MAKERERE UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF NATURAL SIENCES

SCHOOL OF PHYSICAL SCIENCES

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS

THERMAL PROFILE OF A THERMAL ENERGY

STORAGE SYSTEM
Undergraduate Thesis in Physics

BY

BAKALUBA DANIEL
18/U/22380/PS
1800722380

A PROJECT REPORT SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF

PHYSICS IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR
THE AWARD OF THE DEGREE OF BACHELOR OF SCIENCE WITH
EDUCATION OF MAKERERE UNIVERSITY

SUPERVISOR

DR NYEINGA KARIDEWA

JANUARY , 2022
 Acknowledgements

I dedicate this marvelous piece of work to my supervisor Dr .

Karidewa ,my father Mr.Luboyera Joseph and my Aunt mrs Nakiberu
Lydia who have worked so hard to make me see this far in
educatiopn, grand parents mr and mrs Wamala Patrick; .God bless
you abundantly
 Table of Contents
1 Introduction …………………………………………………………………………………………3
1.1 Problem statement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ………………………………………………….. . . 5
1.2 Aim and Objectives . . . ………………………………………. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.3 Justification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ………………………………………………. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2 Literature Review and Theoretical background ……………………………….6
2.1 Theoretical background . . . . . . . . . . ………………………………………... . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.1.1 Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ………………………………………………………….. . . 6
2.2.0 Energy Storage………………………………………………………………………….……………….6
2.2.1 Sensible Heat……………………………….…………………………………………………………….6
2.2.2 Latent Heat…………………………………….…………………………………………………………..7
2.2.3 Types of latent heat…………………..………………………………………………….…………….7
2.3.0 Heat Transfer……………………………..……………………………………………..…………….10
2.3.1 Conduction …………………………………………………………………………………….………10
2.3.2 Convection …………………………………………..…………………………………………………10
2.3.3 Radiation ………………………………………………………………………………………………11

3 Materials and Methods ………………………………………………………..…………………12

3.1 instruments used . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ………………………….... . . ……..12

4 Results and Discussion……………………………………………………………………………15

4.1 Methods (experimental method ) . . . . …………………... . . . . . . . . . .15
4.1.1 Results(graph) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ………………………….. . . . . . 16

5 Discussion and Conclusions …………………………………………………..….18

5.1 conclusion . . . . . . . . . . …………………….. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

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5.2 Recommendation . . . . . . . ……. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
References 19
Appendices 20

A.1 Table of results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

B List of Acronyms and Abbreviations 22

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 Chapter 1

Introduction
Abstract
The thermal performance of a thermal energy storage (TES) system suitable for solar
thermal applications has been tested and analysed. The experimental set-up consisted of a
TES tank, thermo couples,pico data logger , thermia B oil was used as both the heat storage
material and heat transfer fluid. The TES tank was built using mild steel material of
dimensions (internal diameter of 10cm and height of 40cm) thermocouples (temperature
sensors) were arranged inside the tank to measure the temperature profile during charging
a 1.5KW heater was purchased and used and refined thamia B cooked and its temperature
studied Data logger interface with the computer were connected to the temperature sensors
the data logger configured to measure temperature in every one minute the experiment had
to run for one hour until the maximum temperature in the tank is 220 0C ,The heat transfer
was such that hot oil flowed inside the TES tank as the upper tank being too hot and the
lower tank being too cold, which was in contact with the oil.

1.0 Introduction

Energy for cooking takes up more than 50% of the total household energy
consumption on the African continent [1]. Around 94% of the rural and 73% of
the urban households are dependent on wood fuels for their cooking energy
needs [2]. According to a report from the Uganda Bureau of Statistics, about
(90%) of households use wood fuel with 80% of rural households using
firewood and 70% of urban households using charcoal [3]. However, the over
dependence on biomass is a threat to the forest reserves and has resulted into
negative environmental effects like climate change, limited control of floods,
influencing rainfall patterns, less absorption of pollutants and effects on other
ecosystem services [4]. Furthermore, the prolonged and inefficient use of wood
fuels exposes the population to indoor air pollution that is linked to health
issues like cancer, tuberculosis, and low birth weight among others [5].

Fortunately, Uganda is endowed with an abundant solar energy resource

throughout the year. Existing solar data indicate a solar insolation of about (5–
6) kWh/m2 per day and an average of 6 sunshine hours [6].

