERGARTEN)

Every Filipino child now has access to early childhood education through Universal
Kindergarten. At 5 years old, children start schooling and are given the means to slowly adjust to
formal education. Research shows that children who underwent Kindergarten have better completion
rates than those who did not. Children who complete a standards-based Kindergarten program are
better prepared, for primary education.
Education for children in the early years lays the foundation for lifelong learning and for the
total development of a child. The early years of a human being, from 0 to 6 years, are the most critical
period when the brain grows to at least 60-70 percent of adult size..[Ref: K to 12 Toolkit]
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In Kindergarten, students learn the alphabet, numbers, shapes, and colors through games, songs, and
dances, in their Mother Tongue.
MAKING THE CURRICULUM RELEVANT TO LEARNERS (CONTEXTUALIZATION AND

ENHANCEMENT)
Examples, activities, songs, poems, stories, and illustrations are based on local culture,
history, and reality. This makes the lessons relevant to the learners and easy to understand.
Students acquire in-depth knowledge, skills, values, and attitudes through continuity and consistency
across all levels and subjects. Discussions on issues such as Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR), Climate
Change Adaptation, and Information & Communication Technology (ICT) are included in the enhanced
curriculum.
BUILDING PROFICIENCY THROUGH LANGUAGE (MOTHER TONGUE-BASED MULTILINGUAL

EDUCATION)
Students are able to learn best through their first language, their Mother Tongue (MT). Twelve
(12) MT languages have been introduced for SY 2012-2013: Bahasa Sug, Bikol, Cebuano,
Chabacano, Hiligaynon, Iloko, Kapampangan, Maguindanaoan, Meranao, Pangasinense, Tagalog,
and Waray. Other local languages will be added in succeeding school years. Aside from the Mother
Tongue, English and Filipino are taught as subjects starting Grade 1, with a focus on oral fluency.
From Grades 4 to 6, English and Filipino are gradually introduced as languages of instruction. Both will
become primary languages of instruction in Junior High School (JHS) and Senior High School (SHS).
After Grade 1, every student can read in his or her Mother Tongue. Learning in Mother Tongue also
serves as the foundation for students to learn Filipino and English easily.
ENSURING INTEGRATED AND SEAMLESS LEARNING (SPIRAL PROGRESSION)

Subjects are taught from the simplest concepts to more complicated concepts through grade
levels in spiral progression. As early as elementary, students gain knowledge in areas such as
Biology, Geometry, Earth Science, Chemistry, and Algebra. This ensures a mastery of knowledge and
skills after each level. For example, currently in High School, Biology is taught in 2nd Year, Chemistry
in 3rd Year, and Physics in 4th Year. In K to 12, these subjects are connected and integrated from
Grades 7 to 10. This same method is used in other Learning Areas like Math
GEARING UP FOR THE FUTURE (SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL)

