Teacher and Community Midterm

The Teacher and the Community, School Culture, and Organizational Leadership
Republic of the Philippines

UNIVERSITY OF EASTERN PHILIPPINES
University Town, Northern Samar
Web: http://uep.edu.ph ; Email:
uepnsofficial@gmail.com
COLLEGE OF EDUCATION
THE TEACHER AND THE COMMUNITY,

SCHOOL CULTURE, AND
ORGANIZATIONAL LEADERSHIP
Second Sem ester, School Year 2021-2022
Allphotosarefromwww.google.com/search
LEAH A. DE ASIS, EdD
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Module 1
INTRODUCTION TO SOCIETY,
COMMUNITY, AND EDUCATION –
DEFINING THE BASIC CONCEPT
1.A Society
1.B Com m unity
1.C Education
1.D Social Interaction
1.E School Culture
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Unit 1
PHILOSOPHICAL PERSPECTIVES
1.1 Classical Philosophies

1.1.1 Idealism
1.1.2 Realism
1.1.3 Existentialism
1.1.4 Pragm atism
1.1.5 Naturalism
1.2 Modern and Post-Modern
Philosophies
1.2.1 Perennialism
1.2.2 Essentialism
1.2.3 Progressivism
1.2.4 Social Reconstructionism
1.2.5 Hum anism
1.2.6 Marxism
1.3 Let’s Add to W hat You Know
1.4 Key Proponets of Educational
Philosophies
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Good Day!
Welcome to this class – The Teacher and the Community, School

Culture, and Organizational Leadership.
This course focuses on society as a context of schools and schooling

shall be emphasized. Further, principles and theories on school culture and
organizational leadership, and school policies and procedures shall be
included to prepare prospective teachers to become school leaders and
managers.
There are 12 modules prepared for this course. Each module contains
objectives, discussions of specific topics, assessments to determine the
readiness and comprehensions attained, suggested readings, and the
references.
This Module I discusses the basic concepts and definitions of society,

community, education, social interactions, and social culture. It also includes
philosophical perspectives from the classical philosophies to modern
philosophies as well as post modern philosophies.
As would be educators, I am encouraging you to have the right focus

and direction, have time for all the discussion in the modules, and answer
diligently the assessments.
Modules are prepared not for the caprixces o the professors neither to
give you hard time but to help you acquire knowledge and wisdom of the
course and eventually prepare you for the teaching profession.
LEAH A. DE ASIS, EdD
Course Professor
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INTRODUCTION TO
SOCIETY, COMMUNITY,
AND EDUCATION –
DEFINING THE BASIC
CONCEPT &
PHILOSOPHICAL
PERSPECTIVES
INTRODUCTION
Learning Outcom es
“Philosophy begins w ith w onder”
 Define basic concepts necessary
(Socrates)
to understanding of the course;
Philosophy means  Describe the manifestation of
"love of wisdom." It is various educational philosophies
made up of two Greek and applications of sociological
words, philo, meaning love, and theories in practical classroom
sophos, meaning wisdom. situations in response to
Philosophy helps teachers community;
to reflect on key issues and  Explain the importance of different
concepts in education, usually philosophies and sociological
through such questions as: theories to education and how
What is being educated? they change the education
What is the good life? What is landscape in response to the
knowledge? What is the nature needs of the society and the
of learning? And What is community;
 Reflect on how to prepare, create,
teaching? Philosophers think about
and develop one’s philosophy of
the meaning of things
education; and
and interpretation of that
 Make a comparison of
meaning. Even simple statements,
the philosophies.
such as "What should be learned? Or What is adolescence?" set up
raging debates that can have major
implications. For example, what happens if an adolescent commits a serious
crime? One interpretation may hide another. If such a young person is treated
as an adult criminal, what does it say about justice, childhood, and the like?
Or if the adolescent is treated as a child, what does it say about society's
views on crime?
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Your educational philosophy is your beliefs about why, what and how
you teach, whom you teach, and about the nature of learning. It is a set of
principles that guides professional action through the events and issues
teachers face daily. Sources for your educational philosophy are your life
experiences, your values, the environment in which you live, interactions with
others and awareness of philosophical approaches. Learning about the
branches of philosophy, philosophical world views, and different educational
philosophies and theories will help you to determine and shape your own
educational philosophy, combined with these other aspects.
When you examine a philosophy different from your own, it helps you to
"wrestle" with your own thinking. Sometimes this means you may change your
mind. Other times, it may strengthen your viewpoint; or, you may be eclectic,
selecting what seems best from different philosophies. But in eclecticism,
there is a danger of sloppy and inconsistent thinking, especially if you borrow
a bit of one philosophy and stir in some of another. If serious thought has
gone into selection of strategies, theories, or philosophies, this is less
problematic. For example, you may determine that you have to vary your
approach depending on the particular learning needs and styles of a given
student. At various time periods, one philosophical framework may become
favored over another. For example, the Progressive movement led to quite
different approaches in education in the 1930s. But there is always danger in
one "best or only" philosophy. In a pluralistic society, a variety of views are
needed.
Branches of Philosophy
There are three major branches of philosophy. Each branch focuses on

a different aspect and is central to your teaching. The three branches and their
sub-branches are:
Branch Metaphysics: What Epistemology: What is the Axiology:
is the nature of nature of knowledge? How What values
reality? do we come to know? should one
live by?
Educational –D o you think –H ow w ould an –Is m orality
Examples hum an beings anthropologist look at defined by
are basically this classroom ? A our actions,
good or evil? political scientist? A or by w hat is
–W hat are biologist? in our
conservative –H ow do w e know w hat hearts?
or liberal a child know s? –W hat
beliefs? values
should be
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taught in
character
education?
Subbranche –Ontology Knowing based on: –Ethics
s What issues are –Scientific Inquiry What is good
related to nature, –Senses and Feelings and evil, right
existence, or –From authority or divinity and wrong?
being? Is a child –Empiricism (experience) Is it ever right
inherently evil or –Intuition to take som
good? H ow m –Reasoning or Logic ething that
ight your view What reasoning does not
determ ine your processes yield valid belong to
classroom m conclusions? you?
anagem ent? – –Deductive:
Cosm ology reasoning from the general –Aesthetics
What is the nature to the particular All children What is
and origin of the can learn. Bret is a fifth beautiful?
grader. H ow do w
cosmos or
H e has a learning e
universe? Is the w
disability. C an Bret learn? recognize a
orld and universe
–Inductive: reasoning great piece
orderly or is it m
from the specific to the of m usic?
arked by chaos? Art?
W hat w ould one general. After experim
C an
or the other m ean enting w ith plant grow th
there be
for a classroom ? under varied conditions,
beauty in
stu-dents conclude plants
destr
need w ater and light
BASIC CONCEPTS AND DEFINITIONS
1.A SOCIETY
‘Society is a concept used to describe the structured relations and

institutions among a large community of people which cannot be reduced to a
simple collection or aggregation of individuals.’ (1)
Origins of the Concept
The concept of society can be traced to the fourteenth century, when

the primary meaning was companionship or association, a meaning which still
exists today. However, the specific sociological meaning of society was not
developed until the nineteenth century.
A strong argument can be made for the view that it was Emile
Durkheim who first developed the sociological meaning of ‘society’ which he
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used when he established sociology as a new discipline which dealt with the
collective reality of human life as opposed to studying individuals.
Durkheim argued that society has an independent reality from

individuals, and exists in its own right, exerting an influence over individuals
within a ‘bounded territory’, which for Durkheim essentially meant the ‘nation
state’.
However, the relevance of bounded-societies has been questioned

since the 1970s due to globalisation, and the increasing amount of people,
money, and communications moving across national borders.
Because of this, some sociologists argue that sociology should shift its
analysis from ‘societies’ to (global) mobilities.
Sociology as the ‘Study of Society’
The concept of sociology has been fundamental to sociology’s

