5, 16, 22, 28, 31, 18, 14, 29

UNIT-I
Introduction
MICROWAVE FREQUENCIES
➢ The descriptive term microwaves is used to describe electromagnetic waves with
wavelengths ranging from 1 cm to 1 m. The corresponding frequency range is 300 MHz
up to 30 GHz for 1-cm-wavelength waves.
➢ Electromagnetic waves with wavelengths ranging from 1 to 10 mm are called
millimeter waves.
➢ The infrared radiation spectrum comprises electromagnetic waves with wavelengths in
the range 1 μm (10-6 m) up to 1 mm.
➢ Beyond the infrared range is the visible optical spectrum, the ultraviolet spectrum, and
finally x-rays. Several different classification schemes are in use to designate frequency
bands in the electromagnetic spectrum. These classification schemes are summarized
in Tables 1.1 and 1.2.
 ➢ The radar band classification came into use during World War II and is still in common
use today even though the new military band classification is the recommended one.
➢ In the UHF band up to around a frequency of 1 GHz, most communications circuits are
constructed using lumped-parameter circuit components.
➢ In the frequency range from 1 up to 100 GHz. lumped circuit elements are usually
replaced by transmission-line and waveguide components. As a result, conventional
low-frequency circuit analysis based on Kirchhoffs laws and voltage-current concepts
no longer suffices for an adequate description of the electrical phenomena taking place.
➢ Thus, by the term microwave engineering we shall mean generally the engineering
and design of information-handling systems in the frequency range from 1 to 100
GHz corresponding to wavelengths as long as 30 cm and as short as 3 mm.
➢ It is necessary instead to cany out the analysis in terms of a description of the electric
and magnetic fields associated with the device. In essence, it might be said, microwave
engineering is applied electromagnetic fields engineering.
MICROWAVE APPLICATIONS
The great interest in microwave frequencies arises for a variety of reasons. Basic among these
is the ever-increasing need for more radio-frequency spectrum space and the rather unique uses
to which microwave frequencies can be applied.
(i) In RADAR
✓ At one time (during World War II and shortly afterward), microwave engineering was
almost synonymous with radar (RAdio Detection And Ranging) engineering because
of the great stimulus given to the development of microwave systems by the need for
high-resolution radar capable of detecting and locating enemy planes and ships.
✓ Even today radar, in its many varied forms, such as missile-tracking radar, fire-
control radar, weather-detecting radar, missile-guidance radar, airport traffic-
control radar, etc., represents a major use of microwave frequencies.
✓ This use arises predominantly from the need to have antennas that will radiate
essentially all the transmitter power into a narrow pencil-like beam similar to that
produced by an optical searchlight. A beam of this type can give reasonably accurate
 position data for a target being observed by the radar. To achieve comparable
performance at a frequency of 100 MHz would require a 300-ft parabola, a size much
too large to be carried aboard an airplane.
(ii) In Communication
✓ In more recent years microwave frequencies have also come into widespread use in
communication links, generally referred to as microwave links.
✓ Since the propagation of microwaves is effectively along line-of-sight paths, these links
employ high towers with reflector or lens-type antennas as repeater stations spaced
along the communication path. Such links are a familiar sight to the motorist traveling
across the country because of their frequent use by highway authorities, utility
companies, and television networks.
(iii) In Satellite
✓ A further interesting means of communication by microwaves is the use of satellites as
microwave relay stations.
✓ The first of these, the Telstar, launched in July 1962, provided the first transmission of
live television programs from the United States to Europe. Since that time a large
number of satellites have been deployed for communication purposes, as well as for
surveillance and collecting data on atmospheric and weather conditions.
✓ For direct television broadcasting the most heavily used band is the C band. The up-
link frequency used is in the 5.9- to 6.4-GHz band and the receive or down-link
frequency band is between 3.7 and 4.2 GHz.
✓ For home reception an 8-ft-diameter parabolic reflector antenna is commonly used. A
second frequency band has also been allocated for direct television broadcasting. For
this second band the up-link frequency is in the 14- to 14.5-GHz range and the down-
link frequencies are between 10.95 and 11.2 GHz and 11.45 and 11.7 GHz. In this band
a receiving parabolic antenna with a 3-ft diameter is adequate. At the present time this
frequency band is not being used to any great extent in the United States. It is more
widely used in Europe and Japan.
(iv) In Terrestrial
✓ Terrestrial microwave links have been used for many years. The TD-2 system was put
into service in 1948 as part of the Bell Network. It operated in the 3.7- to 4.2-GHZ band
and had 480 voice circuits, each occupying a 3.1-kHz bandwidth.
✓ In 1974, the TN-1 system operating in the 10.7- to 11.7-GHz band was put into
operation. This system had a capacity of 1,800 voice circuits or one video channel with
a 4.5-MHz bandwidth. Since that time the use of terrestrial microwave links has grown
rapidly.
✓ At the present time most communication systems are shifting to the use of digital
transmission, i.e., analog signals are digitized before transmission. Microwave digital
communication system development is progressing rapidly.
✓ In the early systems simple modulation schemes were used and resulted in inefficient
use of the available frequency spectrum. It is thus seen that the carrier frequency must
be in the microwave range for efficient transmission of many television programs over
one link.
(v) Commercial and Industrial
✓ Without the development of microwave systems, our communications facilities would
have been severely overloaded and totally inadequate for present operations. Even
though such uses of microwaves are of great importance, the applications of
microwaves and microwave technology extend much further, into a variety of areas of
basic and applied research, and including a number of diverse practical devices, such
as microwave ovens that can cook a small roast in just a few minutes. Some of these
specific applications are briefly discussed below.
✓ Waveguides periodically loaded with shunt susceptance elements support slow waves
having velocities much less than the velocity of light, and are used in linear accelerators.
These produce high-energy beams of charged particles for use in atomic and nuclear
research.
✓ Sensitive microwave receivers are used in radio astronomy to detect and study the
electromagnetic radiation from the sun and a number of radio stars that emit radiation
in this band. Such receivers are also used to detect the noise radiated from plasmas (an
approximately neutral collection of electrons and ions, e.g., a gas discharge). The
information obtained enables scientists to analyze and predict the various mechanisms
responsible for plasma radiation.
✓ Microwave radiometers are also used to map atmospheric temperature profiles,
moisture conditions in soils and crops, and for other remote-sensing applications as
well.
✓ Molecular, atomic, and nuclear systems exhibit various resonance phenomena under
the action of periodic forces arising from an applied electromagnetic field. Many of
these resonances occur in the microwave range; hence microwaves have provided a
very powerful experimental probe for the study of basic properties of materials.
oscillators, e.g., masers, and even the coherent-light generator and amplifier (laser).
✓ The development of the laser, a generator of essentially monochromatic (single-
frequency) coherent-light waves, has stimulated a great interest in the possibilities of
developing communication systems at optical wavelengths. This frequency band is
sometimes referred to as the ultra-microwave band.
✓ The domestic microwave oven operates at 2,450 MHz and uses a magnetron tube
with a power output of 500 to 1000 W.
✓ For industrial heating applications, such as drying grain, manufacturing wood
and paper products, and material curing, the frequencies of 915 and 2,450 MHz
have been assigned.
✓ Microwave radiation has also found some application for medical hyperthermia
or localized heating of tumors.
WAVE GUIDE COMPONENTS AND APPLICATIONS
Coupling Mechanisms
Fundamentally, there are three methods of coupling waveguide energy into or out of a
waveguide:
i. Probe coupling
ii. Loop coupling
iii. Aperture coupling
1.a) Probe Coupling
✓ Probe, or capacitive, coupling waveguide energy is illustrated in Figure 1. Its action is
the same as that of a quarter-wave Marconi antenna.