Senior High School is two years of specialized upper secondary education; students may
choose a specialization based on aptitude, interests, and school capacity. The choice of career track
will define the content of the subjects a student will take in Grades 11 and 12. SHS subjects fall under
either the Core Curriculum or specific Tracks.
CORE CURRICULUM
There are seven Learning Areas under the Core Curriculum. These are Languages, Literature,
Communication, Mathematics, Philosophy, Natural Sciences, and Social Sciences. Current content
from some General Education subjects are embedded in the SHS curriculum.
TRACKS
Each student in Senior High School can choose among three tracks: Academic; Technical-
Vocational-Livelihood; and Sports and Arts. The Academic track includes three strands: Business,
Accountancy, Management (BAM); Humanities, Education, Social Sciences (HESS); and Science,
Technology, Engineering, Mathematics (STEM). Students undergo immersion, which may include
earn-while-you-learn opportunities, to provide them relevant exposure and actual experience in their
chosen track.
TVET (TECHNICAL VOCATIONAL EDUCATION & TRAINING) NATIONAL CERTIFICATE
After finishing Grade 10, a student can obtain Certificates of Competency (COC) or a National
Certificate Level I (NC I). After finishing a Technical-Vocational-Livelihood track in Grade 12, a student
may obtain a National Certificate Level II (NC II), provided he/she passes the competency-based
assessment of the Technical Education and Skills Development Authority (TESDA).
NC I and NC II improves employability of graduates in fields like Agriculture, Electronics, and Trade.
MODELING BEST PRACTICES FOR SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL
In SY 2012-2013, there are 33 public high schools, public technical-vocational high schools,
and higher education institutions (HEIs) that have implemented Grade 11. This is a Research and
Design (R&D) program to simulate different aspects of Senior High School in preparation for full
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nationwide implementation in SY 2016-2017. Modeling programs offered by these schools are based
on students’ interests, community needs, and their respective capacities.
NURTURING THE HOLISTICALLY DEVELOPED FILIPINO (COLLEGE AND LIVELIHOOD
READINESS, 21ST CENTURY SKILLS)
After going through Kindergarten, the enhanced Elementary and Junior High curriculum, and a
specialized Senior High program, every K to 12 graduate will be ready to go into different paths – may
it be further education, employment, or entrepreneurship.
Every graduate will be equipped with:
1. Information, media and technology skills,
2. Learning and innovation skills,
3. Effective communication skills, and
4. Life and career skills.
CURRICULUM GUIDE
ELEMENTARY
KINDERGARTEN
The Kindergarten Curriculum Framework (KCF) draws from the goals of the K to 12 Philippine
Basic Education Curriculum Framework and adopts the general principles of the National Early
Learning Framework (NELF). Kindergarten learners need to have a smooth transition to the c
GRADES 1-10
Students in Grades 1 to 10 will experience an enhanced, context-based, and spiral
progression learning curriculum with the following subjects:
SUBJECTS
 Mother Tongue
 Filipino
 English
 Mathematics
 Science
 Araling Panlipunan
 Edukasyon sa Pagpapakatao (EsP)
 Music
 Arts
 Physical Education
 Health
 Edukasyong Pantahanan at Pangkabuhayan (EPP)
 Technology and Livelihood Education (TLE)
SENIOR HIGH (GRADES 11-12)
Senior High School is two years of specialized upper secondary education; students may
choose a specialization based on aptitude, interests, and school capacity. The choice of career track
will define the content of the subjects a student will take in Grades 11 and 12. Each student in Senior
High School can choose among three tracks: Academic; Technical-Vocational-Livelihood; and Sports
and Arts. The Academic track includes three strands: Business, Accountancy, Management (BAM);
Humanities, Education, Social Sciences (HESS); and Science, Technology, Engineering, Mathematics
(STEM).
CORE CURRICULUM SUBJECTS
There are seven Learning Areas under the Core Curriculum: Languages, Literature, Communication,
Mathematics, Philosophy, Natural Sciences, and Social Sciences.
 Oral comunication
 Reading and writing
 Komunikasyon at pananaliksik sa wika at kulturang Filipino
 21st century literature from the Philippines and the world
 Contemporary Philippine arts from the regions
 Media and information literacy
 General mathematics
 Statistics and probability
 Earth and life science
 Physical science
 Introduction to philosophy of the human person/Pambungad sa pilosopiya ng tao
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
Physical education and health

Personal development/pansariling kaunlaran

Earth science (instead of Earth and life science for those in the STEM strand)

Disaster readiness and risk reduction (taken instead of Physical science for those in the STEM
strand)
APPLIED TRACK SUBJECTS
 English for academic and professional purposes
 Practical research 1
 Practical research 2
 Filipino sa piling larangan
o Akademik
o Isports
o Sining
o Tech-voc
 Empowerment technologies (for the strand)
 Entrepreneurship
 Inquiries, investigatories, and immersion
SPECIALIZED SUBJECTS
 Accountancy, business, and and management strand
 Humanities and social sciences strand
 Science, technology, engineering, and mathematics strand
 General academic strand
IMPLEMENTATION AND TRANSITION MANAGEMENT
Program implementation in public schools is being done in phases starting SY 2012–2013. Grade 1
entrants in SY 2012–2013 are the first batch to fully undergo the program, and current 1st year Junior
High School students (or Grade 7) are the first to undergo the enhanced secondary education
program. To facilitate the transition from the existing 10-year basic education to 12 years, DepEd is
also implementing the SHS and SHS Modeling.
TRANSITION FOR PRIVATE SCHOOLS
Private schools craft their transition plans based on: (1) current/previous entry ages for Grade 1 and
final year of Kinder, (2) duration of program, and most importantly, (3) content of curriculum offered.
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ACHIEVEMENTS AND PLANS
2010 2010 TO 2014

RESOURCE PLANS FOR 2015
SHORTAGE ACCOMPLISHMENT
41,728 classrooms for Kinder to
Grade 12
86,478 constructed classrooms as
Classrooms 66,800 30,000 of which are for Senior
of February 2015
High School (Grades 11 and 12)
128,105 teachers hired as of

Teacher Items 145,827 39,066 additional teacher items
December 31, 2014
80,197 completed
Water and
135,847 23,414 ongoing construction 13,586 programmed for 2015
Sanitation
43,536 ongoing procurement as of
May 2014
69.5 million additional learning

Textbooks 61.7M 1:1 student-textbook ratio since
materials
December 2012
Seats 2,573,212 1:1 student-school seat ratio since 1,547,531 additional new seats
December 2012
FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS
What is the K to 12 Program?