‘selfidentity’, with most text books using the concept to define the discipline,
with the ‘study of societies’ often being part of the definition of sociology in
most text books and society in turn being defined as large communities,
existing within nation states.
Talcott Parsons added another important defining characteristic of

society – that it should be self-perpetuating, or able to reproduce itself without
external assistance.
For most of sociology’s history, sociologists have studied and compared

societies, and nowhere is this more obvious than in the historic division
between ‘first’, ‘second’ and ‘third’ world societies, and in theories of
development such as modernisation theory, which outline why certain
societies (or ‘nation states’) are less developed in comparison to other ‘more
developed’ societies (or ‘nation states’).
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There have been many attempts to understand social change by

focusing one specific driving force, for example sociological theorising has
developed the following conceptualisations of society:
 Industrial society
 Capitalist society
 Post-industrial society
 Postmodern society
 The knowledge society  Risk society  The network society.
However, the problem with a ‘bounded sociology’ which limits itself to

cross national comparisons is that it tells us little about inequalities within
societies.
1.B COM MUNITY
The word community is derived from Latin and has been used in the
English language since the 14th century. Specifically, it’s Latin etymology is
com m unitas (meaning the same), which is in turn derived from com m unis,
which means “common, public, shared by all or many.”
A communitybeliefs is actually a small or large social unit (a group of

living things) who have something in common, such as norms, religion,
values, or identity. Communities often share a sense of place that is situated
in a given geographical area (e.g. a country, village, town, or neighborhood) or
in virtual space through communication platforms. It is a social group sharing
an environment, normally with shared interests. In human communities, intent,
belief, resources, preferences, needs, risks, and a number of other conditions
may be present and common, affecting the identity of the participants and the
group.
There are many ways to think about community. We will explore four of
the most relevant, each of which provides different insights into the process of
community engagement.
Perspective Description
Systems From a systems perspective, a community is similar to a living
Perspective creature, comprising different parts that represent specialized
functions, activities, or interests, each operating within
specific boundaries to meet community needs. For example,
schools focus on education, the transportation sector focuses
on moving people and products, economic entities focus on
enterprise and employment, faith organizations focus on the
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spiritual and physical well-being of people, and health care

agencies focus on the prevention and treatment of diseases
and injuries (Henry, 2011). For the community to function well,
each part has to effectively carry out its role in relation to
the w hole organism . A healthy community has

wellconnected, interdependent sectors that share
responsibility for recognizing and resolving problems and
enhancing its well-being. Successfully addressing a
community’s complex problems requires integration,
collaboration, and coordination of resources from all parts
(Thompson et al., 1990). From a systems perspective, then,
collaboration is a logical approach to health improvement.
Social A community can also be defined by describing the social and
Perspective political networks that link individuals, community
organizations, and leaders. Understanding these networks is
critical to planning efforts in engagement. For example,
tracing social ties among individuals may help engagement
leaders to identify a community’s leadership, understand its
behavior patterns, identify its high-risk groups, and strengthen
its networks (Minkler et al., 1997).
Virtual Some communities map onto geographically defined areas,
Perspective but today, individuals rely more and more on
computermediated communications to access information,
meet people, and make decisions that affect their lives
(Kozinets,
2002). Examples of computer-mediated forms of
communication include email, instant or text messaging,
echat rooms, and social networking sites such as Facebook,
YouTube, and Twitter (Flavian et al., 2005). Social groups or
groups with a common interest that interact in an organized
fashion on the Internet are considered “virtual communities”
(Rheingold, 2000; Ridings et al., 2002). Without question,
these virtual communities are potential partners for
community-engaged health promotion and research.
Individual Individuals have their own sense of community membership
Perspective that is beyond the definitions of community applied by
researchers and engagement leaders. Moreover, they may
have a sense of belonging to more than one community. In
addition, their sense of membership can change over time
and may affect their participation in community activities
(Minkler et al., 2004).
The philosopher and psychologist William James shed light

on this issue in his writings. James thought it important to
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consider two perspectives on identity: the “I,” or how a person

thinks about himself or herself, and the “me,” or how others
see and think about that person. Sometimes these two views
agree and result in a shared sense of an identity, but other
times they do not. People should not make assumptions
about identity based on appearance, language, or cultural
origin; nor should they make assumptions about an
individual’s perspective based on his or her identity (James,
1890). Today, the multiple communities that might be relevant
for any individual — including families, workplace, and social,
religious, and political associations — suggest that individuals
are thinking about themselves in more complex ways than
was the norm in years past.
The eligibility criteria that scientists, policy makers, and others

develop for social programs and research projects reflect one
way that people perceive a group of proposed participants,
but how much those criteria reflect the participants’ actual
view of themselves is uncertain. Practitioners of community
engagement need to learn how individuals understand their
identity and connections, enter into relationships, and form
communities.
1.C EDUCATION
The True Meaning, Definition and Concept of Education
Education has various meanings:
According to some learned people, the word “Education” came from the
Latin term “Educatum ” that means the act of teaching or training. A group of
educationists say that it has come from another Latin word “Educare” which
means “to bring up” or “to raise”.
According to a few others, the word “Education” has originated from

another Latin term “Educere” which means “to lead forth” or “to come out”. All
these meanings indicate that education aims to nourish the good qualities in
man and draw out the best in every individual. Education seeks to develop the
innate inner capacities of man.
By educating an individual we attempt to give him some desirable

knowledge, understanding, skills, interests, attitudes and critical ‘thinking. That
is, he acquires knowledge of history, geography, arithmetic, languages and
sciences. He develops some understanding about the deeper things in life,
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the complex human relations, and the cause and effect relationship and so on.
He gets some skills in writing, speaking, calculating, drawing, operating some
equipment etc. He develops some interests in and attitudes towards social
work, democratic living, co-operative management and so on.
As an individual in the society, he has to think critically about various

issues in life and take decisions about them being free from bias and
prejudices, superstitions and blind beliefs. Thus, he has to learn all these
qualities of head, hand and heart through the process of education. Concepts
of Education as Defined by W estern Philosophers
Western Concept of Education

Philosopher
Socrates “Education m eans the bringing out of the ideas of universal
validity w hich are latent in the m ind of every m an”.
Plato “Education is the capacity to feel pleasure and pain at the right
m om ent. It develops in the body and in the soul of the pupil all
the beauty and all the perfection w hich he is capable of.”
Aristotle “Education is the creation of a sound m ind in a sound body. It
develops m an’s faculty, especially his m ind so that he m ay be
able to enjoy the contem plation of suprem e truth, goodness
and beauty of w hich perfect happiness essentially consists.
Rousseau: “Education of m an com m ences at his birth; before he can
speak, before he can understand he is already instructed.
Experience is the forerunner of the perfect”.
Herbert “Education is com plete living”.
Spencer
Heinrich “Education is natural harm onious and progressive developm
Pestalozzi ent of m an’s innate pow ers”.
Friedrich “Education is unfolding of w hat is already enfolded in the

William germ . It is the process through w hich the child m akes internal
Froebel external”.
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A.D SOCIAL INTERACTION
Key Points
 A social interaction is an exchange between two or more individuals

and is a building block of society. Social interaction can be studied
between groups of two (dyads), three (triads) or larger social groups.
 By interacting with one another, people design rules, institutions and

systems within which they seek to live. Symbols are used to
communicate the expectations of a given society to those new to it.
 The empirical study of social interaction is one of the subjects of
microsociology. Methods includes symbolic interactionism and
ethnomethodology as well as later academic sub-divisions and studies
such as psychosocial studies, conversational analysis and
humancomputer interaction.
 With symbolic interactionism, reality is seen as social, developed

interaction with others. Ethnomethodology questions how people’s
interactions can create the illusion of a shared social order despite not
understanding each other fully and having differing perspectives.
Key Term Meaning
Dyad A pair of things standing in particular relation; dyadic
relation.
Social Interaction A social exchange between two or more individuals.
Social Group A collection of humans or animals that share certain
characteristics, interact with one another, accept
expectations and obligations as members of the group,
and share a common identity.
In sociology, social interaction is a dynamic sequence of social actions
between individuals (or groups) who modify their actions and reactions due to
actions by their interaction partner(s). Social interactions can be differentiated
into accidental, repeated, regular and regulated.
A social interaction is a social exchange between two or more

individuals. These interactions form the
basis for social structure and therefore are
a key object of basic social inquiry and
analysis. Social interaction can be studied
between groups of two (dyads), three
(triads) or larger social groups.
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Social structures and cultures are founded upon social interactions. By

interacting with one another, people design rules, institutions and systems
within which they seek to live. Symbols are used to communicate the
expectations of a given society to those new to it, either children or outsiders.
Through this broad schema of social development, one sees how social
interaction lies at its core.
The empirical study of social interaction is one of the subjects of

microsociology, which concerns the nature of everyday human social
interactions and agency on a small scale. Methods include symbolic
interactionism and ethnomethodology, as well as later academic sub-divisions
and studies like psychosocial studies, conversational analysis and
humancomputer interaction.
With symbolic interactionism, reality is seen as social, developed