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Solar cooking is considered as one of the simplest, most viable and attractive
options in terms of utilization of solar energy [7]. Solar cookers can provide a
clean, alternative method for cooking in developing countries. Solar cookers are
classified into direct and indirect solar cookers. In direct solar cookers, solar
radiation is used directly in the cooking process and is mainly box type and
concentrating type. Box type cookers are popular since they are easy to handle
and operate, do not require tracking of the sun and are relatively cheap as
compared to other types of solar cookers. However, the disadvantage of solar
box cookers is their slow cooking process due to low temperatures and cooking
time being limited to sunny periods of the day. Concentrating type solar cookers
work with one or two axis tracking and can achieve higher temperatures of up
to about 3000C [8], but they have a challenge with requiring tracking of the sun,
are not portable due to their big size and are relatively expensive. Indirect solar
cookers use a heat transfer fluid

Need for Thermal energy storage :

 Reduce peak demand and level demand by storing energy when there is less
demand and releasing when there is high demand.
 Reduce CO2 emissions and costs by making sure energy is used when it is
cheaper and there is more renewable energy in the mix.
 Increase the overall energy efficiency of energy systems.
 Thermal energy storage is also a key part of peak shaving systems, where off-
peak power is used to drive heat pumps that can produce heat or cold
produced by cheaper electric power and waste heat from industrial sources in
order to balance energy system loads.

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1.1 problem statement
To adress the challenges associated with lack of heat energy ,Most of Uganda’s available
energy sources are not reliable, expensive most especially to rural dwellers.
Electricity is affected by water fluctuation and low levels of development which reduces
its supply and it leaves some people using other soures of energy like wood for cooking
food.
This is an environmental problem because it causes extensive deforestation, air
pollution and accumulation of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere which leads to
global warming hence all in all those who use electricity end up incurring higher costs
hence this energy storage system will help reduce such instances and solves the
pollution effect since it is smoke free .
it will increase energy efficiency (by storing heat which could be
released to the environment ) The increasing use of renewable energy sources during
the last two decades has increased the importance of research and development of
energy storage systems. Intermittent sources such as wind, solar or tide do not always
generate energy at the same rate as the energy in cities is consumed

1.2 Aim and Objectives

Main objective
Measurementof temperature profile of energy storage tank.

Other objectives

1. To build a THERMAL ENERGY STORAGE TANK

2. To find out the different variations of heat when charging the thermal storage
tank by using thermal couples and there values from data logger to check
whether that heat intensity can be applied for cooking and heating to solve
people’s problems in society .

1.3 Justification
Renewable energy and increased electrification are central to many
countries’ decarbonization strategies – and for good reason: We urgently need to cut
emissions and 90% of those reductions can be attained through energy efficiency and
electrification based on renewable energy. The falling prices of renewable energy

However, renewable energy fluctuates and so with the increased uptake of renewable
energy comes an increased need for energy storage in order to ensure the availability
of clean energy when the wind is not blowing, or the sun is not delivering solar
energy.

5
Chapter 2

Literature Review
2.1 Theoretical background
Thermal energy is internal energy present in a system in a state of thermo
dynamic equilibrium by virtue of its temperature.it canot be easily converted to
useful work by systems that are not in thermodynamic equilibrium. From the
first law of thermo dynamics δU = δQ−δw
where δU is the internal energy of the system
δQ is the heat supplied to the system and δw is the
external work done

2.1.1 Review
Due to intermittency in availability and constant variation in solar radiation, TES found
its place in thermodynamic systems. TES not only reduces the discrepancy between the
demand and supply by conserving energy, but also improves the performance and
thermal reliability of the system. Therefore, designing efficient and economical TES
systems is of high importance. However, few solar thermal plants in the world have
employed TES at a large scale. Additionally, the design of TES systems in various
domestic solar applications is currently being investigated . Using a computational fluid
dynamic approach which is also a vastly used method to save money, where FLUENT
software seems to be successfully used for different engineering applications .

2.2 Energy storage

Thermal energy can be stored as sensible heat (SHS), latent heat (LHS), thermochemical
or a combination of these.