The K to 12 Program covers 13 years of basic education with the following key stages:
 Kindergarten to Grade 3
 Grades 4 to 6
 Grades 7 to 10 (Junior High School)
 Grades 11 and 12 (Senior High School)
Why are we now implementing 13 years of basic education?
 The Philippines is the last country in Asia and one of only three countries worldwide with a 10-
year pre-university cycle (Angola and Djibouti are the other two).
 A 13-year program is found to be the best period for learning under basic education. It is also
the recognized standard for students and professionals globally.
What has been done to get ready for K to 12? Are we really ready for K to 12?
 SY 2011-2012: Universal Kindergarten implementation begins
 SY 2012-2013: Enhanced curriculum for Grades 1-7 implemented
 2013: K to 12 enacted into Law
 2014: Curriculum for Grades 11-12 finished
This 2015, we are getting ready for the implementation of Senior High School (SHS) in SY
2016-2017 We are on the fifth year of the implementation of the K to 12 Program. Our last mile is the
Senior High School. All 221 divisions of the Department of Education (DepEd) have finished planning
and have figures on enrolment a year in advance. These plans were reviewed by a separate team and
finalized upon consultation with other stakeholders.
 Classrooms: DepEd has built 66,813 classrooms from 2010 to 2013. There are 33,608
classrooms completed and undergoing construction in 2014. As of DepEd is planning to
establish 5,899 Senior High Schools nationwide. As of June 22, 2015, DepEd has issued
provisional permits to 2,847 private schools set to offer Senior High School in 2016.
 Teachers: From 2010-2014, DepEd has filled 128,105 new teacher items. DepEd is targeting
two kinds of teachers: those who will teach the core subjects, and those who will teach the
specialized subjects per track. DepEd will hire 37,000 teachers for Senior High School for
2016 alone.
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 Textbooks: Learning materials are being produced for elementary to junior high while
textbooks for Senior High School (which has specialized subjects) are being bid out.
 Curriculum: The K to 12 curriculum is standards- and competence-based. It is inclusive and
built around the needs of the learners and the community. The curriculum is done and is
available on the DepEd website. It is the first time in history that the entire curriculum is
digitized and made accessible to the public.
Private SHS: There are 2,847 private schools cleared to offer Senior High School as of June
22, 2015.
How will the current curriculum be affected by K to 12? What subjects will be added and
removed?
 The current curriculum has been enhanced for K to 12 and now gives more focus to allow
mastery of learning.
 For the new Senior High School grades (Grades 11 and 12), core subjects such as
 Mathematics, Science and Language will be strengthened. Specializations or tracks in
students’ areas of interest will also be offered.
 Changes to specific subjects are detailed in the K to 12 Curriculum Guides, viewable and
downloadable at bit.ly/kto12curriculum.
How will schools implementing special curricular programs such as science high schools, high
schools for the arts, and technical vocational schools be affected by K to 12?
Schools with special curricular programs will implement enriched curriculums specific to their program
(e.g. science, arts) following the K to 12 standards.
How will multi-grade teaching be affected by K to 12?
Multi-grade teaching will continue and will use the K to 12 Curriculum.
How will specific learning groups such as indigenous people, Muslim learners, and people with
special needs be affected by K to 12?
The K to 12 Curriculum was designed to address diverse learner needs, and may be adapted to fit
specific learner groups.
Under K to 12, will Kindergarten be a pre-requisite for entering Grade 1?
Yes. Republic Act No. 10157, or the Kindergarten Education Act, institutionalizes Kindergarten as part
of the basic education system and is a pre-requisite for admission to Grade 1.
With K to 12, will there be an overlap between the Day Care program of Local Government
Units (LGUs) and DepEd Kindergarten?
No. Day Care Centers of LGUs take care of children aged 4 or below, while the DepEd Kindergarten
program is intended for children who are at least 5 years old by October 31st of the present school
year.
With K to 12, should schools prepare permanent records for Kindergarten students?
Yes. While the assessment on readiness skills of students in Kindergarten is not academically driven,
a good measure of the child’s ability to cope with formal schooling is needed for future learning
interventions.
Who is in charge of Kindergarten teacher compensation?
