Vth SEM BBA

UNIT 2 - SUBSYSTEMS OF INFORMATION SYSTEM

Introduction to Subsystems

The subsystem is where work is processed on the system. A subsystem is a single,

predefined operating environment through which the system coordinates the work
flow and resource use. The system can contain several subsystems, all operating
independently of each other. Subsystems manage resources.

All jobs, with the exception of system jobs, run within subsystems. Each subsystem
can run unique operations. For instance, one subsystem may be set up to handle only
interactive jobs, while another subsystem handles only batch jobs. Subsystems can
also be designed to handle many types of work.

The run-time characteristics of a subsystem are defined in an object called a

subsystem description. For example, if you want to permanently change the amount of
work (number of jobs) coming from a job queue into a subsystem you only need to
change the job queue entry in the subsystem description.

• The controlling subsystem

The controlling subsystem is the interactive subsystem that starts
automatically when the system starts, and it is the subsystem through which
the system operator controls the system via the system console. It is identified
in the Controlling subsystem/library (QCTLSBSD) system value.
• Why consider multiple subsystems
As the number of users on the system increases, a single subsystem for a set of
work is often insufficient. By dividing your users into multiple subsystems
you gain several advantages.
• Subsystem description
A subsystem description is a system object that contains information defining
the characteristics of an operating environment controlled by the system. The
system-recognized identifier for the object type is *SBSD. A subsystem
description defines how, where, and how much work enters a subsystem, and

MUKUND.G 1
Assistant Professor,Department of Commerce and Management
Seshadripuram First Grade College
 Vth SEM BBA

which resources the subsystem uses to perform the work. An active subsystem
takes on the simple name of the subsystem description.

Transcation Processing System (TPS)

A transaction process system (TPS) is an information processing system for business

transactions involving the collection, modification and retrieval of all transaction data.
Characteristics of a TPS include performance, reliability and consistency.

TPS is also known as transaction processing or real-time processing.

Transaction Process System Activities

Processing business transactions was the first application of computer of most firms.
Since the 1950s, Transaction processing system (TPS) have evolved from slow,
manual systems to advanced computerized system. TPS, a cross-functional
information system were among the earliest computerized systems developed to
record, process, validate, and store business for future use or retrieval.

1. Data collection: The process of capturing and gathering the needed data to
complete transactions. Data collection can be manual process or automated process.
The usage of automated data collection devices have made data collection faster,
more efficient and reliable and allow firms to use the collected data in much more
flexible ways. For example, retail stores use scanners to read the bar code from

MUKUND.G 2
Assistant Professor,Department of Commerce and Management
Seshadripuram First Grade College
 Vth SEM BBA

product packages and automatically enter the price item to TPS. Once the price data is
entered, the computer will determine customer’s bill.
2. Data manipulation: The process of performing calculation and other data
transformation related to business transactions and store data and information in
organization’s database for further processing. For example, in a payroll TPS,
managers multiply employee’s hours worked times the hourly pay rate.
3. Data storage: Data storage involves placing transaction data or information in
database. The stored data can be further processed and manipulated by other
information system.In other words, the data appears to be the source of data for other
information systems
4. Data production: The process of outputting records and reports. The
documents may be in the form of hard copy paper reports or soft copy where documents
are displayed on computer screens.

Objectives of Transaction Process System

Organizations expect their TPS to accomplish a number of specific objectives such as:

• Process data generated by and about transactions: The primary objective

of TPS is to capture, gather, process, and store transactions and to produce useful
documents related to routine business activities to managers.
• Maintain high degree of accuracy: One of the objectives of TPS is error free
data input and processing. In manual TPS, the resulting transactions were often
inaccurate because human are fallible, resulting in wasted time, effort and requiring
resources to correct them. In contrast, with computerized TPS, transaction processed
appeared to be accurate or errors were minimized because accuracy checks were done
by both humans and computer system.
• Ensure data and information integrity: TPS ensure that all the data and
information stored in databases are always accurate, current, appropriate and up to
date.
• Produce timely documents and reports: Manual TPS take longer time than
computerized TPS to produce routine documents. Computerized TPS and the
improvements in information technology (IT) allow transaction to be processed in a
very short period of time.
MUKUND.G 3
Assistant Professor,Department of Commerce and Management
Seshadripuram First Grade College
 Vth SEM BBA