interaction with others. It argues that both individuals and society cannot be
separated far from each other for two reasons. One being that they are both
created through social interaction. The second reason is they cannot be
understood in terms without the other. Ethnomethodology, an offshoot of
symbolic interactionism, which questions how people’s interactions can
create the illusion of a shared social order despite not understanding each
other fully and having differing perspectives.
A.5 SCHOOL CULTURE
The term school culture generally refers to the beliefs, perceptions,

relationships, attitudes, and written and unwritten rules that shape and
influence every aspect of how a school functions, but the term also
encompasses more concrete issues such as the physical and emotional
safety of students, the orderliness of classrooms and public spaces, or the
degree to which a school embraces and celebrates racial, ethnic, linguistic, or
cultural diversity.
Like the larger social culture, a school culture results from both
conscious and unconscious perspectives, values, interactions, and practices,
and it is heavily shaped by a school’s particular institutional history. Students,
parents, teachers, administrators, and other staff members all contribute to
their school’s culture, as do other influences such as the community in which
the school is located, the policies that govern how it operates, or the principles
upon which the school was founded.
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Generally speaking, school cultures can be divided into two basic

forms: positive cultures and negative cultures. Numerous researchers,
educators, and writers have attempted to define the major features of positive
and negative school cultures, and an abundance of studies, articles, and
books are available on the topic. In addition, many educational organizations,
such as the National School Climate Center (NSCC), have produced detailed
descriptions of positive school cultures and developed strategies for improving
them (given the complexity of the topic, however, it is not possible to describe
all the distinctions here).
Broadly defined, positive school cultures are conducive to professional

satisfaction, morale, and effectiveness, as well as to student learning,
fulfillment, and well-being. The following list is a representative selection of a
few characteristics commonly associated with positive school cultures:
 The individual successes of teachers and students are recognized and

celebrated.
 Relationships and interactions are characterized by openness, trust,

respect, and appreciation.
 Staff relationships are collegial, collaborative, and productive, and all
staff members are held to high professional standards.
 Students and staff members feel emotionally and physical safe, and the
school’s policies and facilities promote student safety.
 School leaders, teachers, and staff members model positive, healthy
behaviors for students.
 Mistakes not punished as failures, but they are seen as opportunities to
learn and grow for both students and educators.
 Students are consistently held to high academic expectations, and a
majority of students meet or exceed those expectations.
 Important leadership decisions are made collaboratively with input from
staff members, students, and parents.
 Criticism, when voiced, is constructive and well-intentioned, not
antagonistic or self-serving.
 Educational resources and learning opportunities are equitably
distributed, and all students, including minorities and students with
disabilities.
 All students have access to the academic support and services they
may need to succeed.
UNIT 1 SOCIETY AND EDUCATION

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PHILOSOPHICAL PERSPECTIVES
Philosophy
Philosopghy can be defined as a set of ideas that answer questions

about the nature of reality and about the meaning of life. Some important
questions that are commonly asked are …
 What is knowledge?
 What is worth striving for?
 What is just, good, right, or beautiful?
These are the philosophical questions that maybe

important in teachers’ lives.
Philosophy originated with the ancient Greek word Philo which means
love and Sophie which means wisdom. Philosophy is therefore the love of
wisdom.
Greek thinkers divided philosophy into three (3) branches:

metaphysics, epistemology, and axiology.
1. Metaphysics addresses reality. It is divided into two (2) categories:

 Ontology examines issues related to nature, existence, or
being.
 Cosm ology is related with the nature and origin of the universe
(the cosmos).
2. Epistem ology is concerned with the nature of knowledge – how we

come to know about things, or how we acquire knowledge. We acquire
knowledge through our senses, intuition, observation and logic, and
use of scientific method.
3. Axiology and its corollaries relate to value.

 Ethics relate to issues in morality and conduct.
 Aesthetics is
concerned with
beauty.
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The Philosophy of Education
Philosophy of education is a set of related beliefs that influence

what and how students are taught. Teachers’ philosophy
of education guidestheir behaviour or performance in the
classroom. The philosophy statement reflects their personality and
values.
Formulating your own philosophy may not be easy since you are just
beginning, but here are some questions you may consider in framing your
philosophical statement.
 What is the purpose of education?

 What content and skills should schoolds develop?
 How should schools teach the content of the curriculum?
 What are the roles of the students and tecahers in the teaching
learning process?
 How should learning be assessed?
In education, metaphysics refers to the knowledge of most worth which

is the curriculum. The subjects in the curriculum contain or describe the
knowledge which teachers should impart to the learners. Epistemology is
concerned with the methods of teaching or how teaching and learning are to
be delivered. Axiology relates to behaviour, civility, appreciation, and
expression.
Philosophical Roots of Education
Philosophies present generalized views of reality. Major philosophies

are hereby presented to help you formulate your own philosophy. Compare
the elements or features of each philosophy and decide which element you
would include in your philosophy of education.
1.1 CLASSICAL PHILOSOPHIES
1.1.1 IDEALISM
Idealism contends that reality lies in our consciousness or our intellect.

Idealists believe that perfect knowledge of the ideal resided outside humans
as an Absolute or as God. They believe that the spirtitual essence or soul is
the permanent element of human nature that gives them the power to think
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and feel. They believe that the ideas that make-up reality have already existed
in the mind of the Absolute or God so that when we know something, it means
we have reached our conscious understanding of these ideas.
Idealism envisions schools that are intellectual centers of teaching and

learning, where teachers guide the students to realize their intellectual
potential and appreciate the finest and enduring achievements of culture.
Idealism is a philosophical approach that has as its central tenet that

ideas are the only true reality, the only thing worth knowing. In a search for
truth, beauty, and justice that is enduring and everlasting, the focus is on
conscious reasoning in the mind. Plato, father of Idealism, espoused this view
about 400 years BC, in his famous book, The R epublic. Plato believed that
there are two worlds. The first is the spiritual or mental world, which is eternal,
permanent, orderly, regular, and universal. There is also the world of
appearance, the world experienced through sight, touch, smell, taste, and
sound, that is changing, imperfect, and disorderly. This division is often
referred to as the duality of mind and body. Reacting against what he
perceived as too much of a focus on the immediacy of the physical and
sensory world, Plato described a utopian society in which "education to body
and soul all the beauty and perfection of which they are capable" as an ideal.
In his allegory of the cave, the shadows of the sensory world must be
overcome with the light of reason or universal truth. To understand truth, one
must pursue knowledge and identify with the Absolute Mind. Plato also
believed that the soul is fully formed prior to birth and is perfect and at one
with the Universal Being. The birth process checks this perfection, so
education requires bringing latent ideas (fully formed concepts) to
consciousness.
In idealism, the aim of education is to discover and develop each

individual's abilities and full moral excellence in order to better serve society.
The curricular emphasis is subject
matter of mind: literature, history,
philosophy, and religion. Teaching
methods focus on handling ideas
through lecture, discussion, and
Socratic dialogue (a method of
teaching that uses questioning to help
students discover and clarify
knowledge). Introspection, intuition,
insight, and whole-part logic are used
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to bring to consciousness the forms or concepts which are latent in the mind.
Character is developed through imitating examples and heroes.
Idealist Teachers
 Believe that the schools are the repositories of eternal truth which have
organized the hierarchical curriculum in education.
 Believe that on top of this hierarchy are the most important subjects
that cultivate abstract thinking – Philosophy,
Theology, and Mathematics.
 Believe in the use of Socratic method – asking probing questions to
stimulate consciousness of students in discovering knowledge.
 Believe that thinking and learning are the processes of bringing latent
ideas to consciousness and logic is encouraged in organizing their
lessons.
 Believe that teachers should lead exemplary lives and be models for
students to imitate.
 Believe that the Internet can make the great book accessible to all, but
they insist that technology should be the means rather than the end in
transmitting knowledge.
Idealism Concept of School
Idealism believes in refined wisdom. It is based on the view that reality

is a world within a person's mind. It believes that truth is in the consistency of
ideas and that goodness is an ideal state to strive to attain.
As a result, schools exist to sharpen the mind and intellectual

processes. Students are taught the wisdom of past heroes.
Plato in the ‘Republic’ considered, at least speculatively, the possibility

of taking children away from the corrupt society which had given them birth
and in some separate place by means of an expurgated literature giving
mankind a fresh start through a proper education, and also there by building
an ideal state.
School is a place where the capacities of logical thinking, reasoning,

and evaluating of the child are progressively sublimated and developed by
teachers and the school environment into desirable channels so that high
spiritual ideals and values are gained. Such noble mission, according to
idealism may be achieved through proper guidance of teacher given in school.
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Hence, Idealists considered school and its impressionistic environment as