DepEd is the main agency that employs and pays Kindergarten teachers in public schools. However,
there are LGUs that help in the Kindergarten program and provide honoraria for additional
Kindergarten teachers in public schools.
Which Mother Tongue will be used as the language of instruction in multi-cultural areas?
The principle of MTB-MLE is to use the language that learners are most comfortable and familiar with;
therefore, the common language in the area or lingua franca shall be used as the language of
instruction
Will Mother Tongue Based Multi-Lingual Education (MTB-MLE) include other languages in the
future?
Languages other than the 19 current mother tongues (Bahasa Sug, Bikol, Cebuano, Chabacano,
Hiligaynon, Iloko, Kapampangan, Maguindanaoan, Meranao, Pangasinense, Tagalog, Waray, Ybanag,
Ivatan, Sambal, Akianon, Kinaray-a, Yakan, and Surigaonon.)
What is Senior High School? Content-based curriculum of Grades 1 to 12. Senior High School
(SHS) covers the last two years of the K to 12 program and includes Grades 11 and 12. In SHS,
students will go through a core curriculum and subjects under a track of their choice.
Will SHS mean two more years of High School?
Yes. These two additional years will equip learners with skills that will better prepare them for the
future, whether it be:
 Employment
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 Entrepreneurship
 Skills Development (Further Tech-Voc training)
 Higher Education (College)
How will students choose their Senior High School specializations?
Students will undergo assessments to determine their strengths and interests. These will include an
aptitude test, a career assessment exam, and an occupational interest inventory for high schools.
Career advocacy activities will also be conducted to help guide students in choosing their
specialization or track.
How will student specializations/tracks be distributed across Senior High Schools?
Specializations or tracks to be offered will be distributed according to the resources available in the
area, the needs and interests of most students, and the opportunities and demands of the community.
Will SHS ensure employment for me?
SHS creates the following opportunities:
 Standard requirements will be applied to make sure graduates know enough to be hirable.
 You will now be able to apply for TESDA Certificates of Competency (COCs) and National
Certificates (NCs) to provide you with better work opportunities.
 Partnerships with different companies will be offered for technical and vocational courses.
 You can now get work experience while studying; and companies can even hire you after you
graduate.
Entrepreneurship courses will now be included. Instead of being employed, you can choose to start
your own business after graduating, or choose to further your education by going to college.
How will SHS affect my college education?
 SHS, as part of the K to 12 Basic Curriculum, was developed in line with the curriculum of the
Commission of Higher Education (CHED) – the governing body for college and university
education in the Philippines.
 This ensures that by the time you graduate from Senior High School, you will have the
standard knowledge, skills, and competencies needed to go to college.
Is SHS really necessary? Must I go to SHS?
Yes, according to the law. Beginning SY 2016-2017, you must go through Grades 11 and 12 to
graduate from High School.
If I choose not to go to SHS, what happens to me?
You will be a grade 10 completer, but not a high school graduate. Elementary graduates are those
who finish grade 6; high school graduates must have finished grade 12.
What will I learn in SHS that the current high school curriculum doesn’t include?
Senior High School covers eight learning areas as part of its core curriculum, and adds specific tracks
(similar to college courses) based on four disciplines:
 Academic (which includes Business, Science & Engineering, Humanities & Social Science,
and a General Academic strand)
 Technical-Vocational-Livelihood (with highly specialized subjects with TESDA qualifications)
 Sports
 Arts & Design
SHS Students may pick a track based on how he or she will want to proceed after high school
graduation. You can learn more about the tracks and strands (as well as their curriculum) on
deped.gov.ph.
Where will Senior High School be implemented? Will my school offer SHS?
 Existing public and private schools, including colleges, universities and technical institutions
may offer Senior High School.
 There may also be stand-alone Senior High Schools established by DepEd or private
organizations.
Can a private school offer Senior High School before SY 2016-2017?
Private schools may offer Grade 11 as early as SY 2015-2016 to interested students. However, Senior