✓ When the probe is excited by an RF signal, an electric field is set up [Figure 1(a)]. The
probe should be located in the center of a dimension and a quarter wavelength, or odd
multiple of a quarter Wavelength, from the short-circuited end, as illustrated in Figure
1(b).
✓ This is a point of maximum E field and, therefore, is a point of maximum coupling
between the probe and the field.
✓ Usually, the probe is fed with a short length of coaxial cable. The outer conductor is
connected to the waveguide wall, and the probe extends into the guide but is insulated
from it, as shown in Figure 1(c).
✓ The degree of coupling may be varied by varying the length of the probe, removing it
from the center of the E field, or shielding it.
✓ In a pulse-modulated radar system there are wide sidebands on either side of the carrier
frequency. In order that a probe does not discriminate too sharply against frequencies
that differ from the carrier frequency, a wideband probe may be used. This type of probe
is illustrated in Figure 1(d) for both low- and high-power usage.
Next ->16
Loop Coupling
✓ Figure 2 illustrates loop, or inductive, coupling. The loop is placed at a point of
maximum H field in the guide.
✓ As shown in Figure 2(a), the outer conductor is connected to the guide, and the inner
conductor forms a loop inside the guide.
✓ The current flow in the loop sets up a magnetic field in the guide. This action is
illustrated in Figure 2(b).
✓ As shown in Figure 2(c), the loop may be placed in a number of locations. The degree
of loop coupling may be varied by rotation of the loop.
Aperture Coupling
The third method of coupling is aperture, or slot, coupling. This type of coupling is shown in
Figure 3. Slot A is at an area of maximum E field and is a form of electric field coupling.
Slot B is at an area of maximum H field and is a form of magnetic field coupling. Slot C is at
an area of maximum E and H field and is a form of electromagnetic coupling.

WAVEGUIDE DISCONTINUITIES
❖ Any interruption in the uniformity of a transmission line leads to impedance mismatch
and is known as impedance discontinuity or waveguide discontinuities.
❖ In a waveguide system, when there is a mismatch, reflections will occur. In
transmission lines, in order to overcome this mismatch, lumped impedances or stubs of
required values are placed at the pre-calculated points.
❖ Some waveguide discontinuities are used for matching purposes.
Waveguide Irises
 ❖ Fixed or adjustable projections from the walls of waveguides are used for impedance
matching purposes, and these are known as windows or irises.
❖ An iris is a metal plate that contains an opening through which the waves may pass.
❖ It is located in the transverse plane of either a magnetic or an electric field.
❖ Irises are classified according to the sign of the imaginary part of the impedance. If the
reactance of the impedance is positive or if the susceptance of the admittance is
negative, we have an inductive iris. If the reactance is negative or if the susceptance is
positive, we have a capacitive iris.
Inductive Iris
❖ Usually inductive irises are used as coupling networks between half-wavelength
cavities in rectangular waveguides.
❖ Generally, an inductive iris is placed where either magnetic field is strong or electric
field is weak.
❖ The plane of polarization of the electric field becomes parallel to the plane of inductive
iris. This causes a current flow which sets up a magnetic field. Then the energy is stored
in the magnetic field. Hence, inductance will increase at that point of the waveguide.

Fig. Inductive Iris Figure. Capacitive Iris

Capacitive Iris
❖ A capacitive iris is also known as capacitive window as shown in figure below.
❖ It extends from the top and bottom walls into the waveguide.
❖ The capacitive iris has to be placed in strong electric field. This capacitive iris creates
the effect of capacitive susceptance which is in parallel to that point of waveguide
where the electric field is strong.
❖ If the inductive and capacitive irises are combined suitably (correctly shaped and
positioned), the inductive and capacitive reactance introduced will be equal, and the iris
will become a parallel resonant circuit. For the dominant mode, the iris presents a high
impedance, and the shunting effect of this mode will be negligible.
❖ Other modes are completely attenuated, and the resonant iris acts as a band-pass filter
to suppress unwanted modes. The figure shown below the series resonant iris that is
 supported by a non-metallic material and is transparent to the flow of microwave
energy.