greatly essential.
The environment is structured and regimented. There is no emphasis

on the social and affective dimension of the learner. Authoritarianism
permeates the climate of the school.
1.1.2 REALISM
Realists believe that reality exists independent of the human mind. The
ultimate reality is the world of physical objects. The focus is on the
body/objects. Truth is objective-what can be observed.
Aristotle, a student of Plato who broke with his mentor's idealist

philosophy, is called the father of both Realism and the scientific method. In
this metaphysical view, the aim is to understand objective reality through "the
diligent and unsparing scrutiny of all observable data." Aristotle believed that
to understand an object, its ultimate form had to be understood, which does
not change. For example, a rose exists whether or not a person is aware of it.
A rose can exist in the mind without being physically present, but ultimately,
the rose shares properties with all other roses and flowers (its form), although
one rose may be red and another peach colored.
Aristotle also was the first to teach logic as a formal discipline in order
to be able to reason about physical events and aspects. The exercise of
rational thought is viewed as the ultimate purpose for humankind.
The Realist curriculum emphasizes the subject matter of the physical

world, particularly science and mathematics. The teacher organizes and
presents content systematically within a discipline, demonstrating use of
criteria in making decisions. Teaching methods focus on mastery of facts and
basic skills through demonstration and recitation. Students must also
demonstrate the ability to think critically and scientifically, using observation
and experimentation. Curriculum should be scientifically approached,
standardized, and distinct-discipline based. Character is developed through
training in the rules of conduct.
Realism advocates that reality is outside of our minds. They are not
internal to our minds as idealists claim. Realists believe that the objects we
perceive exist independently of the mind; that whether or not we perceive
these objects, they really exist in the world. Realists assert that the human
22
mind can know about the real world and that knowledge is a reliable guide to
our behavior.
For the realists, the purpose of

education is to teach students about
the world in which they live. That the
most accurate and efficient way of
learning is through the curriculum of
organized and classified subjectmatter
discipline.
Realist Teachers
 Believe that teachers should be

equipped with a wide repertoire
of methods in
teaching to achieve their goals.
 Believe that their primary responsibility is to bring students’ ideas about
the world into reality.
 Believe that deductive and inductive logic, and the scientific method are
reliable means to discover knowledge.
 Believe that the inclusion of non-academic activities interfere with the
school’s primary purpose as a center of disciplined academic inquiry.
 Believe in the use of technology as an aid in learning; they recommend
computer program to be as “realistic” and effective as possible.
Realism – Concept of School
Realism believes in the world as it is. It is based on the view that reality
is what we observe. It believes that truth is what we sense and observe and
that goodness is found in the order of the laws of nature.
As a result, school exists to reveal the order of the world and the
universe. Students are taught factual information.
John Amos Comenius in his great didactic describes the unique

function of the school in a manner which will symbolize modern realism. He
said that man is not made a man only by his/her biological birth if he/she is to
be made a man. Human culture must give direction and form to his/her basic
potentialities. This necessity of the school for the making of man was made
vivid or Comenius by reports which had come to him of children who had been
reared from infancy by animals. The recognition of this by Comenius caused
23
him to consider the education of men by men just as essential to man birth, as
a human creature, as is procreation. He therefore defined education as
formation and went so far as to call the school’s ‘a true forging place of man.’
Thus, the realism has brought great effect in various fields of education.
The aims, the curriculum, the methods of teaching the outlook towards the
child, the teachers, the discipline, and the system of education all were given
new blood. Realism in education dragged the education from the old
traditions, idealism, and the high and low tides to the real surface.
From this very general philosophical position, the Realist would tend to
view the learner as a sense mechanism, the Teacher as a demonstrator, the
Curriculum as the subject matter of the physical world (emphasizing
mathematics, science, etc.), the Teaching Method as the mastering facts and
information, and the Social Policy of the school as transmitting the settled
knowledge of Western civilization.
1.1.3 EXISTENTIALISM
The nature of reality for Existentialists is subjective, and lies within the
individual. The physical world has no inherent meaning outside of human
existence. Individual choice and individual standards rather than external
standards are central. Existence comes before any definition of what we are.
We define ourselves in relationship to that existence by the choices we make.
We should not accept anyone else's predetermined philosophical system;
rather, we must take responsibility for deciding who we are. The focus is on
freedom, the development of authentic individuals, as we make meaning of
our lives.
There are several different orientations within the existentialist

philosophy. Soren Kierkegaard (1813-1855), a Danish minister and
philosopher, is considered to be the founder of existentialism. His was a
Christian orientation.
Another group of existentialists, largely European, believes that we

must recognize the finiteness of our lives on this small and fragile planet,
rather than believing in salvation through God. Our existence is not
guaranteed in an after life, so there is tension about life and the certainty of
death, of hope or despair. Unlike the more austere European approaches
where the universe is seen as meaningless when faced with the certainty of
the end of existence, American existentialists have focused more on human
24
potential and the quest for personal meaning. Values clarification is an

outgrowth of this movement. Following the bleak period of World War II, the
French philosopher, Jean Paul Sartre, suggested that for youth, the existential
moment arises when young persons realize for the first time that choice is
theirs, that they are responsible for themselves. Their question becomes "W
ho am I and w hat should I do?”
Related to education, the subject matter of existentialist classrooms

should be a matter of personal choice. Teachers view the individual as an
entity within a social context in which the learner must confront others' views
to clarify his or her own. Character development emphasizes individual
responsibility for decisions. Real answers come from within the individual, not
from outside authority. Examining life through authentic thinking involves
students in genuine learning experiences. Existentialists are opposed to
thinking about students as objects to be measured, tracked, or standardized.
Such educators want the educational experience to focus on creating
opportunities for self-direction and self actualization. They start with the
student, rather than on curriculum content.
Existentialism – Concept of School
Existentialism believes in the personal interpretation of the world. It is

based on the view that the individual define reality, truth, and goodness.
As a result, schools exist to aid children in knowing themselves and

their place in society.
Students learn what they want and discuss subjects freely.
The school should provide an atmosphere where the individuals

develop in a healthy way. Any subject in school (even extra activities like
athletics, music, etc.) can present existential situations for teaching and the
development of human beings. The aim of school tasks should be to nurture
self-discipline and cultivate self-evaluation.
25
Mass teaching and mass testing is not advocated in schools. The
schedule must be flexible

and open. Democratic ideals
should pervade the school. Democracy
must be the soil in which the individual
grows. It should be the
democracy of unique
individuals who value differences and
respect one another. Self-government,
pupil participation in planning,
and the encouragement of a free
atmosphere characterize the school.
Mechanization and impersonality should be counteracted in school.

Students’ timetables and
work programmers are computerized. And thus the relationships between the
individual students and the school programmed become an impersonal one.
Besides this, the use of programmed instruction, teaching machines and other
equipment tend to decrease the personal contact between teachers and
pupils. This impersonality is a hazard to the individual development and
growth of the child’s personality. Concern and respect for the individual
student should be a feature of the school.
Nietzche’s attack on public education is based upon his conviction that

the public schools in his country destroyed individual freedom and
responsibility and replaced them with a state-enforced conformity. Since mass
education has been initiated by the state or in some instances by the Church,
many existentialists feel that both of these organizations have overstepped
26
their bounds. Nietzsche rightly comments “But w ho w ill persuade m e that

today’s (public) school have an absolute right to their existence?” ... I am not
convinced that in itself the school is necessarily a good thing. It is at best a
benevolent, well-meaning concentration camp. It denies in its actual make up
the very emancipation and enfranchisement of youth that is established to
cherish… Deny, if you can, the dreadful similarity between the mass education
of children in a school and the mass production of goods in a factory.”
Certainly, the atheistic existentialist has an additional reason for

denying the rights of the Church in educational matters, since he/she
considers the entire theological-administrative structure of the churches as a
grand and fraudulent imposition on the individual’s freedom of choice and
action. Such misuse of education can only be resisted by the existentialist.
The family, too, should not be considered the chief agency of

education. The authoritarian structure of families has crushed the individuality
of the young. Simple because the parents have provided the biological
components of the child, they are not entitled to dictate what the child shall
make of him/herself.
Consequently, we are left with only one conclusion: the individual is the
sole ‘agency” of education. The family, Church, and state should provide an
atmosphere conducive to the individual’s creation of his/her own essence.
Their only role in the educative process in an auxiliary one – a service role.
These agencies should cooperate in “freeing the individual” from the artificial
restraints of organized society so that he/she will be able to choose and act as
he/she wishes.
Existentialism is a philosophy that emphasizes the subjectivity of

human experience. It is more a process of philosophizing than it is a
philosophy. Existentialism asserts that the purpose of education is to help
students find meaning and directions in their lives.
Existentialist author, Jean-Paul Sartre often quoted the phrase

“Existence precedes essence,” meaning, we owe our existence to nature but
we define ourselves through our action. We create our own essence by
making our personal choices. When we are thrust into choice-making
situations, we are what we choose to be. We must take responsibility for our
choices.
Existentialists maintain that we create our own definition and make our
own essence by making personal choices in our lives.
27
Existentialist Teachers
 Believe that the purpose of education is to awaken our consciousness

about our freedom to choose and to create our own self-awareness
that contributes to our identity.
 Believe that students would be trained to philosophize, to question, and
to participate in dialogues about the meaning of life.
 Believe that self-expression, creativity, self-awareness, and
selfresponsibility should be developed in the students.
 Believe that open classrooms maximize freedom of choice.