High School before SY 2016-2017 is voluntary for both private schools and students, and there will be
no funding assistance from the government to private Senior High School before SY 2016-2017.
Will SHS modelling schools that implemented the SHS program in SY 2012-13 be allowed to
implement the SHS Program?
SHS modelling schools listed in DepEd Order No. 71, s. 2013 may implement the SHS program, but
they must go through the process of applying a provisional SHS permit, and must meet the standards
and requirements for the SHS Program.
Which private institutions are allowed to offer Senior High School?
47
Virac, Catanduanes
 All schools and organizations must first apply for a permit from DepEd. Different institutions
may also partner with each other and apply for SHS as a group.
 Temporary permits will be issued by DepEd for those who meet the requirements for the
Senior High School Program.
 There are 334 private schools with SHS permits beginning in SY 2014 or 2015. Last March 31,
2015, provisional permits have been issued to 1,122 private schools that will offer Senior High
School in 2016.
 If you are interested in applying for a Senior High School permit, please
visit: https://bit.ly/AppGuidelinesforSHS.
What other information should applicants remember in applying for a SHS permit?
 All applications must only be submitted via email to kto12@deped.gov.ph.
 Applications must contain the requirements detailed in DepEd Memo No. 4, series of 2014,
viewable at https://bit.ly/AppGuidelinesforSHS. Only applications with complete documentary
requirements will be processed by the SHS-NTF on a first come-first served basis. Submission
of letters of intent only will not be processed.
 The proposed SHS Curriculum consistent with the final SHS Curriculum issued by DepEd
must be submitted upon application.
Who receives, evaluates and approves the applications for provisional SHS permits? Who
issues the permits?
 The SHS-National Task Force (SHS-NTF) will receive applications from interested parties,
establish the process and criteria in evaluating selected applicants, and evaluate the SHS
applications of non-DepEd schools.
 Regional Offices will be deputized to conduct on-site validation for all applicants. The on-site
validation will focus on the provision of SHS requirements for the proposed track/strand, and
will certify that a school exhibits the necessary SHS requirements to implement the program.
 The DepEd Secretary approves applications for the SHS Program and issues provisional
permits to applicants upon the recommendation of the Undersecretary for Programs and
Projects.
 The Regional Office releases the provisional permit to the applicant.
Will the additional two years of High School mean additional expenses?
Not necessarily.
 Senior High School “completes” basic education by making sure that the high school graduate
is equipped for work, entrepreneurship, or higher education. This is a step up from the 10-year
cycle where high school graduates still need further education (and expenses) to be ready for
the world.
 SHS will be offered free in public schools and there will be a voucher program in place for
public junior high school completers as well as ESC beneficiaries of private high schools
should they choose to take SHS in private institutions.
 This means that the burden of expenses for the additional two years need not be completely
shouldered by parents.
Where can I find out more about SHS?
You can find out more at www.deped.gov.ph/k-to-12. You can also ask your school administration
(public or private) to contact the DepEd division office to help organize an orientation seminar.
What is the Voucher Program?
 This program enables Grade 10 completers from public and private Junior High Schools (JHS)
to enroll in a (1) private high school, (2) private university or college, (3) state or local
university or college, or (4) technical-vocational school, which will offer the Senior High School
program starting School Year 2016-2017.
 Through the Voucher Program, students and their families are able to exercise greater choice
in deciding the Senior High School program that is most relevant to their needs and career
goals. A certain amount will be subsidized by DepEd to private SHS to offset the cost of
tuition.
Who will benefit from the Voucher Program? Can I apply?
 All JHS completers from public junior high schools are qualified to receive the full voucher
values.
 Private junior high school completers who are on Education Service Contracting (ESC) grants
will receive 80% of the full voucher value.
 JHS completers from private schools and non-DepEd schools can also apply for vouchers
48
Virac, Catanduanes
worth 80% of the full voucher value.