• Increase labor efficiency: Manual TPS were labor intensive in which the
process of business transaction are done by hand. With computerized TPS, firms can
reduce the need of many labors as computer can replace human labors, thus saving the
cost.
• Help provide increased and enhanced services: TPS assist organization in
providing superior customer service. For example, computerized TPS enable
customer to place orders for raw materials electronically and helps firms to track
customer orders through all stages from order to delivery to receipt of payment.

Characteristics of Transaction Process System

There are 4 characteristics in every single transaction processing systems.

1. Rapid response: In order to shorten the waiting time of the users, TPSs are
modified to process transactions instantly to ensure the data will be available in the
shortest waiting time.
2. Reliability: Due to the involvement of cash, the reliability of TPS has to be in
place. TPSs have to be designed in a way to avoid the transactions slip past the net in
the same time remain themselves operating permanently. Also the failure rate has to
be remained within the tolerance levels. With that comprehensive safeguards and
disaster recovery systems have to be incorporated by the designed TPSs.
3. Inflexibility: Mistakes or errors can occur once the steps alter. To maximize
the efficiency of the TPS, transactions have to be processed in the same order. With
that, TPS interfaces have to be designed so that the identical data for each transaction
can be acquired.
4. Controlled Processing: Transaction processing monitor is found at every end
of the computer to ensure that the transactions are correctly inputted. Still it requires
human controls on it. TPSs can be used even in modify the data and fraudulent the
transactions. With that the user of the system has to be restricted only for people who
have the authority.

MUKUND.G 4
Assistant Professor,Department of Commerce and Management
Seshadripuram First Grade College
 Vth SEM BBA

Transaction Process System Cycle

Transaction processing cycle capture the process data scribing business transactions
update the organizational database and produce a variety of formation products.
Anyway, the transaction processing cycle has the following basic activities –

Data entry: The first step of the transaction processing cycle is the capture of
business data. For example, data can be collected by using optical scanning of
barcodes.

Transaction processing: Basically are two ways of the transaction of processing.

1. Batch processing: Where transaction data are accumulated over a period of

time and proceed periodically.
2. Real-time processing (on time processing): Where data are processed
immediately after a transaction occurs.

Database maintenance: Transaction processing system update the corporate

databases of’ an organization to reflect changes resulting from, day to day business
transaction.

MUKUND.G 5
Assistant Professor,Department of Commerce and Management
Seshadripuram First Grade College
 Vth SEM BBA

Document and report generation: Transaction processing system produced a variety

of document and reports. For example, purchases order payable register-etc.

Inquiry processing: Transaction processing systems alert a person to make inquiries

and receive response consulting the results of transaction processing activities. For
example, you might check on the balance in an account and receive immediate
responses at your PC.

So, these are the various stages and cycle of the transaction process System

MANAGEMENT INFORMATION SYSTEM (MIS)

To the managers, Management Information System is an implementation of the

organizational systems and procedures. To a programmer it is nothing but file
structures and file processing. However, it involves much more complexity.

The three components of MIS provide a more complete and focused definition,
where System suggests integration and holistic view, Information stands for
processed data, and Management is the ultimate user, the decision makers.

Management information system can thus be analyzed as follows −

Management

Management covers the planning, control, and administration of the operations of a

concern. The top management handles planning; the middle management

MUKUND.G 6
Assistant Professor,Department of Commerce and Management
Seshadripuram First Grade College
 Vth SEM BBA

concentrates on controlling; and the lower management is concerned with actual

administration.