 Believe in self-directed instruction.
 Believe that students should decide what they want to learn and when
to learn it.
1.1.4 PRAGM ATISM
Pragmatism evaluates the truth and meaning of ideas according to their

physical consequences and practical value. It emphasizes the need to test the
validity of these ideas by acting on them. The best way to validate ideas
empirically is by using the scientific method. For pragmatists, if something
works, it is true.
John Dewey, a pragmatist, related education as preparation for life. He

believed that the function of education was to enhance human potential to be
able to adapt to a constantly changing world. Students should be trained to
construct knowledge as they interact in the world. Pragmatists believe that
students should be encouraged to do researches and apply them to the
solution of a problem.
For pragmatists, only those

things that are experienced or
observed are real. In this late 19th
century American philosophy, the
focus is on the reality of
experience. Unlike the Realists and
Rationalists, Pragmatists believe
that reality is constantly changing
and that we learn best through
28
applying our experiences and thoughts to problems, as they arise. The

universe is dynamic and evolving,
a "becoming" view of the world. There is no absolute and unchanging truth,
but rather, truth is what works. Pragmatism is derived from the teaching of
Charles Sanders Peirce (1839-1914), who believed that thought must produce
action, rather than linger in the mind and lead to indecisiveness.
John Dewey (1859-1952) applied pragmatist philosophy in his

progressive approaches. He believed that learners must adapt to each other
and to their environment. Schools should emphasize the subject matter of
social experience. All learning is dependent on the context of place, time, and
circumstance. Different cultural and ethnic groups learn to work cooperatively
and contribute to a democratic society. The ultimate purpose is the creation of
a new social order. Character development is based on making group
decisions in light of consequences.
For Pragmatists, teaching methods focus on hands-on problem solving,

experimenting, and projects, often having students work in groups. Curriculum
should bring the disciplines together to focus on solving problems in an
interdisciplinary way. Rather than passing down organized bodies of
knowledge to new learners, Pragmatists believe that learners should apply
their knowledge to real situations through experimental inquiry. This prepares
students for citizenship, daily living, and future careers.
Pragm atism : Concept of School
Pragmatism sees the school as vitally concerened with and interested

in social change since it needs to prepare the adults of the future to deal with
the planning necessarily involved in the process called society.
John Dewey, has argued that the school exists to provide a

special environment for the formative years of human life. Such a special
environment is needed in the past because civilization is too complex to
provide an economic setting for learning. A special environment such as the
school can also eliminate the unworthy features of human society as it is. And
further the school as special environment can provide a balance of influence
which society itself will not give, providing greater breadth from other cultures
and avoiding parochialism.
With the move from the rural agrarian social structure which existed
before the turn of the century, and with the increase in urbanization,
transportation, communication, and industrialization, over the last 50 years,
29
the need for social planning has increased at an unbelievable rate. With the
growth of the new problems such as the uses of atomic energy, pollution,
conservation of natural resources, other space, drugs, increasing crime rates,
education of disadvantaged children, others too numerous to list, the school
has become the seed-bed for society. Never before argue the pragmatists,
has there been such a need for social concern and social planning. Simply let
society run rampant down an unplanned path. To do this is court destruction
not just for society, but for the world.
For school the idea that there are no absolute and unchanging truths
offers another dangerous challenge that many feel unable or unwilling to
accept. Traditionally the school has been viewed as society’s instrument for
the preservation and continuation of our cultural heritage. While the
pragmatists would not argue with this, they would carry it a step further. The
school and the whole process of education should be an instrument of social
change and social improvement. Not only should students be taught (and
even here the pragm atists w ould probably prefer to say “not only should
students be helped to learn… ”) factual materials, they should deal with social
problems. More conservative schoolmen will argue that this is not the function
of the school and that if the school and the classroom become instrument of
inquiry and of social change, we are moving away from stability and toward
anarchy.
Pragm atist Teachers
 Believe that education is an experimental process – a method of

solving problems that challenges people as they interact with the world.
 Believe that children should learn how to make difficult decisions by
considering the consequences of their actions on others.
 Believe that education should focus in real-life problems to be prepared
to live fully and effectively in society.
 Believe that students should learn the process of problem-solving
rather than by being passive learners as knowledge is being
transmitted to them.
 Believe in collaborative learning where the students share their
interests and problems.
 Believe that interdisciplinary education is better than departmentalized
curriculum in education.
 Believe in taking risk in education to achieve their goal.
 Believe in values-clarification rather than blindly accepting inherited
values.
30
 Believe that communication technologies such as e-mail and internet

provide opportunities to share ideas, insights, and experiences.
1.1.5 NATURALISM
Naturalism – Concept of School
What institution shall train a child? Is education a public or a family

function? These were some of the doubts that were raised during Rousseau’s
time. For Rousseau both were important depending on the needs involved.
Both systems were designed to preserve those fundamental virtues which
constituted the supreme end of lie and the chief good of the state. “They are
both cooperating factors in a sm all state, and through both the com m on life,
habits, and sentim ents are com m unicated to the young. Both unite in
developing quality, fraternity, sim plicity, liberty, and all the other virtue.”
Naturalist believed that the parent’s role is very important in the child’s
education, one shouldhave schools (formalized institutions)
whose very existence is rooted in nature. The period of infancy of the human
species, is greatly prolonged as
compare to animals, and thereby
demands extended training which
the parents usually are not
able to provide.
Consequently, it is quite “natural”
for man to create institutions
which will enable him/her to learn
the manifold habits, skills, and
knowledge necessary to live a full
human life.
Pestalozzi and Spencer

recognized this and accepted the
school as one of the fundamental
agencies. Pestalozzi conducted his “natural education” within the setting of
the boarding school. Spencer, too placed upon the formalized school the
responsibility for educating the “whole child”. He disclaimed the view,
accepted at his time, that the school’s primary job consists of nourishing the
mind. Spencer’s recommendation that school assume responsibility for health
and physical education, vocational, and social education, as well intellectual
training, seems to indicate that he makes the school the primary educational
agency.
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Furthermore, Spencer’s religious agnosticism aligns him with the

complete secularization of the school, relegating to the Church little or no
educative function. The rise of the modern secular school, might be traced in
part to the influence of the great naturalists, especially Rousseau and
Spencer.
OTHER PHILOSOPHIES AND THEORIES RELATED TO

EDUCATION
1.2 MODERN PHILOSOPHIES
1.2.1 PERENNIALISM
Perennialism asserts that the primary purpose of education is to bring

students in contact with the truth by cultivating their intellect and sense of
rationality or reasoning power. They contend that there are principles that
students need to learn like the universality of truth, the importance of
rationality, and the power of aesthetics. They also propose the study of
religion to encourage ethical behavior.
Perennialists urge that students read the Great Books – works by

history’s finest thinkers and writers and develop their understanding of the
concepts about human knowledge. They oppose the inclusion of
nonacademic subjects in the curriculum because they defeat the primary
purpose of the school which is to develop students’ intellectuality. They
endorse subject-matter curriculum loaded with cognitive subjects that develop
rationality and morality.
Known key theorists include Robert Hutchins and Mortimer Adler.
Perennialist Teachers
 Believe that teachers are the intellectual mentors and models for their
students.
32
 Believe that fundamental skills such as reading, writing, computation,

and research be developed starting the elementary grades to prepare
them for lifelong learning.
 Believe that subjects with human concern like history, literature, drama,
and art should be included in the secondary school curriculum.
 Believe that their role is to sharpen the student’s intellectual powers
and enhance their moral qualities.
 Believe that electronic version of great books and other classics maybe
viewed by larger audience but this could not be a substitute for reading
the classics.
Perennialism – Concept of School
This is a very conservative and inflexible philosophy of education. It is

based on the view that reality comes from fundamental fixed truths-especially
related to God. It believes that people find truth through structured lessons
and drills.
The ecclesiastical perennialists see the school as concerned with the

secular in education and particularly the training of the intellect. But in addition
to this they see a second aim carefully interwoven through the fabric of
education. They view education as a moral and religious undertaking. The
ecclesiastical perennialists believe that the school cannot separate itself from
the study of those things that have come to man through faith and revelation.
Thus, the Roman Catholic Church in America has continued to maintain a
separate school system so that it might permeates its “secular” teachings with
its moral and religious convictions. If we were to sum up the whole
educational aim of the ecclesiastical perennialists in one sentence it would be,
“Catholic,” and it is at this that the Catholic parochial schools from
kindergarten through graduate school aim.
1.2.2 ESSENTIALISM
Essentialism is a teacher-centered philosophy that adheres to the belief

that the basic skills of literacy (reading and writing) and numeracy
33
(arithmetic) as well as subject-matter
knowledge shouldbe developed

in schools. Subjects such as
history, mathematics, science,
languages, and literature are
essential subjects for
secondary education. They believe that
these basic essential subject-
matter need to be mastered
to be able to function
effectively in society.
These skills will prepare them to be
competent and skilled individuals for
the competitive global village.
Essentialists argue the schools and teachers must be committed to

their
primary academic function – to teach students with knowledge and skills that
will prepare them to function effectively and efficiently in a democratic society.
Essentialists favor a subject-matter curriculum which should be

cumulative and sequentially arranged, starting with low order thinking skills to
more complex higher order level.
Essentialists do not favor innovative or process – learning approaches

like constructivism which allows students to construct knowledge based on
past knowledge/experiences. They adhere more on teacher-directed
instruction because they believe teachers are trained professionals who
should guide and direct the learning of students.
34
Known theorists include William Bagley and E.D. Hirsh, Jr.
Essentialist Teachers
 Believe that teachers have authority to discipline students.

 Believe that teachers should have mastery of knowledge and skills they
teach.
 Believe in the use of deductive method in teaching.
 Believe that students should learn the “essentials.”
 Believe that only when the students mastered the required
competencies they be promoted to higher level.
 Believe that test scores are the basis for evaluating student’s progress.
1.2.3 PROGRESSIVISM
Progressivists belong to a reform movement

that opposed the traditional education. They were against:
 authoritarian teachers,
 book-based instruction,
 rote memorization, and
 authoritarian classroom management.
Progressivists contend that although knowledge may come from varied

sources, the best way to learn is by actively exploring or be engaging in direct
experiences. They believe the school should be a laboratory for
experimentation. They organize schools around the concerns, curiosity, and
real-world experiences of the learners. They advocate using the project
method and problem-solving which promotes democratic learning
communities in the classroom.
Known theorists include John Dewey and Maria Montessori.
Progressivist Teachers
 Believe that teachers should possess a repertoire of learning activities

to be used in the teaching-learning process like problem-solving, field
trips, creative artistic expressions, and projects.
 Believe that the child should be free to develop naturally.

35
 Believe that interest motivated by direct experience stimulates learning.

 Believe that the teacher is a facilitator of learning.
 Believe that there should be close cooperation between the home and
the school.
 Believe that students’ needs, interest, and
readiness shouldbe considered in constructing the
curriculum.
1.2.4 SOCIAL RECONSTRUCTIONISM
This is theory rooted on progressivism. In fact, social reconstructionists

were considered as the more socially-oriented progressivists. They sought to
make schools of a larger social
reforms. They contended that schools
need to investigate and work to solve
social, political, and economic
problems, and eventually create a new
society.
Social reconstructionists believe

that people are responsible for their
social conditions. They have the power
to take control of their lives, improve
their human conditions, and build a just
and good society. Education, therefore,
should prepare the students meet the demand of society.
Paulo Freire is a known theorist.
Social Reconstructionist Teachers
 Believe that the school is the ideal place to begin alleviating social
problems.
 Believe in using project method and problem-
solving method in teaching.
 Believe that research is an effective means in solving problems of
society.
 Believe that the intellectual, emotional, and personal needs of the
students should be considered in the learning process.
 Believe that teachers must model democratic principles.
36
1.2.5 HUM ANISM
Hum anism – Concept of School
Humanism believes that things are constantly changing. It is based on

the view that reality is what you experience. It believes that truth is what works
right now and goodness comes from group decisions.
As a result, schools exist to discover and expand the society we live in.
Students study social experiences and solve problems.
During the medieval period, and for the many centuries prior to it, the
family and the church were the primary educational agencies. Public
educating passed out of the educational scene with the collapse of the Roman
Empire. During the Dark Ages education was kept alive only in the monastic
schools.
At the height of the Renaissance many schools flourished under private

auspices, usually that of a scholar. Also there were many schools in the court
of the nobles and aristocracy. The complete break with church-controlled
education came with the Reformation.
The reformers maintained that education was a state function. Thus,

one finds the first completely independent public school system in the
Protestant district of Wurtemberg, Germany about the middle of 16th Century.
Humanism regarded education as equal to physical procreation as a

necessity in making man. He had come across reports of instances in which
infants have been reared by animals and as a result followed a pattern of life
closer to that of the animals with which they have lived than to human
patterns. They argued therefore that the culture of man had to give form to the
human potentialities with which we are born, in order for us to be men. And
this is the task of education. This is why they characterized education as “a
true forging place of m en.”
37
1.2.6 M ARXISM
Marxism – Concept of School
In order to destroy the
influence of the family in the education of the children, state-sponsored

nursery schools were established as rapidly as possible. When a child was
three (3) years old he/she was placed in these nursery schools so that he/she
could be given the “proper start” in his/her educational career and so that
his/her mother can participate in productive labor and the political life of the
nation. These nursery schools assumed the responsibility of the family in
providing food, shelter, exercise, and the general physical development of the
child. Character development, training of the will, and early intellectual
development were given high priority in these preschool years. Habits of
cleanliness, respect for his/her own belongings and for public property
coupled with training in cooperative activities with his/her fellow pupils. The
whole program is designed to make the child a more effective member of the
collective.
Although it is not possible for all children to be placed in nursery

schools and kindergartens, great efforts are expended to enroll as many as
possible. Special attention is given to those children who might be turned
against the Soviet state by parents who do not sympathize with revolution.
And once the child enrolls in the first grade his/her working hours are largely
under the control of the school and communist youth groups.
With the family and the Church “out of the show” the state has a free
hand in designing an educational program to serve its needs. The
centralization of educational power in state is absolute. “Schools are opened,
approved, and run by the state.”
Some countries have centralized control of education. But this control is

in the hands of educators. In the Communist countries, the party leaders
decree what the schools shall teach it, and how shall it be taught. Centers for
educational research exist, but their findings can be applied in schools only
when they are approved by party authorities. The only criterion applied to
such research regarding its acceptability is whether or not it serves the needs
of the state and is in harmony with Marxist ideology.
38
1.3 LET’S ADD TO W HAT YOU KNOW
After you have gotten an idea of the philosophies you learn let us know
more about each of them.
Philosophy Why Teach What to Teach How to Teach
Constructivism Constructivists The learners are taught In the constructivist
see to develop how to learn. They are classroom, the
intrinsically taught learning teacher provides
39
motivated and processes and skills students with data or

independent such as searching, experiences that
learners critiquing, and allow them to
adequately evaluating information, hypothesize, predict,
equipped with relating these pieces of manipulate objects,
learning skills for information, reflecting
pose questions,
them to be able on the same, making
research, investigate,
to construct meaning out of them,
imagine, and invent.
knowledge and drawing insights, posing
make meaning questions, researching The constructivist
of them. and constructing new classroom is
knowledge out of these interactive. It
bits of information promotes dialogical
learned. exchange of ideas
among learners and
between teacher and
learners. The
teacher’s role is to
facilitate this process.
Knowledge isn’t a
thing that be simply
deposited by the
teacher into the
empty minds of the
learners. Rather
knowledge is
constructed by the
learners through an
active mental process
of development;
learners are the
builders and creators
of knowledge. Their
minds are not empty.
Instead, their minds
are full of ideas
waiting to be
“midwifed” by the
teacher with his/her
skillful facilitating
skills.
40
Essentialism This philosophy Essentialist programs Essentialist teachers

contends that are academically emphasize mastery of
teachers teach rigorous. The emphasis subject matter. They
for learners to is on the academic are expected to be
acquire basic content for students to intellectual and moral
knowledge, learn the basic skills or models of their
skills, and the fundamental r’s – students. They are

values. reading, ‘riting, seen as “fountain” of
Teachers teach ‘rithmetic, right conduct information and as
“not to radically – as these are essential “paragon of virtue,”
reshape to the acquisition of if ever there is such
society but higher or more complex a person. To gain
rather to skills needed in mastery of basic
transm it the preparation for adult life.
skills, teachers have
The essentialist
traditional m to observe “core
curriculum includes the
oral values and requirem ents,
“traditional disciplines
intellectual such as m ath, natural longer school day, a
knowledge that science, history, foreign longer academ ic
students need to language, and year… ”
becom e m odel literature. Essentialists
citizens.” frown upon vocational With mastery of
courses … ” or other academic content as
courses with watered primary focus,
down academic teachers rely heavily
content… The teachers on the use of
and administrators
prescribed textbooks,
decide what is most
the drill method, and
important for the
other methods that
students to learn and
will enable them to
place little emphasis on
cover as much
student interest,
academic content as
particularly when they
possible like the
divert time and attention
lecture method. There
from the academic
is a hevery stress on
curriculum.
memorization and
discipline.
41
Progressivism Progressivist The progressivists are Progressivist teachers

teachers teach identified with employ experiential
to develop needbased and methods. They
learners into relevant curriculum. believe that one
becoming This is a curriculum learns by doing. For
enlightened and John Dewey, the most
that “responds to
popular advocate of
intelligent students’ needs and
progressivism, book
citizens of a that relates to the
learning is no
democratic student’s personal substitute for actual
society. This lives and experience. One
group of experiences.” experiential teaching
teachers
method that
teaches learners
Progressivists accept progressivist teachers
so they may live
the impermanence of heavily rely on is the
life fully NOW
life and the inevitability problem-solving
not to prepare
of change. For the method. This
them for the
adult life. progressivists,
everything else
changes. Change is the
only thing that does not problem-solving

change. Hence, method makes use of
progressivist teachers the scientific method.
are more concerned
with teaching the Other “hands-
learners the skills to onminds-on-hearts-
cope with change. on” teaching
Instead of occupying methodology that
themselves with progressivist teachers
use are field trips
teaching facts and bits
during which students
of information that are
interact with nature or
true today but become society. Teachers also
obsolete tomorrow, they stimulate students
would rather focus their through
teaching on the skills or thoughtprovoking
processes in gathering games, and puzzles.
and evaluating
information and in
problem-solving.
The subjects that are

given emphasis in
progressivist schools
are the “natural and
social sciences.”
42
Teachers expose
students to many
new
scientific, technological,
and social
developments, reflecting
the progressivist notion
that progress and
change are
fundamental…. In
addition, students solve
problems in the
classroom similar to
those they will
encounter outside the
schoolhouse.
Perennialism We are all The perennilaist The perennialist
rational animals. curriculum is a universal classrooms are
Schools, one on the view that all “centered around
should, human beings possess teachers.” the
therefore, the same essential teachers do not allow
develop the nature. It is heavy on the students’ interests
students’ the humanities, on or experiences to
rational and
moral powers. general education. It is substantially dictate

According to not a specialist what they teach. They
Aristotle, if we curriculum but rather a apply whatever
neglect the general one. There is creative techniques
students’ less emphasis on and other tried and
reasoning skills, vocational and technical true methods which
education. Philosopher are believed to be
we deprive them
Mortimer Adler claims most conducive to
of the ability to
that the “G reat Books disciplining the
use their higher of ancient and m students’ minds.
faculties to edieval as w ell as m Students engaged in
control their odern tim es are a Socratic dialogues, or
passions and repository of knowledge mutual inquiry
appetites. and w isdom , a sessions to develop
tradition of culture w an understanding of
hich m ust initiate each history’s most
generation.” What the timeless concepts.
perennialist teachers
teach are lifted from the
Great Books.
Essentialism The main “In an existentialist Existentialist m
concern of the curriculum , students ethods focus on the
43
existentialists is are given a w ide individual. Learning

“to help variety of options from is self-paced,
students which to choose.” selfdirected. It
understand and Students are afforded includes a great deal
appreciate them great latitude in their of individual contact
selves as
choice of subject matter. w ith the teacher,
unique
The humanities, who relates to each
individuals who
however, are given student openly and
acceet com
plete tremendous emphasis honestly. To help
responsibility “to provide students w students know them
for their ith various experiences selves and their
thoughts, that w ill help unleash place in society,
feelings, and their ow n creativity and teachers em ploy
actions.” Since selfexpression. For values clarification
‘existence exam ple, rather than strategy. In the use
precedes em phasizing historical of such strategy,
essence’, the events, existentialists teachers rem ain
existentialist nonjudgm ental and
focus upon the actions
teacher’s role is take care not to im
of historical individuals,
to help students pose their values on
define their own each of w hom
their students since
essence by provides possible m
values are personal.”
exposing them odels for the students’
to various paths ow n behavior. … M
they take in life oreover, vocational
and by creating education is regarded
an environment m ore as a m eans of
in which they teaching students about
them selves and their
freely choose potential than of

their own earning a livelihood. In
preferred way. teaching art,
Since feeling is existentialism
not divorced encourages individual
creativity and im
from reason in
agination m ore than
decision making,
copying and im itating
the existentialist
established m odels.”
demands the
education of the
whole person,
“not just the
mind.”
44
Behaviorism Behaviorist Because behaviorists Behaviorist teachers

schools are look at “people and “ought to arrange
concerned with other anim als… as environm ental
the modification com plex com binations conditions so that
and shaping of of m atter that act only students can m ake
students’ in response to
responses to stim uli.
internally or externally
behavior by Physical variables
generated physical stim
providing for a like light, tem
uli,” behaviorist
favorable perature, arrangem
teachers teach students
environment, to respond favorably to ent of furniture, size,
since they various stimuli in the and quantity of visual
believe that they environment. aids have to be
are a product of controlled to get the
their desired responses
environment. from the learners…
They are after Teachers ought to m
students who ake the stim uli clear
exhibit desirable
and interesting to
behavior in
capture and hold the
society.
learners’ attention.
They ought to
provide appropriate
incentives to
reinforce
positive responses
and w eaken or
elim inate negative
ones.” (Trespeces,
2005)
Linguistic To develop Learners should be The most effective
Philosophy communication taught to communicate way to teach
skills of the clearly – how to send language and
learner because clear, concise communication is the
the ability to messages, and how to experiential way.
articulate, to receive and correctly
Make them
voice out the understand messages
experience sending
45
meaning and sent. Communication and receiving

values of things takes place in three (3) messages through
that one obtains ways – verbal, verbal, non-verbal,
from his/her nonverbal, and para- and para-verbal
experience of verbal. Verbal manner. Teacher
life and the component refers to the should make the
world is the very content of our message, classroom a place for
essence of man. the choice and the interplay of minds
It is through arrangement of our and hearts. The
his/her ability to words. This can be oral teacher facilitates
express or written. Nonverbal dialogue among
him/herself component refers to the learners and in
clearly, to get message we send between him/her.
his/her ideas through our body
across, to make language while para-
known to others verbal component
the values that refers to how we say
he/she has what we say – the tone,
imbibed, the pacing, and volume of
beauty that our voices.
he/she has
seen, the There is need to teach
ugliness that learners to use
he/she rejects, language that is correct,
and the truth precise, grammatical,
that he/she has coherent, and accurate
discovered. so that they are able to
Teachers teach communicate clearly
to develop in the and precisely their
learner the skill thoughts and feelings.
to send There is a need to help
messages students expand their
clearly and vocabularies to enhance
receive their communication
message skills. There is a need to
correctly.
teach the learners how
to communicate clearly
through non-verbal
means and consistently
through para-verbal
means.
There is need to caution

the learners for the
verbal and non-verbal
46
barriers of
communication.
Teach them to speak as
many languages as you
can. The more
languages one speaks,
the better he/she can
communicate with the
world. A multilingual has
an edge over
monolingual or bilingual.
1.4 KEY PROPONENTS OF EDUCATIONAL PHILOSOPHIES
Philosophy Proponent Quotable Quotes
Idealism Socrates  “The ultim ate of education is truth.”
 “The problem of evil is the results of
ignorance.”
Plato  “The im portant function of
education is to determ ine w hat
every
individual is by doing things.”
 “The ultim ate goal of
education is justice.”
Rene Descartes  “I think, therefore I am .”
(Father of M  “The reality of the w orld is
odern guaranteed to him by the goodness
Philosophy) of G od.”
George Berkelay  “That m ind is active and is an
(Founder of agent of ideas w hich are passive
M odern Idealism effects of m ental activity.”
)
Realism Aristotle  “The ultim ate goal of
(Founder of R education is happiness.”
ealism ; Inventor  “The end of education is not know
of Form al Logic) ledge done. It is the union of the
innate intellect of the individual and
of his w ill.”
 “Know ledge is expressed in
action.”
Harris Broudy  “The value of education is to live
the good life, through self-
realization and self-integration.”
John Locke  “Education can shape the pupil
47
(Proponent of according to the disposition of the

Tabula R asa or teacher.”
“Blank State”  “A good life is a life of pleasure.”
Theory; Father of
English
Em piricism )
John Comenius  “Effective learning is
(Father of M done through vernacular.”
odern
Education)
Johan Heinrich  “Teaching should proceed from the
Pestalozzi know n to the unknow n.”
 “Education is a social process of
organized grow th and
developm ent.”
Jean Jacques  “M an is born free bur everyw here
Rousseau is in chains.”
(Father of M  “The child is the m ost im portant
odern com ponent of the school system .”
D em ocracy)
Pragmatism/ John Dewey  “Learning by doing.”
Experimentalism/ (Founder of  “Education is grow th and
Progressivism Pragm atism ) continuous reconstruction of
experience.”
Charles Sanders  “Thinking through philosophical
Pierce and scientific problem .”
William James  “Theory of know ledge is the
theory of truth.”
48
W hy not try to enjoy your coffee by now ? Just before you

start the assessm ent.
Assessm ent
Kindly answ er the item s below .
1. What elements of each of the theory/philosophy of education do you

agree with? (Specify the philosophy.)
2. Which of these elements would you incorporate into

your own philosophy?
3. Prepare a comparison matrix of major philosophies.

Idealism Realism Pragmatism
Aims o
Education f
Role o
Teachers f
Role o
Students f
Curriculum
4. How does each philosophy view education? (Specify the philosophy.)

5.
Explain briefly but substantively the following:
5.1 “I think, therefore I am .”
5.2 “Education is a social process of organized grow th and developm
ent.”
5.3 “M an is born free but everyw here is in chains.”
5.4 “Education can shape the pupil according to the disposition of the
teachers.”
5.5 “The theory of know ledge is the theory of truth.”
6. Agree or Disagree. Take your side then discuss your point.
6.1 “Education is grow th and continuous reconstruction of experience.”
6.2 “Effective learning is done through vernacular.”
49
6.3 “A good life is a life of pleasure.”

6.4 A. “The ultim ate goal of education is justice.” B.
“The ultim ate goal of education if happiness.”
C . “The ultim ate goal of education is truth.”
6.5 “The problem of evil is the results of ignorance.”
7.
Discuss the role of each of the word listed below in shaping the minds
of the students:
 Society
 Community
 Education
 Social Interaction
 School Culture
8.
Write your own experience on how you were influenced (your
personality and convictions in life) by:
 Society
 Community (neighborhood)
 School Culture
50
 Social Interaction (friends and others)
SUGGESTED READINGS
De Asis, L.A. D em ocratization of Education. Modules in Education 331

(Foundation of Education). University of Eastern Philippines, Catarman,
Northern Samar
Lim, L.S. The Teaching Profession
Men in the Modern Education Periods (online source)
Musgrave, P.W. The R elationship betw een School and The C om m unity.
Community Development Journal
REFERENCES:
51
Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (2015). The Concepts of
Community.
https://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/communityengagement/pce_concepts.html
Bilbao, Purita, et.al (2018). The Teaching Profession. Lorimar Publishing, Inc.,
Quezon City, Philippines.
Bilbao, Purita, et.al (2016). Becom ing a 21 st C entury Educational Leader.

Lorimar Publishing, Inc., Quezon City, Philippines.
Cohen, L.M. (1999). Branches of Philosophy. School of Education, Oregon

State University, USA. https://oregonstate.edu/instruct/ed416/PP1.html
Cohen, L.M. (1999). Four G eneral or W orld Philosophies. Section III –

Philosophical Perspectives in Education Part 2. School of Education,
Oregon State University, USA.
https://oregonstate.edu/instruct/ed416/PP2.html
Great Schools Partnership (2013). School C ulture. The Glossary of Education

Reform https://www.edglossary.org/school-culture/
Hoy, W.K. & Mickel, C.G. (2016). Educational Adm inistration. McGraw. Hill
Companies, Inc., New York, NV., USA.
Lim, L.S., Caubic, RA., & Casihan (2014). The Teaching Profession. Adriane
Publishing Co., Inc., Quezon City, Philippines.
Lumen. Understanding Social Interaction. Boundless Sociology.

https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundlesssociology/chapter/underst
anding-social-interaction/
Output Education (2016). The True M eaning of Education.

https://www.outputeducation.com/the-true-meaning-definition-
andconcept-of-education/
School, Community, and Teacher. http://hec.gov.pk.
Thompson, K. (2017). What is society, and should sociologists study it? Social
Theory (A2) Sociological Concepts
https://revisesociology.com/2017/07/07/what-is-society-sociology/
Vega, V.A. & Prieto (2009). Social D im ensions of Education. Lorimar

Publishing, Inc., Quezon City, Philippines
46

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The Teacher and the Community, School Culture, and Organizational Leadership

Republic of the Philippines

THE TEACHER AND THE COMMUNITY,

1.1 Classical Philosophies

Welcome to this class – The Teacher and the Community, School

This course focuses on society as a context of schools and schooling

This Module I discusses the basic concepts and definitions of society,

As would be educators, I am encouraging you to have the right focus

There are three major branches of philosophy. Each branch focuses on

‘Society is a concept used to describe the structured relations and

Origins of the Concept

The concept of society can be traced to the fourteenth century, when

Durkheim argued that society has an independent reality from

However, the relevance of bounded-societies has been questioned

Sociology as the ‘Study of Society’

The concept of sociology has been fundamental to sociology’s

Talcott Parsons added another important defining characteristic of

For most of sociology’s history, sociologists have studied and compared

There have been many attempts to understand social change by

However, the problem with a ‘bounded sociology’ which limits itself to

1.B COM MUNITY

A communitybeliefs is actually a small or large social unit (a group of

spiritual and physical well-being of people, and health care

the w hole organism . A healthy community has

The philosopher and psychologist William James shed light

consider two perspectives on identity: the “I,” or how a person

The eligibility criteria that scientists, policy makers, and others

The True Meaning, Definition and Concept of Education

Education has various meanings:

According to a few others, the word “Education” has originated from

By educating an individual we attempt to give him some desirable

As an individual in the society, he has to think critically about various

Western Concept of Education

Friedrich “Education is unfolding of w hat is already enfolded in the

A.D SOCIAL INTERACTION

 A social interaction is an exchange between two or more individuals

 By interacting with one another, people design rules, institutions and

 With symbolic interactionism, reality is seen as social, developed

A social interaction is a social exchange between two or more

Social structures and cultures are founded upon social interactions. By

The empirical study of social interaction is one of the subjects of

With symbolic interactionism, reality is seen as social, developed

A.5 SCHOOL CULTURE

The term school culture generally refers to the beliefs, perceptions,

Generally speaking, school cultures can be divided into two basic

Broadly defined, positive school cultures are conducive to professional

 The individual successes of teachers and students are recognized and

 Relationships and interactions are characterized by openness, trust,

UNIT 1 SOCIETY AND EDUCATION

Philosopghy can be defined as a set of ideas that answer questions

These are the philosophical questions that maybe

Greek thinkers divided philosophy into three (3) branches:

1. Metaphysics addresses reality. It is divided into two (2) categories:

2. Epistem ology is concerned with the nature of knowledge – how we

3. Axiology and its corollaries relate to value.

The Philosophy of Education

Philosophy of education is a set of related beliefs that influence

 What is the purpose of education?

In education, metaphysics refers to the knowledge of most worth which

Philosophical Roots of Education

Philosophies present generalized views of reality. Major philosophies

1.1 CLASSICAL PHILOSOPHIES

Idealism contends that reality lies in our consciousness or our intellect.

Idealism envisions schools that are intellectual centers of teaching and