2.2.1SENSIBLE HEAT
Sensible heat is heat exchanged by a body or thermodynamic system in which the
exchange of heat changes the temperature of the body or system, and some
macroscopic variables of the body or system, but leaves unchanged certain other
macroscopic variables of the body or system, such as volume or pressure.
The sensible heat of a thermodynamic process may be calculated as the product of the
body's mass (m) with its specific heat capacity (c) and the change in temperature (∆𝑇)
Q Sensible=𝐦𝐂ΔT …………………………………………….(1)

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 In sensible heat storage, thermal energy is stored by raising the temperature of a solid
or liquid. Materials commonly used include water, rocks, iron or oil.
These materials are cheap, chemically stable and easy to work with.

2.2.2 Latent Heat

Latent heat is the quantity of heat absorbed or released at constant temperature by a substance during
change of state.
Specific latent heat is the heat required to change one kilogram of substance from one state of matter
to another without changing its temperature.
When a substance changes state from solid to liquid or liquid to solid liquid to gas the temperature
remains constant although heat is supplied.
This can be explained by the kinetic theory.
When a solid is changing in state there is no temperature change because the supplied heat energy is
being used by molecules to break away the intermolecular force holding them in one state.
Latent heat therefore is the heat which causes no change in temperature but changes the state,
say solid to liquid, liquid to solid or liquid to gas.

The formula for latent heat is:

Q = m * L …………………………………………..(2)

Where

Q=Quantity of heat, m=mass, L=Latent heat

This equation relates the heat Q that must be added or removed for an object of
mass m to change phases. The object's individual latent heat is noted by L. The unit
of latent heat is J/kg.

2.2.3Types of latent Heats

(i) Latent heat of fusion; 𝐋f
Latent heat of fusion is the quantity of heat required to change the state of a substance from solid to
liquid at constant temperature.
Specific Latent heat of fusion is the quantity of heat required to change the state of a 1kg mass of
substance from solid to liquid at constant temperature.
The S.I unit is a 𝐉𝐤𝐠−𝟏

(ii) Latent heat of vapourisation

Latent heat of vapourisation is the quantity of heat required to change the state of a substance from
liquid state to gas at constant temperature.
Specific Latent heat of fusion is the quantity of heat required to change the state of a 1kg mass of
substance from liquid state to a gas at constant temperature.
The S.I unit is a 𝐉𝐤𝐠−𝟏

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Latent heat storage involves a phase transition at known temperatures. Thermo- chemical
storage works by using energy from an exothermic reaction for the application and
using endothermic reaction to recover the heat.

Sensible heat and latent heat are not special forms of energy. Rather, they describe
exchanges of heat under conditions specified in terms of their effect on a material
or a thermodynamic system.

In the writings of the early scientists who provided the foundations of

thermodynamics, sensible heat had a clear meaning in calorimetry. James Prescott
Joule characterized it in 1847 as an energy that was indicated by the thermometer.

Both sensible and latent heats are observed in many processes while transporting
energy in nature. Latent heat is associated with changes of state, measured at
constant temperature, especially the phase changes of atmospheric water vapor,
mostly vaporization and condensation, whereas sensible heat directly affects the
temperature of the atmosphere.

In meteorology, the term 'sensible heat flux' means the conductive heat flux from
the Earth's surface to the atmosphere. It is an important component of Earth's
surface energy budget. Sensible heat flux is commonly measured with the eddy
covariance method.

Figure 2.1 . graph of Sensible-heat-vs-latent-heat-and-temperature-control-during-the-

phase-change

Sensible heat storage materials (SHSM) are cheaper and usually have larger thermal
conductivities when compared to phase change materials (PCM) and thermochemical
reactions
The low thermal conductivity of PCM materials slows down the time taken to absorb
and release energy hence making them unsuitable for small scale applications like
domestic cooking.

8
Furthermore, some technological and economic aspects such as cost and availability
make sensible heat storage superior hence making them suitable for use in small scale
domestic applications like water heating and cooking .
Air as a heat storage medium and heat transfer fluid has been investigated by Laing et
al. and Lof Hawley .
Air has low thermal conductivity and low thermal capacity and therefore a large sized
heat exchanger would be required to cater for its high expansion hence making the
system costly.

The use of water as heat transfer and heat storage medium has been investigated .
Water does not stratify properly and special stratification devices are often included.
Furthermore, the vaporization of water at temperatures of 100 C limits its application
for medium to high temperature ranges and necessitates use of pressurizing equipment
which makes the system costly. Nahar investigated the use of engine oil as heat storage
medium in a solar cooker. The results showed the viability of engine oil as a heat
transfer fluid but also noted that engine oil was quite expensive making it inappropriate
for use in developing countries.