Information

Information, in MIS, means the processed data that helps the management in
planning, controlling and operations. Data means all the facts arising out of the
operations of the concern. Data is processed i.e. recorded, summarized, compared
and finally presented to the management in the form of MIS report.

System

Data is processed into information with the help of a system. A system is made up of
inputs, processing, output and feedback or control.

Thus MIS means a system for processing data in order to give proper information to
the management for performing its functions.

Objectives of MIS

The goals of an MIS are to implement the organizational structure and dynamics of
the enterprise for the purpose of managing the organization in a better way and
capturing the potential of the information system for competitive advantage.

Following are the basic objectives of an MIS −

Capturing Data − Capturing contextual data, or operational information that will

contribute in decision making from various internal and external sources of
organization.

Processing Data − The captured data is processed into information needed for
planning, organizing, coordinating, directing and controlling functionalities at
strategic, tactical and operational level. Processing data means −

1.making calculations with the data

2.sorting data

3.classifying data and

4.summarizing data
MUKUND.G 7
Assistant Professor,Department of Commerce and Management
Seshadripuram First Grade College
 Vth SEM BBA

Information Storage − Information or processed data need to be stored for future

use.

Information Retrieval − The system should be able to retrieve this information from
the storage as and when required by various users.

Information Propagation − Information or the finished product of the MIS should

be circulated to its users periodically using the organizational network.

Characteristics of MIS

Following are the characteristics of an MIS −

1. It should be based on a long-term planning.

2. It should provide a holistic view of the dynamics and the structure of the
organization.

3. It should work as a complete and comprehensive system covering all

interconnecting sub-systems within the organization.

4. It should be planned in a top-down way, as the decision makers or the management

should actively take part and provide clear direction at the development stage of the
MIS.

5. It should be based on need of strategic, operational and tactical information of

managers of an organization.

6. It should also take care of exceptional situations by reporting such situations.

7. It should be able to make forecasts and estimates, and generate advanced

information, thus providing a competitive advantage. Decision makers can take
actions on the basis of such predictions.

8. It should create linkage between all sub-systems within the organization, so that
the decision makers can take the right decision based on an integrated view.

Characteristics of Computerized MIS

Following are the characteristics of a well-designed computerized MIS −

MUKUND.G 8
Assistant Professor,Department of Commerce and Management
Seshadripuram First Grade College
 Vth SEM BBA

1. It should be able to process data accurately and with high speed, using various
techniques like operations research, simulation, heuristics, etc.

2. It should be able to collect, organize, manipulate, and update large amount of raw
data of both related and unrelated nature, coming from various internal and external
sources at different periods of time.

3. It should provide real time information on ongoing events without any delay.

4. It should support various output formats and follow latest rules and regulations in
practice.

5. It should provide organized and relevant information for all levels of management:
strategic, operational, and tactical.

6. It should aim at extreme flexibility in data storage and retrieval.

Nature and Scope of MIS

• Processing data
• Initiating transactions
• Responding to inquiries
• Producing reports and its summaries
• Manage the data created within the structure of a particular business

Functions of MIS

Data Processing
It includes the collection, transmission, storage, processing and output of data. It
simplifies the statistics and reduces to the lowest cost by supplying an unified format.

Function of Prediction

It predicts the future situation by applying modern mathematics, statistics or

simulation.

Function of Plan

MUKUND.G 9
Assistant Professor,Department of Commerce and Management
Seshadripuram First Grade College
 Vth SEM BBA

It arranges reasonably the plans of each functional department in accordance with the
restrictions afforded by enterprises and provides the appropriate planning reports
according to different management.

Function of control
It monitors and inspects the operation of plans and comprises with the
differences between operation and plan in accordance with the data afforded
by every functional department, and be assistant to managers to control timely
each method by analyzing the reasons why the differences comes into being.

Function of assistance
It derives instantly the best answers of related problems by applying to
several of mathematics’ mode and analyzing a plentiful data stored in
computers in the hope of using rationally human resource, financial resource,
material resource and information resource for relative abundant economic
benefits.