 Students will be notified of their eligibility prior to completing Grade 10. No monetary value is
given to the student directly instead the subsidy is remitted to the Senior High School where
he/she will enroll.
How much is the value of the voucher?
The actual amount of the vouchers will depend on the location of the SHS where the student will
enroll.
 JHS completers who will enroll in a SHS located in the National Capital Region (NCR) will
receive a full voucher value of PhP 22,500.
 JHS completers who will enroll in a SHS located in Non-NCR Highly Urbanized Cities (HUCs)
will receive a full voucher value of PhP 20,000. These cities include Angeles, Bacolod, Baguio,
Butuan, Cagayan de Oro, Cebu City, Davao City, General Santos, Iligan, Iloilo City, Lapu-lapu,
Lucena, Mandaue, Olongapo, Puerto Princesa, Tacloban, and Zamboanga City.
 JHS completers who will enroll in a SHS located in other cities and municipalities will have a
full voucher value of PhP 17,500.
The voucher must be used in the school year immediately following the year of JHS completion. A
voucher recipient may only be able to avail of the voucher subsidy for two (2) successive years.
Non-DepEd schools may charge tuitions that are higher than the voucher subsidy amounts. Students
and parents are expected to cover the difference between the tuition fee charged by the school and
the voucher subsidy from government.
How can I apply for the voucher program?
In SY 2012-2013, DepEd tested the SHS program to over 10,000 students in a total of 56 schools
around the Philippines. The results of this modelling program, including best practices and learning
experiences of students, have influenced the creation of the current SHS curriculum.
How can I help improve basic education?
 Private partners can donate through the Adopt-A-School program. A 150% tax incentive will
be provided for every contribution.
 Help spread awareness and information on the K to 12 Program.
How will SHS Affect me? Will I lose my Job?
 No high school teachers will be displaced
 The Department of Education (DepEd) is in constant coordination with CHED and DOLE on
the actual number of affected faculty from private higher education institutions (HEIs). The
worst-case scenario is that 39,000 HEI faculty will lose their jobs over 5 years. This will only
happen if none of the HEIs will put up their own Senior High Schools, which is since we are
currently processing over 1,000 SHS applications from private institutions.
 DepEd is also hiring more than 30,000 new teachers in 2016 alone. The Department will
prioritize affected faculty who will apply as teachers or administrators in our SHS.
I am a graduate of a science/math/engineering/course. Can I apply as an SHS teacher?
 If you are willing to teach on a part-time basis, you will not be required to take and pass the
Licensure Examination for Teachers (LET).
 If you want a permanent position, you will need to take and pass the LET within five years
after your date of hiring to remain employed full-time.
I am a hired TVI course graduate/HEI faculty/practitioner. Can I apply as an SHS teacher?
 Graduates of technical-vocational courses must have the necessary certification issued by
TESDA and undergo training to be administered by DepEd or HEIs.
 Faculty of colleges and universities must be full-time professors and be holders of a relevant
Bachelor’s degree.
 DepEd and private schools may also hire practitioners with expertise in the specialized
learning areas offered by the K to 12 Program as part-time teachers.
*Faculty of TVIs and HEIs will be given priority in hiring for the transition period from September 2013
until SY 2021-2022.
I am a practitioner. Can I apply as an SHS teacher?
 You may teach as part-time teacher in Senior High School under the track subjects. We
encourage you to consider this to share your valuable knowledge and experience to our SHS
learners.
How will K to 12 affect the college curriculum?
 The College General Education curriculum will have fewer units. Subjects that have been
taken up in Basic Education will be removed from the College General Education curriculum.
49
Virac, Catanduanes
 Details of the new GE Curriculum may be found in CHED Memorandum Order No. 20, series
of 2013.
~ End of Topics ~
_________________________________________________________________________________
Self-Assessment Test: (SAT)
After reading the Module/Learning Material:
1. In your own understanding, define in not more than 3 sentences the basic concepts about
community and education. (25 pts)
2. Make an appropriate graphic organizer to describe how philosophical and sociological theories are
manifested in the practical classroom situation in response to the community contexts. (50 pts.)
3. Explain how education was shaped by the philosophical and sociological perspectives of the
time, focusing on how education responds to the needs of the society and community. (50 pts)
4. Make a Simple document analysis of the existing documents, reports, primers on the Enhanced
Basic Education Curriculum (K to 12 Curriculum). The focus of the analysis would be the
identification of the philosophical and sociological contributors to the change in curriculum. ( 100 pts)
When you are done, please ask your instructor/professor on when and how to submit your SAT activity
Thank you.
Faculty Concerned
1. Dr. LEONOR S. TURBOLENCIA