Fig. Iris parallel resonant circuit Figure. Series resonant iris

Tuning Screws and Posts
❖ Posts and screws made from conductive material can be used for impedance-changing
devices in waveguides.
❖ A post or screw can also serve as a reactive element.
❖ The only significant difference between posts and screws is that posts are fixed and
screws are adjustable.
Screws
❖ A screw is generally inserted into the top or bottom walls of the waveguide, parallel to
the electric-field lines.
❖ It can give a variable amount of susceptance depending on the depth of penetration.
❖ A screw with an insertion distance (screw depth) less than λ/4 produces capacitive
susceptance. When the distance is equal to λ/4, we have series resonance.
❖ When the distance is greater than λ/4, it produces inductive susceptance, as shown in
figure below.
❖ The screw acts similar to an LC-tuned circuit in such cases.
 Susceptance nature at different screw depths
❖ The adjustable waveguide screw is shown in Figure below. The capacitive setting
shown in first figure and the inductive setting is shown in second figure.

Adjustable waveguide components

❖ The most direct method of impedance matching with a matched screw involves using a
single screw that is adjustable in both length and position along the waveguide.
However, it requires a slot in the waveguide.
❖ An alternative arrangement is to use double or triple screw units with a spacing of λ/8
or λ/4. A two-screw matcher is shown in Figure 6.7 (a).

Two-screw matcher
Posts
❖ A cylindrical post is introduced into the broader side of the waveguide; it produces a
similar effect as an iris in providing lumped capacitive/inductive reactance at that point.
❖ When a metal post extends completely across the waveguide, parallel to an electric
field, it adds an inductive susceptance that is parallel to the waveguide.
❖ A post extending across the waveguide at right angles to the electric field produces an
effective capacitive susceptance that is in shunt with the waveguide at the position of
the post. The waveguide post is shown in figure below.
❖ The advantage of such posts over irises is the flexibility they provide, which results in
ease of matching.
❖ A post (or screw) that only penetrates partially into the waveguide acts as a shunt
capacitive reactance.
❖ When a post extends completely through the waveguide, making contact with the top
and bottom walls, it acts as an inductive reactance.

Figure. Waveguide Post

Matched Loads
❖ The most commonly used waveguide terminations are the matched loads.
❖ Whenever the load impedance and characteristic impedance of the transmission line are
not matched/equal, reflections exist. These reflections would cause frequency
instability to the source.
❖ Matched loads are used for minimizing the reflections by placing a material in the
waveguide parallel to the electric field to absorb the incident power completely.
❖ One of the methods involved in the matched load is to place a resistive card in the
waveguide parallel to the electric field as shown in above figure. The front portion of
the card is tapered to avoid discontinuity of the signal, and it almost absorbs the incident
field.
WAVEGUIDE ATTENUATOR
❖ An attenuator is a passive device that is used to reduce the strength or amplitude of a
signal.
❖ At microwave frequencies, the attenuators were not only meant to do this, but also
meant to maintain the characteristic impedance (Z0) of the system.
❖ If the Z0 of the transmission line is not maintained, the attenuator would be seen as
impedance discontinuity, which causes reflections.
 ❖ Usually, a microwave attenuator controls the flow of microwave power by absorbing
it.
❖ Attenuation in dB of a device is ten times the logarithmic ratio of power flowing into
the device (Pi) to the power flowing out of the device (Po) when both the input and
output circuits are matched.
𝑃𝑖
𝐴𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛(𝑑𝐵) = 10 𝑙𝑜𝑔10
𝑃𝑜
Principle of Waveguide Attenuator
❖ In a microwave transmission system, the microwave power transferring from one
section to another section can be controlled by a device known as microwave
attenuator.
❖ These attenuators operate on the principle of interfering with electric or magnetic or
both the fields.
❖ A resistive material placed in parallel to electric field lines (of field current) will induce
a current in the material, which will result in I2R loss. Thus, attenuation occurs by
heating of the resistive element.
❖ Attenuators may be of three types:
i. Fixed
ii. Mechanically or electronically variable
iii. Series of fixed steps

(i)Fixed Attenuators
❖ Fixed attenuators are used where a fixed amount of attenuation is needed. They also
called pads.
❖ In this type of attenuator tapering is provided by placing a short section of a waveguide
with an attached tapered plug of absorbing material at the end. The purpose of tapering
is for the gradual transition of microwave power from the waveguide medium to the
absorbing medium.
❖ Because of the absorbing medium, reflections at the media interface will be minimized.
❖ In a fixed attenuator, plug is nothing but a dielectric slab which has a glass slab with a
carbon film coating. The pad is placed in such a way that the plane is parallel to the
electric field. For this, two thin metal rods are used.