Importance of MIS

1. MIS is always management oriented and keeps in view every level of

management and gets the desired information.
2. Integrated – refers to how diff components (sub systems) are actually tied up
together. e.g.: different departments of organization linked together.
3. Useful for planning – as every organization makes log-term and short-term
plans with the help of information like sales & production, capital investments,
stocks etc management can easily plan.
4. Effective MIS helps the management to know deviations of actual
performance from pre-set targets and control things.
5. MIS is important for increasing efficiency.
6. MIS provides updated results of various departments to management.
7. MIS is highly computerized so it provides accurate results.
Model of MIS

MUKUND.G 10
Assistant Professor,Department of Commerce and Management
Seshadripuram First Grade College
 Vth SEM BBA

Components of MIS Model:

1. Organizational Problem Solvers:
Outputs are used by persons who are responsible for solving the firm’s
problems(say managers).
2. Database:
It’s contents are used by software that produces report as well as mathematical
model.
3. Mathematical Model:
It produces information as a simulation of firm’s operation.
4. Report Writing Software:
It produces both periodic and special report.
5. Environment:
The environment is of great importance to the firm. It is the very reason of the
firm’s existence.

Advantages:
• Can be a learning experience.
• Provides predictive power.
• Less expensive than trial and error method.
• Speed allows consideration of more options.
Disadvantages:
• Difficult to model a business system.
• High degree of mathematical skills required.

Structure of MIS

Physical Structure of Management Information System

A management information system (MIS) is an organized combination of people,

hardware, communication networks and data sources that collects, transforms and
distributes information in an organization. An MIS helps decision making by
MUKUND.G 11
Assistant Professor,Department of Commerce and Management
Seshadripuram First Grade College
 Vth SEM BBA

providing timely, relevant and accurate information to managers. The physical

components of an MIS include hardware, software, database, personnel and
procedures.

Hardware
All physical components of a computer system compose the computer hardware.
Important components include the central processing unit, input/output devices,
storage units and communication devices. Communication can be over fiber-optic
cables or wireless networks.

Software
Software provides the interface between users and the information system. Software
can be divided into two generic types: system software and applications. The system
software comprises of the operating system, utility programs and special purpose
programs. Applications are developed to accomplish a specific task. For users of MIS
it is much more important to understand the software than the hardware. Software
maintenance can take 50 to 70 percent of all personnel activity in the MIS function.
When the organization moves to implement an advanced information system the
hardware and software environment becomes more complex.

Database
A database is a centrally controlled collection of organized data. Central control
reduces redundancy and duplication of data. Data is stored in an organized and
structured way to facilitate sharing and improve availability to those who need it. The
database improves efficiency of storage by elimination of redundant files and
improves efficiency of processing by providing all required data in a single file rather
than separate files. This also improves efficiency of information retrieval.

Procedures
Three types of procedures are required for an MIS to operate effectively: user
instructions, instructions for input preparation and operating instructions for MIS
personnel who maintain the MIS.

Personnel
The personnel in the MIS function include computer operators, programmers, systems
analysts and managers. Human resource requirements should be assessed by
considering both the present system needs and the future system growth. The quality
of MIS personnel is a key factor in its effectiveness. An MIS manager needs a
combination of both managerial and technical skills.

Decision Support System (DSS)

A decision support system gathers and analyzes data, synthesizing it to produce

comprehensive information reports. In this way, as an informational application, a
DSS differs from an ordinary operations application, whose function is just to collect
data.

The DSS can either be completely computerized or powered by humans. In some

cases, it may combine both. The ideal systems analyze information and actually
MUKUND.G 12
Assistant Professor,Department of Commerce and Management
Seshadripuram First Grade College
 Vth SEM BBA

make decisions for the user. At the very least, they allow human users to make more
informed decisions at a quicker pace.