Vegetable oils have been studied as heat transfer fluids to replace the expensive
commercial thermal oils . Senthill and Cheralathan investigated experimentally the
thermal performance of some solid and liquid sensible heat materials . The sensible
heat storage materials used were pebbles, sand, iron grits, steel balls, sunflower oil,
olive oil and coconut oil. From the results it was observed that the thermal performance
of the cooking pot could be enhanced with solid and even more so for liquid SHS
materials respectively.

Lugolole et al. performed a thermal performance comparison of three sen-sible heat

thermal energy storage (HTES) systems during charging cycles. The three sensible
HTES considered were oil, small pebbles and large pebbles. The results showed that the
oil only TES charges fastest, followed by the small pebble TES and lastly the large
pebble TES.

Mawire et al. investigated the thermal performance of different oils available on the
South African market during charging for domestic cooking applications.
The results showed that sunflower oil had the highest charging power due to its high
density and high specific heat capacity. Furthermore, its smoke point of about 250 C
makes it suitable for most cooking applications. In addition, sunflower oil is generally
available as it is extracted from sunflower seeds that are locally grown in most African
countries .

According to a review from the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization,
sunflower oil is characterized as nontoxic, generally edible and having tolerable fumes
.

9
An experimental set up for simultaneous charging and discharging experiments on oil
storage for cooking applications was presented by Mawire et al..
The results were presented for three cases of initially stratified, initially unstratified
and initially stratified at the top and un-stratified at the bottom. The results indicated
that about 4.5 L water could be boiled within 2 h of charging/discharging cycle and a
sufficient amount of energy could be stored in storage tank

2.3 HEAT TRANSFER

Heat flows from a region of high temperature to a region of low temperature. There are three ways
by which heat can be transferred, namely;

(i) Conduction
(ii) Radiation
(iii) Convection

2.3.1CONDUCTION
Conduction is the flow of heat through matter from a region of higher temperature to one of lower
temperature without movement of matter as a whole.

Conduction in solids
Heat transfer in solids can occur as a result of;;
(i) Excess energy of vibrations being passed from one atom to another.
(ii) There excess Kinetic energy given to the free electrons near the source of heat being carried by
these electrons as they move to colder region.
Note:
For heat to be transferred by conduction there should be a material medium. Metal are good
conductors of heat because metals are made up of atom having free electrons that are loosely held.

Examples of metals which are good conductors are;

1. Aluminium 2. iron 3. Copper

New utensils or kettles, saucepans boilers, radiators are made of metals because metals are good
conductors of heat as their atoms have free electrons that are loosely held. Non-metals,
according to Kinetic theory do not have free electrons that are loosely held so that heat does not
pass through them easily. This is why non-metals are called bad conductors or insulators e.g
plastics, cork, wood.

2.3.2 CONVECTION
Convection is the flow of heat through fluid from a region of higher temperature to one of lower
temperature by the movement of the fluid itself.
It is the heat transfer which involves bulk movement of molecules of the medium.
Convection cannot occur in vacuum because it requires a material medium. It occurs in fluids (liquid
and gases) because they flow easily.
When a liquid is heated it expands and becomes less dense than the surrounding cold liquid.
Convection current.

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Convection current is the cyclic motion of rising hot fluid and falling itself. The hot fluid rises
because when heated it becomes less dense.
Explanation of convection current
-When the fluid is heated it expands and becomes less dense.
-The heated fluid is forced upward by the surrounding cooler fluid which moves under it.
-As the warm fluid rises, it gives heat to the surrounding cooler fluid.

2.3.3RADIATION
Radiation is the flow of heat from one place to another by means of electromagnetic waves.
Heat energy is transfer from the sun to the earth by means of radiation. Radiation is the means by
which heat can travel through the vacuum.
The energy from the hot body is called radiant energy.
Radiation is emitted by the bodies above absolute zero.
Radiant heat is mainly comprised of infrared which makes the skin feel warm. It travels as fast
as light and it is the fastest means of heat transfer. It can travel through a vacuum.

Advantages of a TES tank

TES as an energy system increases in overall efficiency and better reliability of energy,
and it can lead to a reductions in pollution of then environment, i.e., fewer carbon
dioxide emissions [since it is smoke freee].
Solar thermal systems, unlike photovoltaicbsystems with striving efficiencies, are
industrially mature and utilize a major part of the Sun’s thermal energy during the day.
Yet, it does not have enough (thermal) backup to continue operating during the low or
no solar radiation hours. TES is becoming particularly important for electricity storage
in combination with concentrating solar power (CSP) plants where solar heat can be
stored for electricity production when sunlight is not available. New materials are
selected, characterized, and enhanced in their thermo-physical properties to serve the
purpose of a 24 hr operation in an efficient TES system.