Fixed attenuator
 ❖ The amount of attenuation provided by the fixed attenuator depends on the strength of
the dielectric material, the location and area of the pad, type of material used for pad
within waveguide and the frequency of operation.
(ii)Variable Attenuators
❖ For providing continuous or stepwise attenuation variable attenuators are used.
❖ The provided attenuation depends on the insertion depth of the absorbing plate into the
waveguide.
❖ The maximum attenuation will be achieved when the pad extends totally into the
waveguide. This type of variable attenuation is provided by knob and gear assembly
which can be properly calibrated.
❖ The power transmitted to the load can be varied manually or electronically from nearly
the full power of the source to as little as a millionth of a percent of the source power
depending on the frequency of operation.
❖ The types of variable attenuators are
1. Flap or resistive card-type attenuators
2. Slide vane attenuators
3. Rotary vane attenuators

(1) Resistive card (flap type)

❖ Mechanically, variable attenuators are stepwise variable attenuators.
❖ Examples are flap type, slide vane type attenuators as shown in figure below.
❖ In contrast, electronically variable attenuators are continuously variable attenuators.
They are used for various applications like requiring automatic signal levelling and
control, amplitude modulation, remote signal control, and so on.
❖ A simple form of an attenuator consists of a thin, tapered resistive card, whose depth of
penetration into the waveguide is adjustable as shown below.
❖ The card is inserted into the waveguide through a longitudinal slot cut in the center of
the broad wall of a rectangular waveguide.

Resistive card or flat type attenuator

(2)Slide vane attenuators
❖ The Slid Vane or adjustable disk attenuator is showm in figure below. In this
attenuator, the vane is positioned at the center of the waveguide and can be moved
laterally from the center, where it provides maximum attenuation to the edges.
However, the attenuation is reduced at the edges, as the electric field lines are always
concentrated at the center of the waveguide.
❖ The vane is tapered at both the ends for matching the attenuator with the waveguide.
An adequate match is obtained if the taper length is made equal to λ/2.
❖ The biggest disadvantage with these attenuators is that their attenuation is frequency
sensitive, and also, the phase of the output signal is a function of attenuation.
 Slid Vane or adjustable disk attenuator
(3) Rotary Vane Attenuators
❖ The most satisfactory precision attenuator is the rotary vane attenuator. The structure
of this attenuator is shown in figure below.
❖ It consists of two rectangular to circular waveguide tapered transitions, along with an
intermediate section of a circular waveguide that is free to rotate. All the three sections
contain thin resistive cards.
❖ The input signal passes the first card with a negligible attenuation, because the electric
field of the TE10 wave mode is perpendicular to the card. Then, the wave enters through
a transition to the circular waveguide.
❖ The attenuation is adjusted by rotating the circular waveguide section and the resistive
card within it.
❖ The field of the TE11 wave mode can be divided into two components: one
perpendicular to the card and the other parallel to it. The latter component is absorbed
by the card; the former component enters the output of the waveguide, in which again
its component parallel to the resistive card is absorbed.

Rotary vane attenuator

❖ The plates are usually thin with εr > 1, μr = 1, and conductivity σ of a finite nonzero
value.
❖ The plates attenuate the wave that is travelling, and the amount of attenuation is
dependent on the properties of the material from which the plate is made, the
dimensions of the slab, and the angle between the electric field at the input and the
plane of the resistive card in the circular section.
❖ The attenuation in decibels is given by
Attenuation in dB = −40 log (cos θ) dB
 where θ is the angle between the electric field at the input and the plane of the resistive
card in the circular section. Hence, the attenuation is controlled by the rotation of the
center section. Minimum attenuation at θ = 0°, and maximum attenuation at θ = 90°.
❖ The attenuation provided by this device depends only on the rotation angle θ but not on
the frequency. This device is very accurate, and is, hence, being used as a calibration
standard. Its accuracy is limited only by imperfect matching and by misalignment of
the resistive cards.
5.a) THE SCATTERING MATRIX
❖ A practical problem exists when trying to measure voltages and currents at microwave
frequencies because direct measurements usually involve the magnitude (inferred from
power) and phase of a wave traveling in a given direction or of a standing wave. Thus,
equivalent voltages and currents, and the related impedance and admittance matrices,
become somewhat of an abstraction when dealing with high-frequency networks.
❖ A representation more in accord with direct measurements, and with the ideas of
incident, reflected, and transmitted waves, is given by the scattering matrix.
❖ Like the impedance or admittance matrix for an N-port network, the scattering matrix
provides a complete description of the network as seen at its N ports.
❖ While the impedance and admittance matrices relate the total voltages and currents at
the ports, the scattering matrix relates the voltage waves incident on the ports to
those reflected from the ports.
❖ For some components and circuits, the scattering parameters can be calculated using
network analysis techniques. Otherwise, the scattering parameters can be measured
directly with a vector network analyzer; a photograph of a modern network analyzer is
shown in Figure 4.7.
❖ Consider the N-port network shown in Figure 4.5, where Vn+ is the amplitude of the
voltage wave incident on port n and Vn- is the amplitude of the voltage wave reflected
from port n.
❖ The scattering matrix, or [S] matrix, is defined in relation to these incidents and
reflected voltage waves as

or

❖ A specific element of the scattering matrix can be determined as

❖ In words, (4.41) says that Sij is found by driving port j with an incident wave of voltage
V+j and measuring the reflected wave amplitude V-j coming out of port i. The incident
waves on all ports except the jth port are set to zero, which means that all ports should
 be terminated in matched loads to avoid reflections. Thus, Sii is the reflection coefficient
seen looking into port i when all other ports are terminated in matched loads, and Sij is
the transmission coefficient from port j to port i when all other ports are terminated in
matched loads.

FIGURE 4.7 Photograph of the Agilent N5247A Programmable Network Analyzer. This
instrument is used to measure the scattering parameters of RF and microwave networks from
10 MHz to 67 GHz. The instrument is programmable, performs error correction, and has a wide
variety of display formats and data conversions.