Characteristics of DSS

Following are the salient characteristics of DSS:

(i) DSS incorporate both data and models.

(ii) They are designed to assist managers in their decision processes in semi-structured
or unstructured tasks.

(iii) They support managerial judgment; rather than replacing it.

(iv) DSS improve the effectiveness of the decisions; not the efficiency with which
decisions are being made.

Benefits of DSS:

Following are the main benefits of DSS:

i) A DSS enables the solution of complex problems that ordinarily cannot be solved
by other computerized approaches.

(ii)A DSS enables a thorough quantitative analysis in a very short time. Even frequent
changes in a scenario can be evaluated objectively in a timely manner.

(iii) DSS imparts ability to try several different strategies under different
configurations, quickly and objectively.

(iv) Data collection and model construction experimentations are executed with active
users’ participation; thus greatly facilitating communication among managers.

Functions of DSS:•There are five functions of a DSS facilitating managerial decision

making. They are

1. Model building
2. .'What if' analysis
3. .Goal seeking
4. .Risk analysis
5. Graphical analysis
MUKUND.G 13
Assistant Professor,Department of Commerce and Management
Seshadripuram First Grade College
 Vth SEM BBA

Model building: •This allows decision makers to identify the most appropriate model
for solving the problem on hand. It takes into account input variables, interrelationships
among the variables, problem assumptions and constraints

.•'What-if' analysis : This is the process of assessing the impact of changes to model
variables, the values of the variables, or the interrelationships among variables. This
helps managers to be proactive, rather than reactive, in their decision making.

Goal seeking : It is the process of determining the input values required to achieve a
certain goal. For example, house buyers determine the monthly payment they can afford
(say for example, Rs. 5,000) and calculate the number of such payments required to pay
the desired house•)

Risk analysis : It is a function of DSS that allows managers to assess the risks
associated with various alternatives. Decisions can be classified as low risk, medium
risk, and high risk. A DSS is particularly useful in medium risk and high risk
environments

Graphical analysis : This helps managers to quickly digest large volumes of data and
visualize the impacts of various courses of action. graphical analysis can be used in
following situations:

•Seeking a quick summary of data

•Detecting trends over time

•Comparing points and patterns at different variables

•Forecasting activities

•Seeking relatively simple impressions from a vast amount of information.

Group Decision Support System (GDSS)

A group decision support system (GDSS) is an interactive computer-based system

that facilitates a number of decision-makers (working together in a group) in finding
solutions to problems that are unstructured in nature. They are designed in such a way
that they take input from multiple users interacting simultaneously with the systems to
arrive at a decision as a group.

Office automation systems (OAS)

MUKUND.G 14
Assistant Professor,Department of Commerce and Management
Seshadripuram First Grade College
 Vth SEM BBA

Office automation systems (OAS), also referred to as office information systems are
computer-based information systems whose primary purpose is to facilitate oral and
written communication. Such a system is a set of tools that gather, process, store,
retrieve, and disseminate information between individual workers, team of workers,
and business entities, both inside and outside the organization.

Process Control Systems (PCS)

Process control systems (PCS), sometimes called industrial control systems (ICS),
function as pieces of equipment along the production line during manufacturing that
test the process in a variety of ways, and return data for monitoring and
troubleshooting. Many types of process control systems exist, including supervisory
control and data acquisition (SCADA), programmable logic controllers (PLC), or
distributed control systems (DCS), and they work to gather and transmit data obtained
during the manufacturing process.

The PCS can be a relatively simple item with a sensor, often called a primary
transducer, that receives an input, along with a controller that processes the input, and
a receiver that processes an output.

Executive Information System (EIS)

An executive information system (EIS) is a decision support system (DSS) used to

assist senior executives in the decision-making process. It does this by providing easy
access to important data needed to achieve strategic goals in an organization. An EIS
normally features graphical displays on an easy-to-use interface.

Executive information systems can be used in many different types of organizations to

monitor enterprise performance as well as to identify opportunities and problems.

Executive Information System-Key Characteristics

1.Detailed data – EIS provides absolute data from its existing database.
2. Integrate external and internal data – EIS integrates integrate external and internal
data. The external data collected from various sources.
3.Presenting information – EIS represents available data in graphical form which
helps to analyze it easily.
4. Trend analysis – EIS helps executives of the organizations to data prediction based
on trend data.
Easy to use – It is a very simplest system to use.

Advantages of EIS

• Trend Analysis
• Improvement of corporate performance in the marketplace
• Development of managerial leadership skills
• Improves decision-making
• Simple to use by senior executives
• Better reporting method
• Improved office efficiency
MUKUND.G 15
Assistant Professor,Department of Commerce and Management
Seshadripuram First Grade College
 Vth SEM BBA

Disadvantage of EIS

• Due to technical functions, not to easy to use by everyone

• Executives may encounter overload of information
• Difficult to manage database due to the large size of data
• Excessive costs for small business organizations

Expert System (ES)

An expert system is a computer program that uses artificial

intelligence (AI) technologies to simulate the judgment and behavior of a human or an
organization that has expert knowledge and experience in a particular field.

Components/ Architecture of Expert Systems

There are 5 Components of expert systems:

• Knowledge Base
• Inference Engine
• Knowledge acquisition and learning module
• User Interface
• Explanation module

• Knowledge base: The knowledge base in an expert system represents facts

and rules. It contains knowledge in specific domains along with rules in
order to solve problems, and form procedures that are relevant to the
domain.

• Inferenceengine: The most basic function of the inference engine is to

acquire relevant data from the knowledge base, interpret it, and to find a
solution as per the user’s problem. Inference engines also have
explanationatory and debugging abilities.

• Knowledge acquisition and learning module: This component functions to

allow the expert systems to acquire more data from various sources and
store it in the knowledge base.

• User
interface: This component is essential for a non-expert user to interact
with the expert system and find solutions.
MUKUND.G 16
Assistant Professor,Department of Commerce and Management
Seshadripuram First Grade College
 Vth SEM BBA

• Explanation module: As the name suggests, this module helps in providing

the user with an explanation of the achieved conclusion.

CHARACTERISTICS OF AN EXPERT SYSTEM

An expert system is usually designed to have the following general characteristics.

1. High level Performance: The system must be capable of responding at a level

of competency equal to or better than an expert system in the field. The quality of
the advice given by the system should be in a high level integrity and for which
the performance ratio should be also very high.

2. Domain Specificity: Expert systems are typically very domain specific. For ex.,
a diagnostic expert system for troubleshooting computers must actually perform
all the necessary data manipulation as a human expert would. The developer of
such a system must limit his or her scope of the system to just what is needed to
solve the target problem. Special tools or programming languages are often
needed to accomplish the specific objectives of the system.

3. Good Reliability: The expert system must be as reliable as a human expert.

4. Understandable: The system should be understandable i.e. be able to explain

the steps of reasoning while executing. The expert system should have an
explanation capability similar to the reasoning ability of human experts.

5. Adequate Response time: The system should be designed in such a way that it
is able to perform within a small amount of time, comparable to or better than the
time taken by a human expert to reach at a decision point. An expert system that
takes a year to reach a decision compared to a human expert’s time of one hour
would not be useful.

6. Use symbolic representations: Expert system use symbolic representations for

knowledge (rules, networks or frames) and perform their inference through symbolic
computations that closely resemble manipulations of natural language.
7. Linked with Metaknowledge: Expert systems often reason with
metaknowledge i.e. they reason with knowledge about themselves and their own
knowledge limits and capabilities. The use of metaknowledge is quite interactive
and simple for various data representations.

8. Expertise knowledge: Real experts not only produce good solutions but also
find them quickly. So, an expert system must be skillful in applying its knowledge
MUKUND.G 17
Assistant Professor,Department of Commerce and Management
Seshadripuram First Grade College
 Vth SEM BBA

to produce solutions both efficiently and effectively by using the intelligence

human experts.