2. DR. MARIANNE CASTILLA
3. SHAINA MAE BENAVIDEZ
50
Virac, Catanduanes
Guide in writing your Simple Document Analysis.
Analyze a Written Document
Meet the document. (Type of document: photograph, pamphlet, government-issued document,

newspaper article, diary entry, etc.)
Type (check all that apply):

❑ Letter ❑ Speech ❑ Patent ❑ Telegram ❑ Court document
❑ Chart ❑ Newspaper ❑ Advertisement ❑ Press Release ❑ Memorandum
❑ Report ❑ Email ❑ Identification document ❑ Presidential document
❑ Congressional document ❑ Other
Describe it as if you were explaining to someone who can’t see it.

Think about: Is it handwritten or typed? Is it all by the same person? Are there stamps or other marks?
What else do you see on it?
Observe its parts
Who wrote it? (Author/creator)

Who read/received it? (Intended audience)
When is it from?
Context (place and time of the document’s creation)
Where is it from?
Try to make sense of it
What is it talking about? (Purpose for the document’s creation

Write one sentence summarizing this document. (Main points expressed in the document)
Why did the author write it? (Purpose for the document’s creation)
Quote evidence from the document that tells you this.
What was happening at the time in history this document was created?
Use it as historical evidence
What did you find out from this document that you might not learn anywhere else?
What other documents or historical evidence help you understand this event or topic?
General message of the document (What is it trying to say? What perspective does it represent?)
Significance (Why is this document important?)
https://www.archives.gov/files/education/lessons/worksheets/written_document_analysis_worksheet.p
dfhttps://www.facinghistory.org/resource-library/teaching-strategies/document-analysis-templates
51
Virac, Catanduanes
REFERENCES
A. BOOK/S
Tamayao, A.I. (2014) Social Dimension of Education (1st ed). Rex Bookstore Inc. RBSI’s 856 Nicanor
Reyes Sr. St, Sampaloc, Manila
B. WEBLIOGRAPHY
1. The Glossary of Education Reform for Journalist, Parents, and Community Members.
(2013, November 25) School culture https://www.edglossary.org/school-culture/
2. Oxford English and Spanish Dictionary, Thesaurus, and Spanish to English Translator
https://www.lexico.com/en/definition/society
3. Cambridge Dictionary +Plus https://dictionary.cambridge.org/us/ dictionary/english/community
4. Oxford English and Spanish Dictionary, Thesaurus, and Spanish to English Translator
https://www.lexico.com/en/definition/education
5. Moffitt, K., Chapel, L. Social Interactions: Definition & Types. Study.Com.

https://study.com/academy/lesson/social-interactions-definition-types
6 Fisher, D. (2012). School Culture: Creating a unified culture of learning in a multicultural setting. IB
Regional Conference.https://www.ibo.org/contentassets/b53fa69a03d643b1a739d30543ca8d
65 /darlenefishermadrid.pdf
7 Cohen, L.M., (1999) Section III - Philosophical Perspectives in Education Part 1 to part 4. OSU
School of Education. https://oregonstate.edu/instruct/ed416/PP1.html;
https://oregonstate.edu/instruct/ed416/PP2.html;
https://oregonstate.edu/instruct/ed416/PP3.html
https://oregonstate.edu/instruct/ed416/PP4.html#:~:text=Humanism%20was%20developed%2
0as%20an,follows%20the%20unfolding%20of%20nature.
8. Isriyah, M., Blasius, B. L., (2018, March). Classical philosophy: influence the education philosophy
of age. Universitas Negiri Malang
https://www.google.com/search?ei=g1oqX-rkIf2Hr7wP6pO24Ak&q=society+and+
education+a+philosophical+perspective&oq=Society+and+Education++A.+Philosophical+Per
spectives++&gs_lcp=CgZwc3ktYWIQARgAMggIIRAWEB0QHjoOCAAQ6gIQtAIQmgEQ5
QJQzIuBAVjMi4EBYKC0gQFoAXAAeACAAegFiAHoBZIBAzYtMZgBAKABAaABAqo
BB2d3cy13aXqwAQbAAQE&sclient=psy-ab
10. Historical Period > Ancient >Socratic. The Basics of Philosophy

a.). https://www.philosophybasics.com/historical_socratic.html#:~:text=The%20Socratic%20or%20
Classical%20period,of%20the%20influential%20philosopher%20Socrates.&text=Socrates%20
developed%20a%20system%20of,difference%20between%20right%20and%20wrong.
b.) https://www.philosophybasics.com/movements _postmodernism.html
11. Duignan, B. Postmodernism philosophy. Britannica.

https://www.britannica.com/topic/postmodernism-philosophy
12. Hossieni, A., Khalili, S. (2011 June 10). Explanation of creativity in postmodern educational ideas.
Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1877042811004629#:~:text=Regarding%20
postmodernist%2C%20the%20aims%20of,students%20to%20discover%20new%20things.&te
xt=They%20tolerate%20others%20criticism%20and%20try%20to%20think%20in%20critical%
20way
52
Virac, Catanduanes
13. Lynch, M. (2016 September 20) understanding the 4 main schools of philosophy: principle of
postmodernism.https://www.theedadvocate.org/understanding-4-main-schools-philosophy-
principle-postmodernism/
14. McCallum, D. Comparing Modernist and Postmodern Educational Theory
https://www.xenos.org/essays/comparing-modernist-and-postmodern-educational-theory
15. The Professional School of Psychology. Postmodernism and the challenges facing 21st century
educators https://psychology.edu/about/four-models-of-adult education/ postmodernism-and-
the-challenges-facing-21st-century-educators/
16. Robertson, I (1981).Sociology, NY: Worth. The Sociological Perspective

https://www.geneseo.edu/sociology/about
17. Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. Sociological theory https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociological_theory
18. CliffsNotes. Three Major Perspectives in Sociologyhttps://www.cliffsnotes.com/study

guides/sociology/the-sociological-perspective/three-major-perspectives-in-sociology
19. tutor2u Sociology> Consensus Theories - Functionalism

https://www.tutor2u.net/sociology/reference/what-is-functionalism
20. 07. SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS http://eagri.org/eagri50/AEXT391/lec07.pdf
21. Muriel, E. (3013 November 29) School as A Social Institution. https://prezi.com/dd4z6qrqs4sp/