Properties of [S] matrix

1. [S] is always a square matrix of order (nxn).
2. [S] is a symmetric matrix.
a. i.e Sij=Sji
3. [S] is a unitary matrix
a. i.e [S].[S]* =[I]
where [S]* is a complex conjugate of [S]
b. [I] is unit or Identity matrix of the same order as that of [S]
So,
S11.S*11+ S21.S*21+ S31.S*31+…….+ Sn1.S*n1 =1
4. Zero Property: The sum of the products of each term of any row (column) multiplied
by the complex conjugate of the corresponding terms of any other row (or column) is
zero.
i.e
𝑛

∑ 𝑆𝑖𝑘 𝑆𝑖𝑗∗ = 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑖 ≠ 𝑗

𝑛=1
Or
S11.S*12+ S21.S*22+ S31.S*32+…….+ Sn1.S*n2 =0
5. For matched condition, Sii=0 because there will be no reflection.
 WAVEGUIDE TEES
As noted, waveguide tees may consist of the E-plane tee, H-plane tee, magic tee, hybrid rings,
corners, bends, and twists.
Tee junctions.
❖ In microwave circuits a waveguide or coaxial-line junction with three independent ports
is commonly referred to as a tee junction.
❖ From the S-parameter theory of a microwave junction it is evident that a tee junction
should be characterized by a matrix of third order containing nine elements, six of
which should be independent.
❖ The characteristics of a three-port junction can be explained by three theorems of the
tee junction. These theorems are derived from the equivalent-circuit representation of
the tee junction. Their statements follow
1. A short circuit may always be placed in one of the arms of a three-
port junction in such a way that no power can be transferred through
the other two arms.
2. If the junction is symmetric about one of its arms, a short circuit can
always be placed in that arm so that no reflections occur in power
transmission between the other two arms. (That is, the arms present
matched impedances.)
3. It is impossible for a general three-port junction of arbitrary
symmetry to present matched impedances at all three arms.
1.b) E-plane tee (Series tee).
❖ An E-plane tee is a waveguide tee in which the axis of its side arm is parallel to the E
field of the main guide (see Fig. 4-4-4).
❖ If the collinear arms are symmetric about the side arm, there are two different
transmission characteristics (see Fig. 4-4-5).
❖ It can be seen from Fig. 4-4-4 that if the E - plane tee is perfectly matched with the aid
of screw tuners or inductive or capacitive windows at the junction, the diagonal
components of the scattering matrix, S11, S22, and S33, are zero because there will be no
reflection.
❖ When the waves are fed into the side arm (port 3), the waves appearing at port l and
port 2 of the collinear arm will be in opposite phase and in the same magnitude.
Therefore (4-4-12)
S13=-S23
❖ It should be noted that Eq. (4-4-12) does not mean that S13 is always positive and S23 is
always negative.
 Figure 4-4-4 E-plane tee

Figure 4-4-5 Two-way transmission of E-plane tee. (a) Input through main arm. (b) Input
from side arm.
❖ The negative sign merely means that SB and S23 have opposite signs. For a matched
junction, the S matrix is given by

❖ From the symmetry property of S matrix, the symmetric terms in Eq. ( 4-4-13) are equal
and they are

❖ From the zero property of S matrix, the sum of the products of each term of any column
(or row) multiplied by the complex conjugate of the corresponding terms of any other
column (or row) is zero and it is

Hence

❖ This means that either S13 or S*23, or both, should be zero. However, from the unity
property of S matrix, the sum of the products of each term of any one row (or column)
multiplied by its complex conjugate is unity; that is,

❖ Substitution of Eq. (4-4-14) in (4-4-17) results in

 ❖ Equations (4-4-19) and (4-4-20) are contradictory, for if S13 = 0, then S23 is also zero
and thus Eq. (4-4-19) is false. In a similar fashion, if S23 = 0, then S 13 becomes zero
and therefore Eq. (4-4-20) is not true. This inconsistency proves the statement that the
tee junction cannot be matched to the three arms. In other words, the diagonal elements
of the S matrix of a tee junction are not all zeros.
❖ In general, when an E-plane tee is constructed of an empty waveguide, it is poorly
matched at the tee junction. Hence Sij≠0 if i = j. However, since the collinear arm is
usually symmetric about the side arm, |S13| =|S23| and S11 = S22. Then the S matrix can
be simplified to

H-plane tee (shunt tee).

❖ An H-plane tee is a waveguide tee in which the axis of its side arm is "shunting" the E
field or parallel to the H field of the main guide as shown in Fig. 4-4-6.

Figure 4-4-6 H-plane tee.

❖ It can be seen that if two input waves are fed into port 1 and port 2 of the collinear arm,
the output wave at port 3 will be in phase and additive. On the other hand, if the input
is fed into port 3, the wave will split equally into port 1 and port 2 in phase and in the
same magnitude. Therefore, the S matrix of the H-plane tee is similar to Eqs. (4-4-13)
and (4-4-21) except that
S13=S23
𝑆11 𝑆12 𝑆13
𝑆 = [𝑆12 𝑆11 𝑆13 ]
𝑆13 𝑆13 𝑆33
4) Magic Tees (Hybrid Tees)
❖ A magic tee is a combination of the E-plane tee and H -plane tee (refer to Fig. 4-4-7).
❖ The magic tee has several characteristics:

1. If two waves of equal magnitude and the same phase are fed into port 1 and port
2, the output will be zero at port 3 and additive at port 4.
2. If a wave is fed into port 4 (the Harm), it will be divided equally between port 1
and port 2 of the collinear arms and will not appear at port 3 (the E arm).
3. If a wave is fed into port 3 (the E arm), it will produce an output of equal
magnitude and opposite phase at port 1 and port 2. The output at port 4 is zero.
That is, S43 = S34 = 0.
 4. If a wave is fed into one of the collinear arms at port 1 or port 2, it will not
appear in the other collinear arm at port 2 or port 1 because the E arm causes
a phase delay while the H arm causes a phase advance. That is, S12 = S21 = 0.