11
Chapter 3

Materials And Methods

3.1 instruments used
Thermal couples
Data logger Cooking oil source of current thermal energy storage tank stop watch

Figure 3.0 above shows a data logger and green thermal couples(k-type)

Schematic diagram of a thermal energy storage tank

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Fig. 3.1 .Arrangement of 8 thermocouples on a rod placed inside TES tank at
distances of 5 cm apart.

Experimental set up

Fig. 3.1 1 shows the schematic diagram of the experimental set up.

Construction of a thermal energy storage tank

The thermal energy storage unit consists of a vertical cylindrical tank of

diameter 0.20 m and height 0.40 m. The top part of the storage tank was
covered with a movable circular lid. Both the storage tank and the lid were
fabricated from mild steel material
K-type thermocouples (accuracy: ±2.2∘C) were placed inside the TES tank for
temperature measurements. The positioning of the thermocouples was such
that T1, was at the top (a distance of 0.050 m from top level),
T2,T3,T4,T5,T6,T7,T8 from the top, to the bottom, (0.050 m from each thermal
couple ) and T8, at the bottom (0.35 m from top level) as shown in Fig. 3.1.
Thermocouple, n was placed at the exit of TES tank to monitor temperatures

13
in the charging unit and oil inlet temperatures to the cooking unit
respectively.

14
Chapter 4
Results and Discussion
4.1 Methods (experimental method )
In this section, the experimental results of thermal performance analysis
are presented and discussed.

K-type thermocouples (accuracy: – 2.2 C) were placed inside the TES tank for
temperature measurements. The positioning of the thermocouples was such that T1,
was at the top The TES tank was built using mild steel material of dimensions (internal
diameter of 10cm and height of 20cm) thermocouples (temperature sensors) were
arranged inside the tank to measure the temperature profile during charging a 1.5KW
heater was purchased and used and refined thamia B cooked and its temperature
studied Data logger interface with the computer were connected to the temperature
sensors

Charging temperature profiles

The results for temperature profiles in the TES tank during charging are shown in the
table below. The TES tank was filled with 10 litres of cooking oil(Thermia B). eight
thermocouples were placed inside the thermal energy storage tank as shown in Fig. 3.1
with T1,T2,T3,T4,T5,T6,T7,T8 from the top, to the bottom. The TES tank had a funnel
on which themocouples were aligned . To start the charging process, the heating
element was switched on and temperatures during the charging cycle monitored. The
temperature profiles show a relatively high temperature, T7 rise in the charging unit
as temperatures peaked to 100 C in first 10 min of charging.T1 at the top of the TES
tank started to rise after the circulation started and temperature, T2 in the middle
somewhat later as the thermal front propagated downwards in the storage. This also
shows that there was high stratification in the beginning which began to fall as charging
progressed. The heater temperature varies little until the hot oil front reaches the lower
part of the TES tank. As hot oil then starts to enter the heater, the temperatures out of
the heater also starts rising. After 1 h of charging, the TES tank is with temperatures of
2100C, 2000C and 1700C at the top, middle and bottom respectively. These
temperatures are suitable for domestic cooking.

15
 4.1.1 graph

Fig. 4.Temperature profiles for oil during thermosiphon charging in the storage
tank.

TES is considered an advanced energy technology. The use of TES systems

has been attracting increasing interest in several thermal applications, e.g., active and
passive solar heating, water heating, cooling, and air–conditioning. TES often is the
most economical storage technology for building heating, cooling, and air–
conditioning applications.

In general, TES can reduce the time or rate mismatch between energy supply and
energy demand, thereby playing a vital role in improved energy management. TES
use can lead to savings of premium fuels and make a system more cost-effective by
reducing waste energy. TES can improve the performance of thermal systems by
smoothing loads and increasing reliability. Therefore, TES systems are becoming
increasingly important in many utility systems.

16
The selection of TES systems depends mainly on the storage period required (e.g.,
diurnal or seasonal), economic viability, operating conditions, etc. Some specific
parameters that influence the viability of a TES system include facility thermal loads,
thermal and electrical load profiles, availability of waste or excess thermal energy,
electrical costs and rate structures, type of thermal generating equipment, and
building type and occupancy.

The economic justification for TES systems usually requires that annual capital and
operating costs be less than the costs for primary generating equipment supplying the
same service loads and periods. Substantial energy savings can be realized by taking
advantage of TES to facilitate using waste energy and surplus heat, reducing
electrical demand charges, and avoiding heating, cooling, or air-conditioning
equipment purchases.

TES can help correct the mismatch between supply and demand of energy and can
contribute significantly to meeting society's needs for more efficient,
environmentally benign energy use. TES plays an important role in energy
conservation and can yield savings of premium fuels.

TES has enormous potential to make the use of thermal energy equipment more
effective and to facilitate large–scale energy substitutions economically. A
coordinated set of actions is needed in several sectors of energy systems in order to
realize the maximum benefits of storage.

17
 Chapter 5
Conclusions and recommendations

5.1 conclusion
An experimental set up consisting of a hot oil based thermal
energy storage (TES), was developed and its thermal
performance investigated. The developed system was able to
boil 2 litres of water in about 19 min at the highest flow rate
setting of 12 ml/s.since it attained a maximum temperature of
about 2200c
Higher rates of energy losses from the TES tank were observed
since the tank was not insulated .
The total system efficiency of the heater, storage and the
cooker can be improved by introducing a pump to redirect the
oil flow from the cooker back to the storage.
5.2 Recommendation
For the above project, I used thermal couples and data logger interface with computer
materials which helped me obtain various values of temperatures that helped me really
achieve my specific objectives. The project was conducted successfully since objectives
were achieved. The remarkable improvement I happened to add on the thermal couples
storage which was just connected inside the storage tank together with data logger
interface which are set at different time interval. The project showed me that it’s possible
to solve different problems of cooking , heating as the only mean of source of energy .
Because different temperatures varry under different time interval which can be used
for cooking and heating which can help in solving problems of environmental .
I would recommend to use a well-insulated tank to avoid all effects that arise as
a result of heat losses to the environment

18
References
[1]IEA, Energy for cooking in developing countries. World Energy
Outlook, OECD Publishing, Paris, 2006,
https://doi.org/10.1787//weo-2006-16-en.
[2] R. Bailis, M. Ezzati, D.M. Kammen, Mortality and greenhouse gas
impacts of biomass and petroleum energy futures in Africa, Science
308 (5718) (2005) 98–103.

[3]Uganda Bureau of Statistics (UBOS), Statistical Abstract ( 2018 )

Retrieved on 18 March 2019. Available from
https://www.ubos.org/publications/statistical/74/.

[4]National Forestry Authority (NFA), Annual reports (2004)

Retrieved on 12 March 2019. Available from
https://www.nfa.org.ug/index.php/publications/report/a nnual-
reports.

[5]Y. Von Schirnding, N. Bruce, K. Smith, G. Ballard-Tremeer, M.

Ezzati, K. Lvovsky, Addressing the Impact of Household Energy and
Indoor Air Pollution on the Health of Poor: Implications for Policy
Action and Intervention Measures, World Health Organization,
Geneva (2002) 52.
[6]S. Karekezi, Renewables in Africa—Meeting the energy needs of
the poor, Energy Policy 30 (11–12) (2002) 1059–1069.
[7]A. Kundapur, Review of solar cooker designs, TIDE 8 (1998) 1–
37. Retrieved on 20 March 2019. Available from,
https://www.zetatalk10.com/docs/solar/cooking/
Review_of_solar_cooker_designs_2004.pdf.
[8]R.M. Muthusivagami, R. Velraj, R. Sethumadhavan, Solar cookers
with and without thermal storage—A review, Renewable and
Sustainable Energy Reviews 14 (2) (2010) 691–701.

19
Appendix
Table of results ( Experimental values )

20
21
List of Acronyms and Abbreviations
HTF Heat Transfer Fluid
LHS Latent Heat Storage
PCM Phase Change Material
SHS Sensible Heat Storage
SHSM Sensible Heat Storage Materials
TES Thermal Energy Storage HTES Heat Thermal Energy Storage
LMTD Logarithmic Mean Temperature Difference
Uloss Overall heat loss coefficient (W/m2K)
h Heat transfer coefficient (W/m2K)
Qloss Heat loss (W)

22