9. Justified Reasoning: This allows the users to ask the expert system to justify the
solution or advice provided by it. Normally, expert systems justify their answers
or advice by explaining their reasoning. If a system is a rule based system, it
provides to the user all the rules and facts it has used to achieve its answer.

10. Explaining capability: Expert systems are capable of explaining how a

particular conclusion was reached and why requested information is needed
during a consultation. This is very important as it gives the user a chance to access
and understand the system’s reasoning ability, thereby improving the user’s
confidence in the system.

11. Special Programming Languages: Expert systems are typically written in

special programming languages. The use of languages like LISP and PROLOG in
the development of an expert system simplifies the coding process. The major
advantage of these languages, as compared to conventional programming
languages is the simplicity of the addition, elimination or substitution of new rules
and memory management capabilities.

Stages to Develop an Expert System | Artificial Intelligence

The following points highlight the five main stages to develop an expert system.The
stages are: 1. Identification 2. Conceptualisation 3. Formalisation (Designing) 4.
Implementation 5. Testing (Validation, Verification and Maintenance).
Stage # 1. Identification:
Before we can begin to develop an expert system, it is important to describe, with as
much precision as possible, the problem which the system is intended to solve. It is
not enough simply to feel that an expert system would be helpful in a certain situation;
we must determine the exact nature of the problem and state the precise goals which
indicate exactly how the expert system is expected to contribute to the solution.

Stage # 2. Conceptualisation:
Once it has been identified for the problem an expert system is to solve, the next stage
involves analysing the problem further to ensure that its specifics, as well as
generalities, are understood.

In the conceptualisation stage, the knowledge engineer frequently creates a diagram of

the problem to depict graphically the relationships between the objects and processes
in the problem domain. It is often helpful at this stage to divide the problem into a
series of sub-problems and to diagram both the relationships among the pieces of each
sub-problem and the relationships among the various sub-problems.

MUKUND.G 18
Assistant Professor,Department of Commerce and Management
Seshadripuram First Grade College
 Vth SEM BBA

Stage # 3. Formalisation (Designing):

In the preceding stages, no effort has been made to relate the domain problem to the
artificial intelligence technology which may solve it. During the identification and
formalization stages, the focus is entirely on understanding the problem. Now, during
the formalization stage, the problem is connected to its proposed solution, an expert
system is supplied by analyzing the relationships depicted in the conceptualization
stage. The knowledge engineer begins to select the techniques which are appropriate
for developing this particular expert system.

Stage # 4. Implementation:
During the implementation stage the formalised concepts are programmed into the
computer which has been chosen for system development, using the predetermined
techniques and tools to implement a ‘first-pass’ (prototype) of the expert system.

Theoretically, if the methods of the previous stages have been followed with diligence
and care, the implementation of the prototype should proceed smoothly. In practice,
the development of an expert system may be as much an art as it is a science, because
following all the rules does not guarantee that the system will work the first time it is
implemented. In fact, experience suggests the opposite. Many scientists actually
consider the prototype to be a ‘throw-away’ system, useful for evaluating progress but
hardly a usable expert system.

Stage # 5. Testing (Validation, Verification and Maintenance):

The chance of prototype expert system executing flawlessly the first time it is tested
are so slim as to be virtually non-existent. A knowledge engineer does not expect the
testing process to verify that the system has been constructed entirely correctly.
Rather, testing provides an opportunity to identify the weaknesses in the structure and
implementation of the system and to make the appropriate corrections.

Depending on the types of problems encountered, the testing procedure may indicate
that the system was implemented incorrectly, or perhaps that the rules were
implemented correctly but were poorly or incompletely formulated. Results from the
tests are used as ‘feedback’ to return to a previous stage and adjust the performance of
the system.

MUKUND.G 19
Assistant Professor,Department of Commerce and Management
Seshadripuram First Grade College