Figure 4-4-7 Magic tee.

❖ Therefore, the S matrix of a magic tee can be expressed as

Application of Magic Tee

✓ The magic tee is commonly used for mixing, duplexing, and impedance measurements.
Suppose, for example, there are two identical radar transmitters in equipment stock.
✓ A particular application requires twice more input power to an antenna than either
transmitter can deliver.
✓ A magic tee may be used to couple the two transmitters to the antenna in such a way
that the transmitters do not load each other. The two transmitters should be connected
to ports 3 and 4, respectively, as shown in Fig. 4-4-8. Transmitter 1, connected to port
3, causes a wave to emanate from port 1 and another to emanate from port 2; these
waves are equal in magnitude but opposite in phase. Similarly, transmitter 2, connected
to port 4, gives rise to a wave at port 1 and another at port 2, both equal in magnitude
and in phase. At port 1 the two opposite waves cancel each other. At port 2 the two in-
phase waves add together; so double output power at port 2 is obtained for the antenna
as shown in Fig. 4-4-8.
 Figure 4-4-8 Magic tee-coupled transmitters to antenna.
Hybrid Rings (Rat-Race Circuits)
❖ A hybrid ring consists of an annular line of proper electrical length to sustain standing
waves, to which four arms are connected at proper intervals by means of series or
parallel junctions. Figure 4-4-9 shows a hybrid ring with series junctions.

Figure 4-4-9 Hybrid ring

❖ The hybrid ring has characteristics similar to those of the hybrid tee. When a wave is
fed into port 1, it will not appear at port 3 because the difference of phase shifts for the
waves traveling in the clockwise and counter clockwise directions is 180°. Thus, the
waves are cancelled at port 3. For the same reason, the waves fed into port 2 will not
emerge at port 4 and so on.
❖ The S matrix for an ideal hybrid ring can be expressed as
 ❖ It should be noted that the phase cancellation occurs only at a designated frequency for
an ideal hybrid ring. In actual hybrid rings there are small leakage couplings, and
therefore the zero elements in the matrix of Eq. (4-4-24) are not quite equal to zero.
DIRECTIONAL COUPLERS
❖ A directional coupler is a four-port waveguide junction as shown in Fig. 4-5-1.

Figure 4-5-1 Directional coupler.

❖ It consists of a primary waveguide 1-2 and a secondary waveguide 3-4.
❖ When all ports are terminated in their characteristic impedances, there is free
transmission of power, without reflection, between port 1 and port 2, and there is no
transmission of power between port 1 and port 3 or between port 2 and port 4 because
no coupling exists between these two pairs of ports.
❖ The degree of coupling between port 1 and port 4 and between port 2 and port 3 depends
on the structure of the coupler.
❖ The characteristics of a directional coupler can be expressed in terms of its coupling
factor and its directivity.
❖ Assuming that the wave is propagating from port l to port 2 in the primary line, the
coupling factor and the directivity are defined, respectively, by
𝑃1
𝐶𝑜𝑢𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 (𝑑𝐵) = 10 𝑙𝑜𝑔10
𝑃4
𝑃4
𝐷𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝑑𝐵) = 10 𝑙𝑜𝑔10
𝑃3
𝑃1
𝐼𝑛𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠 (𝑑𝐵) = 10 𝑙𝑜𝑔10
𝑃2

where P1 = power input to port 1

P3 = power output from port 3
P4 = power output from port 4
❖ It should be noted that port 2, port 3, and port 4 are terminated in their characteristic
impedances.
❖ The coupling factor is a measure of the ratio of power levels in the primary and
secondary lines. Hence if the coupling factor is known, a fraction of power measured
at port 4 may be used to determine the power input at port 1. This significance is
 desirable for microwave power measurements because no disturbance, which may be
caused by the power measurements, occurs in the primary line.
❖ The directivity is a measure of how well the forward traveling wave in the primary
waveguide couples only to a specific port of the secondary waveguide. An ideal
directional coupler should have infinite directivity. In other words, the power at port 3
must be zero because port 2 and port 4 are perfectly matched. Actually, well-designed
directional couplers have a directivity of only 30 to 35 dB.
❖ Several types of directional couplers exist, such as a
i. two-hole directional coupler,
ii. four-hole directional coupler,
iii. reverse-coupling directional coupler (Schwinger coupler)
iv. Bethe-hole directional coupler

Figure 4-5-2 Different directional couplers. (a) Two-hole directional coupler. (b) Four-hole
directional coupler. (c) Schwinger coupler. (d) Bethe-hole directional coupler

2) Two-Hole Directional Couplers

❖ A two-hole directional coupler with traveling waves propagating in it is illustrated in
Fig. 4-5-3. The spacing between the centers of two holes must be

where n is any positive integer.

 Figure 4-5-3 Two-hole directional coupler.
❖ A fraction of the wave energy entered into port 1 passes through the holes and is
radiated into the secondary guide as the holes act as slot antennas.
❖ The forward waves in the secondary guide are in the same phase, regardless of the hole
space, and are added at port 4. The backward waves in the secondary guide (waves are
progressing from right to left) are out of phase by (2L/ λg )2π rad and are cancelled at
port 3.
S Matrix of a Directional Coupler
Example:
A symmetric directional coupler with infinite directivity and a forward attenuation of 20 dB is
used to monitor the power delivered to a load Zt (see Fig. 4-5-4). Bolometer 1 introduces a
VSWR of 2.0 on arm 4; bolometer 2 is matched to arm 3. If bolometer 1 reads 8 mW and
bolometer 2 reads 2 mW, find: (a) the amount of power dissipated in the load Ze; (b) the VSWR
on arm 2.
Solution
The wave propagation in the directional coupler is shown in Fig. 4-5-5.
Figure 4.5.5 Wave propagation in the directional coupler.
Example:
A directional coupler has 10 dB coupling coefficient and 40 dB directivity, insertion loss
of 1 dB. For an input power of 10mW at the input port of the main arm, determine the
power at different ports. Other ports except the one at which the measurement is made
are match terminated.
Solution:
Data Given:
Input power (P1)= 10mW
coupling coefficient=10 dB
𝑃1
𝐶𝑜𝑢𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 (𝑑𝐵) = 10 𝑙𝑜𝑔10
𝑃4
𝑃1
=> 10 𝑑𝐵 = 10 𝑙𝑜𝑔10
𝑃4
𝑃1
=> 1 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔10
𝑃4
𝑃1
=> 10 =
𝑃4
𝑃1 10 𝑚𝑊
=> 𝑃4 = = = 1 𝑚𝑊
10 10
Directivity=40 dB
𝑃4
𝐷𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝑑𝐵) = 10 𝑙𝑜𝑔10
𝑃3
𝑃4
=> 40 𝑑𝐵 = 10 𝑙𝑜𝑔10
𝑃3
𝑃4
=> 4 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔10
𝑃3
𝑃4
=> 10000 =
𝑃3
 𝑃4 1 𝑚𝑊
=> 𝑃3 = = = 0.0001 𝑚𝑊
10000 10000
Insertion Loss=1 dB
𝑃1
𝐼𝑛𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠 = 10 𝑙𝑜𝑔10
𝑃2
𝑃1
=> 1 𝑑𝐵 = 10 𝑙𝑜𝑔10
𝑃2
𝑃1
=> 0.1 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔10
𝑃2
𝑃1
=> 1.25 =
𝑃2
𝑃1 10 𝑚𝑊
=> 𝑃2 = = = 8 𝑚𝑊
1.25 1.25

Bethe-Hole Coupler
❖ The Bethe-hole directional coupler consists of two rectangular waveguides coupled by
means of a small circular aperture located in the center of the common broad wall.
❖ To achieve directional coupling, the axis of the two guides must be at an angle (J, as
illustrated in Fig. 6.19a. A variation of this design consists of a similar arrangement,
with (J = 0, but an offset aperture as in Fig. 6.19b.
❖ An incident TE10 mode in guide 1, with an amplitude A, produces a normal electric
dipole in the aperture plus a tangential magnetic dipole proportional and in the same
direction as the magnetic field of the incident wave.
❖ In the upper guide the normal electric dipole and the axial component of the magnetic
dipole radiate symmetrically in both directions. The transverse component of the
magnetic dipole radiates anti-symmetrically.

Fig. Bethe-Hole Coupler

 ❖ By varying the angle 8 or the aperture position d, the amplitude of the fields coupled
into ports 3 and 4 can be controlled. For the directional coupler shown in Fig. 6.19a,
the optimum value for the angle ө is given by

❖ This choice for 0 will minimize the field coupled into port 4. Since the coupling is not
zero, a perfect directional coupler is not obtained. A detailed analysis shows that the
coupling and directivity that can be obtained are given by

3.a) FARADAY ROTATION

❖ The Faraday effect or Faraday rotation, sometimes referred to as the magneto-optic
Faraday effect, is a physical magneto-optical phenomenon.
❖ The Faraday effect causes a polarization rotation which is proportional to the projection
of the magnetic field along the direction of the light propagation.
❖ At a given point along the z-axis the polarization direction measured from the x-axis is
given by

Where two possible propagation constants are β+ and β−

❖ This effect is called Faraday rotation, after Michael Faraday, who first observed this
phenomenon during his study of the propagation of light through liquids that had
magnetic properties.
❖ Note that for a fixed position on the z-axis, the polarization angle is fixed, unlike the
case for a circularly polarized wave, where the polarization direction rotates with time.
❖ Then β+ > β−, and (9.57) shows that φ becomes more negative as z increases, meaning
that the polarization (direction of E¯) rotates counter clockwise as we look in the +z
direction. Similarly, for +z bias, a wave traveling in the −z direction will rotate its
polarization clockwise as we look in the direction of propagation (−z); if we were
looking in the +z direction, however, the direction of rotation would be counter
clockwise (same as a wave propagating in the +z direction). Thus, a wave that travels
from z = 0 to z = L and back again to z = 0 undergoes a total polarization rotation of
2φ, where φ is given in (9.57) with z = L.
 ❖ So, unlike the situation of a screw being driven into a block of wood and then backed
out, the polarization does not “unwind” when the direction of propagation is reversed.
Faraday rotation is thus seen to be a nonreciprocal effect.

FIGURE 6.42 Faraday rotation

MICROWAVE DEVICES EMPLOYING FARADAY ROTATION
5.b) Gyrator

FIGURE 6.45 A microwave gyrator

 FIGURE 6.46 A gyrator without a twist section.

❖ A gyrator is defined as a two-port device that has a relative difference in phase shift of
180° for transmission from port 1 to port 2 as compared with the phase shift for
transmission from port 2 to port 1.
❖ A gyrator may be obtained by employing the nonreciprocal property of Faraday
rotation.
❖ Figure 6.45 illustrates a typical microwave gyrator. It consists of a rectangular guide
with a 90° twist connected to a circular guide, which in turn is connected to another
rectangular guide at the other end.
❖ The two rectangular guides have the same orientation at the input ports. The circular
guide contains a thin cylindrical rod of ferrite with the ends tapered to reduce
reflections.
❖ A static axial magnetic field is applied so as to produce 90° Faraday rotation of the TE11
dominant mode in the circular guide.
❖ Consider a wave propagating from left to right. In passing through the twist the plane
of polarization is rotated by 90° in a counter clockwise direction. If the ferrite produces
an additional 90° of rotation, the total angle of rotation will be 180°, as indicated in Fig.
6.45.
❖ For a wave propagating from right to left, the Faraday rotation is still 90° in the same
sense. However, in passing through the twist, the next 90° of rotation is in a direction
to cancel the Faraday rotation. Thus, for transmission from port 2 to port 1, there is no
net rotation of the plane of polarization.
❖ The 180° rotation for transmission from port 1 to port 2 is equivalent to an additional
180° of phase shift since it reverses the polarization of the field. It is apparent, then,
that the device just described satisfies the definition of a gyrator.
❖ If the inconvenience of having the input and output rectangular guides oriented at 90°
can be tolerated, a gyrator without a 90° twist section can be built.
 ❖ With reference to Fig. 6.46, it is seen that if the ferrite produces 90° of rotation and the
output guide is rotated by 90° relative to the input guide, the emerging wave will have
the right polarization to propagate in the output guide.
❖ When propagation is from port 2 to port 1, the wave arriving in guide 1 will have its
polarization changed by 180°, as shown in Fig. 6.46. Hence a differential phase shift of
180° is again produced.

3.b) Isolator
❖ Isolator is nonreciprocal transmission devices that use the property of Faraday rotation
in the ferrite material.
❖ The isolator, or uniline, is a device that permits unattenuated transmission from port 1
to port 2 but provides very high attenuation for transmission in the reverse direction.
❖ The isolator is often used to couple a microwave signal generator to a load network.
❖ It has the great advantage that all the available power can be delivered to the load and
yet reflections from the load do not get transmitted back to the generator output
terminals.
❖ Consequently, the generator sees a matched load, and effects such as power output
variation and frequency pulling (change in frequency), with variations in the load
impedance, are avoided.
❖ The isolator is similar to the gyrator in construction except that it employs a 45° twist
section and 45° of Faraday rotation. In addition, thin resistive cards are inserted in the
input and output guides to absorb the field that is polarized, with the electric vector
parallel to the wide side of the guide, as shown in Fig. 6.47.
The operation is as follows:
✓ A wave propagating from port 1 to port 2 has its polarization rotated 45° counter
clockwise by the twist section and 45° clockwise by the Faraday rotator. It will emerge
at port 2 with the correct polarization to propagate in the output guide.
✓ A wave propagating from port 2 to port 1 will have its plane of polarization rotated by
90° and will enter the guide at port 1 with the electric field parallel to the resistance
card, and hence be absorbed.
✓ Without the resistance card, the wave would be reflected from port 1 because of the
incorrect polarization, which cannot propagate in the guide constituting port 1.
However, multiple reflections within the isolator will lead to transmission in both
directions, and this makes it necessary to use resistance cards in both the input and
output guides for satisfactory performance.
✓ Typical performance figures for an isolator are forward transmission loss of less than 1
dB, reverse attenuation of 20 to 30 dB, and bandwidth of operation approaching 10
percent.
 FIGURE 6.47 A Faraday-rotation isolator
Microwave Circulators
❖ Circulator is a nonreciprocal transmission device that use the property of Faraday
rotation in the ferrite material.
❖ A microwave circulator is a multiport waveguide junction in which the wave can flow
only from the nth port to the (n + l)th port in one direction (see Fig. 4-6-2).
❖ Although there is no restriction on the number of ports, the four-port microwave
circulator is the most common.
❖ One type of four-port microwave circulator is a combination of two 3-dB side-hole
directional couplers and a rectangular waveguide with two nonreciprocal phase shifters
as shown in Fig. 4-6-3.

Figure 4-6-2 The symbol of a circulator.

 Figure 4-6-3 Schematic diagram of four-port circulator.
❖ The operating principle of a typical microwave circulator can be analyzed with the aid
of Fig. 4-6-3.
❖ Each of the two 3-dB couplers in the circulator introduces a phase shift of 90°, and each
of the two-phase shifters produces a certain amount of phase change in a certain
direction as indicated.
❖ When a wave is incident to port 1, the wave is split into two components by coupler 1.
The wave in the primary guide arrives at port 2 with a relative phase change of 180°.
❖ The second wave propagates through the two couplers and the secondary guide and
arrives at port 2 with a relative phase shift of 180°.
❖ Since the two waves reaching port 2 are in phase, the power transmission is obtained
from port 1 to port 2. However, the wave propagates through the primary guide, phase
shifter, and coupler 2 and arrives at port 4 with a phase change of 270°.
❖ The wave travels through coupler 1 and the secondary guide, and it arrives at port 4
with a phase shift of 90°. Since the two waves reaching port 4 are out of phase by 180°,
the power transmission from port 1 to port 4 is zero.
❖ In general, the differential propagation constants in the two directions of propagation
in a waveguide containing ferrite phase shifters should be
w1 - w3 = (2m + l)π rad/s (4-6-10)
w2 - w4 = 2nπ rad/s (4-6-11)
where m and n are any integers, including zeros.
❖ A similar analysis shows that a wave incident to port 2 emerges at port 3 and so on. As
a result, the sequence of power flow is designated as 1 → 2→ 3→4→1.
❖ Many types of microwave circulators are in use today. However, their principles of
operation remain the same. Figure 4-6-4 shows a four-port circulator constructed of two
magic tees and a phase shifter. The phase shifter produces a phase shift of 180°.
 Figure 4-6-4 A four-port circulator.
❖ A perfectly matched, lossless, and nonreciprocal four-port circulator has an S matrix of
the form

❖ Using the properties of S parameters as described previously, the S matrix in Eq (4-6-

12) can be simplified to