school-as-a-social-institution/#:~:text=Education%20prepares%20young%20people%20for,
thus%20a%20form%20of%20socialization.&text=1530s%2C%20from%20L.&text=Social%20i
nstitutions%20are%20an%20important,particular%20part%20of%20social%20life.
22. Fisk, P. (2017January 24). Education 4.0 https://www.thegeniusworks.com/2017/01/future-

education-young-everyone-taught-together/
23. James, F. (2019 November 5). Everything You Need to Know About Education 4.0. Birkbeck
University. https://www.qs.com/everything-you-need-to-know-education-40/
24. Teach for the Philippines (2013 May 29). President Aquino Signs K+12 Program into Law.
https://businessmirror.com.ph/2015/05/26/reforms-in-the-philippine-education-system-the-k-
to-12-program/
25. Barlongo, CJ. (2015 May 26) Reforms in the Philippine education system: The K to 12 Program
https://businessmirror.com.ph/2015/05/26/reforms-in-the-philippine-education-system-the-k-
to-12-program/
26. DepEd DO 46. (2015).What is K to 12 Prograhttps://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/k-

12/#:~:text=The%20K%20to%2012%20Program,prepare%20graduates%20for%20ter
tiary%20education%2C
27. Education Staff, National Archives and Records Administration. Analyze a Written Document
Washington, DC 20408 https://www.archives.gov/files/education/lessons/worksheets/written
_document_analysis_worksheet.pdf
28 Educator Resources Facing History and Ourselves (2020). Document Analysis Form
https://www.facinghistory.org/resource-library/teaching-strategies/document-analysis-
templates
53

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Republic of the Philippines

CATANDUANES STATE UNIVERSITY

Learning Material No. 1

THE TEACHER AND THE

This learning material is used in compliance with the flexible

“The aim of an educational

EDUC 204: THE TEACHER AND THE COMMUNITY, SCHOOL

Table of Contents Page

EDUC 204: THE TEACHER AND THE COMMUNITY, SCHOOL

Core Instructional Activities

INTRODUCTION TO SOCIETY, COMMUNITY AND EDUCATION

Defining Basic Concepts

3. Education - The process of receiving or giving systematic instruction, especially at a school or

 Establishing professional learning communities that encourages teachers to communicate,

UNIT 1- SOCIETY AND EDUCATUON

What is philosophical perspective education?

Sub-branches –Ontology Knowing based on: –Ethics

How does philosophy influence education?

Four General or World Philosophies (Classical Philosophies)

* A fifth metaphysical school of thought, called Scholasticism, is largely applied in Roman

Pragmatism (related to Experientialism)

3. Post Modern Philosophies

 The term "Post-Modernism" (literally "after Modernism") originated in architecture to denote a

 In Philosophy specifically, Post-Modernism was heavily influenced by Continental

 Post-Modernism is a broad and non-specific movement (if it can be described as a movement

 Among the best-known Post-Modernist philosophers are Michel Foucault, Jacques

The most important of these viewpoints of postmodernism are the following:

Understanding the 4 Main Schools of Philosophy: Principle of Postmodernism

Comparing Modernist and Postmodern Educational Theory

Postmodernism and the Challenges Facing 21st Century Educators

Hierarchies and Postmodernism

Effects of Postmodernism on Ways Learners Learn and Instructors Teach

 Postmodern learning is a creative act. It involves ever-changing environments and learning

1. SOCIAL DIMENSIONS OF EDUCATION

What are theories in Sociology?

Sociological Theories in understanding Social Dimensions of Education

MACRO VIEW MICRO VIEW

Functional view on society

Key ideas associated with functional theory

Presuppositions of Functional Theory

Role of Schools According to Functional Theory

Views of Conflict theory on education and schooling

Conflict view on society

Conflict view on school

Role Of Schools According To Conflict Theory

is determined or controlled by external forces-these sociologists are known as interactionist or

Interactionist view on Society

Interactionist view on Man

Interactionist’s View on Schools

As a social-psychological frame of reference, interactionism focuses on the internal processes

The school is a site of differing interpretations. Usually, definitions

Table 1. Factors that influence teachers’ expectations by Alias (2009)

Role of the Schools According to Interactionist theory

Possible Meanings Constructed By Students in Their School Interaction

Non- Verbal Interaction and Other Symbolic Languages Used In School

ADDITIONAL READINGS/INFORMATION: (on Sociological Perspective)

Three Major Perspectives in Sociology

Table 1 Sociological Perspective

Sociological Perspective Level of Analysis Focus

The symbolic interactionist perspective

The functionalist perspective

Consensus Theories – Functionalism

There are two stages of socialization: