The Historical Roots of the Feminist Consciousness in

the 19th Century Social Reform Movement

Module Details

1. Subject Name Adult Education

2. Paper Name Women Studies

3. Module number Module- 7.1

4. Module Name The Historical Roots of the Feminist Consciousness in

the 19th Century Social Reform Movement

5. Principal Investigator Prof. Vandana Chakrabarti, Director, Lifelong Learning and

Extension, SNDT Women’s University, Mumbai

6. Paper Coordinator Dr. Putul Sathe, Associate Professor, Resource Centre for
Women Studies, SNDT Women’s University, Mumbai

7. Content writer Dr.Vibhuti Patel, Professor, Department of Economics, SNDT

Women’s University, Mumbai

8. Content Reviewer Dr. Putul Sathe, Associate professor, Resource Centre for
Women Studies, SNDT Women’s University, Mumbai

Content outline

1. Objectives
2. Keywords
3. Introduction
4. The Genesis of Feminist Movement and Women’s Organisations in India
5. Women in Social Reform movement
6. The First Wave of Feminism: Women in Freedom Movement
7. The Second Wave of Feminism
8. Conclusion

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1. Objectives

At the end of the module, the learner will be able to,

 Discuss genesis of the feminist consciousness in the 19 th century social reform
movement

2. Keywords

Child marriage, female infanticide, widow burning, age of consent, Voting Right for
women in India

3. Introduction

Historically, Indian women’s role in the family, community and society at large was
determined by interplay of several forces such as caste and gender based division of
work, class background, geographic location and ethnic origin of particular
community/tribe. For example, women dominated by Aryan culture had a far more rigid
control over sexuality, fertility and labour. Women in Dravidian culture had to face
relatively less ferocious patriarchy. Over the last 5,000 years, Indian women’s status has
also been influenced by various religions– Hinduism, Jainism, Buddhism, Islam, Sikhism,
Christianity and Zoroastrianism. Religious reform movements between 12th century and
16th century, which also gave rise to liberation theology, namely Bhakti Movement and
Sufism, brought women’s concerns to the fore. Saint poetesses such as Mirabai, Lal Ded,
Akka Mahadevi, and Bahinabai articulated women’s aspirations of personal freedom and
creative urge (Krishnaswamy, 1993).

4. The Genesis of Feminist Movement and Women’s Organisations in

India

In the 19th century, the male social reformers with the blessing of the British
administrators, influenced by western liberal democratic values initiated the process of
fight against female infanticide, widow burning, segregation of women from the public
life, prostitution and begging by destitute women. They also organised public functions
for widow remarriages. As a result, their relatives, neighbours, community leaders and
organised religion boycotted them. In a way, it was a blessing in disguise because their
isolation from petty politics gave them ample time and resources to interact with the
power structures to bring about legal reforms and establish educational institutions,
shelter homes, training centres for women from where the first generation of teachers,
nurses and other skilled workers came out. (Desai, 1977)

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5. Women in Social Reform movement

Savitribai was the first woman teacher of modern education who was mentored by her
social reformer husband, Jyotirao Phule. Both of them the school for the native girls in
Pune in 1848. The couple also opened a care and rehabilitation center for pregnant rape
victims and helped deliver their children. Both mother and child were looked after by
them. Mother was made self dependent thro’ education and skill and child were sent to
school. Savitribai also worked to abolish caste and gender based discrimination and
injustices. In 1868, she opened a well in her house for the dalits who were refused
drinking water by the upper caste can use it. She had to face extremely barbaric firms of
humiliation and social boycott by the feudal and regressive forces.

1885, Rukhmabai chose prison over marriage as a child bride & studied to be a doctor.
She played pivotal role in establishment of Civil Hospitals in Pune and Surat.

Tarabai Shinde, the 19th century social reformer is known for her published work, Stri
Purush Tulana ("A Comparison Between Women and Men"), originally published in
Marathi in 1882. The pamphlet is a critique of upper-caste patriarchy based on irrational,
illogical double standards for caste based social hierarchy that subjugated shudras, ati-
shudras and women.

In 1889, Pandita Ramabai, a visionary social reformer started the Sharada Sadan, a
secular residential school for child widows. During horrifying femine years, she gave
food, shelter and education to several thousand unfortunate, ill-treated child widows and
destitute orphans. She started schools and the well-known Mission called the Pandita
RAMABAI Mukti Mission.

In 1916, Maharshi Karve founded the 1st Women’s University of South Asia, SNDT
Women’s University.

a. Movement Against Sati :

The Indian male social reformers sought to reform the society by initiating campaigns
against caste, animism, purdah, child-marriage, sati-widow burning and female
infanticide. Raja Ram Mohan Roy and Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar dedicated their entire
life to stop barbaric custom of sati (widow buring). As a result, the government had to
pass Sati Prohibition Act in 1929.

b. Promotion of Widow Remarriage :

In 1850, Pandit Iswar Chandra Vidyasagar proved from the Shastras that the re-
marriage of widow is allowed. He was a long difficult journey through debates with
Orthodox pundits. They created turmoil in society. Vidyasagar submitted a petition to the
Governor General in 1855.

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A widow Remarriage Association had started in Madras in 1871, but was short lived. In
1878, Viresalingam started the Rajmundri Social Reform Association, focusing mainly on
widow re-marriage.

c. Fight against Female Infanticide

Social reformers in Gujarat, Maharashtra, Rajasthan and Punjab worked really hard to
stop female infanticide widely prevalent among upper caste. Due to their efforts laws
criminalizing killing of newly born girls came into existence.

d. Rehabilitation of Prostitutes :

The notable personalities, who fought for reforms in anti-women socio-religious customs,
were Jyotiba Phule, Swami Dayananda Saraswati, Karve and woman like Pandita
Ramabai, Sister Nivedita and Tagore’s sister Swarnakumari Devi. Bengal had witnessed
rebellion spirits like Madhusadan Dutta and Henry Derozio. They had invited the wrath of
the reformers even by attacking male morality. Madhusudan organized the prostitutes
and inspired them to choose the profession of acting, instead.

e. Arya Samaj Movement :

Swami Dayananda disowned the caste system and prescribed equal treatment to women
quoting from the shastras. His Arya Samaj did not impose any duties or obligations on
women, which could not be applied to men according to the lawgivers. In his
monumental book “Satyartha Prakas”, Dayananda insisted that polygamy; child
marriage and the seclusion of women are abhorrent practices and must be done away
with. He called for compulsory education for boys and girls both.

f. Prohibition of Child Marriage:

In 1860, The Age of Consent Act was passed fixing the age of consent at 10. Behram
Malabari who was a Parsi, started campaign in support of this Act towards the end of the
century. He could manage to convince a good number of lawyers, doctors, teachers and
general public. They believed that early marriage weakens the physical strength of
nation. It stunts its full growth and development. It affects the courage and energy of
the individuals and brings forth a race of people weak in strength and determination.
When Rakmabai Save, a victim of child marriage wrote an open letter to the Viceroy of
India in The Times of India, the campaign against child marriage got a maasive boost.
Rakmabai was married off at the age of eleven to a nineteen year old groom Dadaji
Bhikaji. She however continued to live in the house of her widowed mother Jayantibai
who then married Assistant Surgeon Sakharam Arjun. When Dadaji and his family asked
Rukhmabai to move to his home, she refused and was supported in her choice by her
step-father. This led to a long series of court cases from 1884, a major public discussion
on child marriage and on the rights of women. Rukhmabai in the meantime pursued

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studies and wrote letters to the newspaper under the pseudonym A Hindu Lady. Her case
won the support of a number of people and when she expressed her wish to study
medicine, a fund was raised for her to travel and study medicine at the London School of
Medicine. She graduated and returned to India in 1895, becoming one of India's first
women doctors (after Anandibai Joshi) and worked in a women's hospital in Surat.

g. Women in Literature :

By the late of 19th century, social reforms movements were beginning to show effects,
confidence and determination started getting observed in the life and work of some
women. Novelists like Nirupama Devi and Anurupa Devi started getting referred to in the
Bengali literary circles and were even gave membership of literary clubs which were
eliminated by men. Tagore’s novels and short stories are full of women characters that
were educated, self confident and commanded decision making power.

h. Women for Women:

Tagore’s sister Swarnakumari Debi launched “Sakhi Samiti” with the aim of training
widows to learn to teach and thus become the most powerful agents of spreading
education among women. The Samiti organized crafts fair in order to promote women
centric cottage collage industries as a means of developing self-confidence and
nationalism. Swarnakumari Debi’s daughter, Sarala Devi, was strikingly rebellious. She
wanted to free the “cage” or “prison” of home and establish her right to an independent
livelihood like men. She started a gymnasium in 1902, where women were trained in the
use of sword and “lathi”. She can be called the architect of militant nationalism or even
revolutionary terrorism. Similar work was done by Begum Rokaiya Sakhawat Hussain for
education of Muslim women through establishment of institution, Anjuma-e-Islam.

6. The First Wave of Feminism

Classified as the first-wave feminism, the phase was marked by the first generation of
English educated women’s struggles against child marriage, widow burning, female
infanticide and efforts for education for women and their voting rights. It impacted only
women from the upper caste and upper class. Enormous amount of literature of that
time, produced by the Indian social reformers in Marathi, Hindi, Gujarati, Malayalam,
Tamil, and Bengali bears witness to their path-breaking efforts. The first generation of
English educated empowered women became foremothers of the women’s movement in
the pre-independence period. Most of them channelised their energies in building pioneer
women’s organisations such as All India Women’s Conference (AIWC), Young Women’s
Christian Association (YWCA) and Anjuman-I-Islam. The political agenda of AIWC was to
fight against child marriage, mobilise public opinion in favour of voting rights for women,
and impart basic skills (such as tailoring, embroidery, cookery, hairstyling, childcare, folk
and classical music and dance, letter-writing, etc.) so that they become efficient

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homemakers. The cultural ambiance of the AIWC suited the needs and aspirations of the
high-caste Hindu women. For all practical purposes, the YWCA was multi-religious in
terms of its areas of activities and beneficiaries, though its decision-makers happened to
be the Christian wives of politicians, bureaucrats, professionals and the managerial
cadre, who were in close proximity to the British rulers. The YWCA provided vocational
training courses to groom nurses, typists, secretaries and teachers, classes in bakery
products, flower arrangement, as well as Western and Indian classical dance and music.
Anjuman Trust was committed to the cause of women’s education and skill formation
with an idea to enable them to become home-based workers. They had to work within
the matrix of the purdah (veil). Women office bearers of the YWCA had to face the
outside world with nominal male protection. Many AIWC leaders had their male family
members as facilitators. Women leaders from the Anjuman Trust interacted only with the
Muslim community. Differences in eating habits, dress-code and language barriers
prevented them from collaborative ventures though their leadership was from the
economically better-off sections.

a. Women in Freedom Movement

Non-violent means of protest actions under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi ensured
massive participation of women in the national liberation movement. Women family
members of the Congress leaders gave up purdah and participated in public functions,
rallies, demonstrations and experienced prison life. Many families allowed women to take
political risks, which enabled them to eventually emerge as powerful leaders. Some of
the highly educated women joined educational institutions, the diplomatic corps, public
service boards, and public and private sector industries. The rest became enlightened
home-makers with a strong commitment to educating their daughters. The journey that
began with the 19th century social reform movement and culminated with the 20th
century freedom movement, resulted in securing the constitutional guarantees of
equality, freedom and equal opportunity for women, irrespective of their class, caste,
creed, race and religion (Kasturi & Mazumdar, 1994).

The Swadeshi Movement (1905-08) in Bengal reflects the beginning of a women’s

participation in nationalist activities on a large-scale. Many of the wives, sisters and
daughters started forming support groups for the movement. Middle class nationalism
inspired women and girls who gave away jewellery as well as money. In the villages,
handfuls of grains came as contributions. Militancy became such a feature of the “Samiti”
in which women had active involvement that five such in East-Bengal viz, Swadesh
Bandhan, Brati, Dhaker Anushilan, Suhrid and Sadhana, were banned in January, 1909.

b. Administration against Women in Politics:

No women were chosen by Gandhiji in his long list of 71 marchers to Dandi to violate
The Salt Law imposed by the British Rule. Women freedom fighters like Sarojini Naidu,
Kamaldevi Chattopadhyaya, Khurshid Naoroji and Margaret Cousins, protested strongly

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against this. But Gandhiji remained firm on his decision arguing that he had allocated
greater role to women than the mere breaking of “Salt Laws”. But Sarojini Naidu defied
and joined the March at Dandi at the final stage and was the first woman to be arrested
in that movement. Once defiance cleared the path, thousands of women joined the Salt
Satyagraha, faced lathi charge and courted arrests. This is generally remembered as the
first time the masses of the Indian women got involved in the struggle for independence.
Brave and committed women freedom fighters were Kasturba Gandhi, Kamaladebi
Chattapadhyay, Nellie Sengupta, Basanti Debi, Roukaya Sakhavat Hussain and Aruna
Asaf Ali.

c. Tribal women in Freedom Movement

Tribal women in Gujarat took part in salt Satyagraha and no tax campaigns 1930s and in
Bengal were leading tenant’s struggles in the 1940s. In the hills of Nagaland, Gudiallo,
affectionately called “Rani” became famous for her role in the Civil Disobedience
Movement. She got involved at a very early age of 13, inspired by her cousin Jadonang,
who was active in mobilizing the villagers in Manipur. In 1931-32, Gundiallo led a “no
tax” campaign, having taken over the reins of leadership from her cousin, Jadonang who
was hanged by the British Raj.

d. Empowerment of Women in the Second Wave of Feminism

Empowerment of women is a process where women take control over their lives: setting
their own agendas, gaining skills, building self-confidence, solving problems and
developing self-reliance. No one can empower another; only the individual can empower
herself or himself to make choices or to speak out. During freedom movement women
gained confidence due to participation in larger political struggles, in the process gave up
purdah, embraced modernity demanded ‘right to vote’ that was eventually guaranteed
by the Constitution after gaining independence of India.

7. The Second Wave of Feminism:

In the second wave of feminism that began in the mid 1970s, educated middle-class
women were actively involved in different social movements of students, youth, workers,
peasants, tribals, Dalits and civil liberties, and played a central role. They abhorred
paternalism of benevolent males and upper class women’s ‘charitable’ and ‘philanthropic’
social work and declared themselves as fighters for women’s rights.

The United Nations declared 1975 as an International Women’s Year. Women’s rights
movement in the post-1975 period brought to the fore a wide range of women’s
concerns. There had been various ideological shades in the women’s movement co-
existing till then. The earlier women’s organisations were perceived to have an elitist
bias by the newly formed autonomous women’s groups. To them, these were privileged

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‘women from good families’ that did some philanthropic, social work activities for
common, poor, miserable women, which perpetuated iniquitous relations and did not
transcend the existing social order. Feminists also averred that the conventional
women’s organisations abided by the rules of caste system in their personal lives and
were generally oriented towards maintaining the status quo.

In the last four decades, women from marginalised sections - Dalit and tribal, industrial
workers and agricultural labourers, poor women in urban and rural areas - have
mobilised against violence against women in the community and in the family, witch-
hunting of women-headed households, mass rapes of tribal and Dalit women, dowry
murders, domestic violence and alcoholism, and crimes in the name of honour. The
members of the new autonomous women’s groups believe in fighting against all forms of
sexual oppression and consider women as an oppressed sex. They believe, like casteism
and communalism, sexism is one of the most effective weapons used by the ruling class
to divide masses. Hence, they believe in fighting against the caste system, religious
chauvinism and sexism, simultaneously. In their personal lives too they practice non-
discriminatory attitudes towards people of different religions, castes and classes. The
Indian feminists believe that economic independence of women is a minimum necessary
condition for women’s liberation but it is not enough. One has to fight for women’s rights
in the socio-cultural, educational, and political fields to achieve total liberation. Many of
those members of women’s rights groups call themselves feminists. They do not like the
term ‘social worker’ for themselves. Those who believe that ‘legal provisions can change
women’s position’ are known as liberal feminists. Those who consider men as responsible
for the plight of women are known as radical feminists. And those who situate women’s
oppression in the overall socio-economic and cultural reality are known as socialist
feminists. Socialist feminists believe in establishing linkages between the women’s
movement and broader socio-political movement by working in collaboration with
various types of mass organisations such as trade unions, democratic rights
organisations and issue-based united fronts. They think that women’s demands have to
be fought on a day-to-day basis. Then only new ethos, new ideologies, new morality and
new egalitarian relations between men and women can be evolved. Dalit feminists such
as Urmila Pawar, Kumud Pawade and Baby Kamble (Maharashtra), Cynthia Stephen and
Ruth Manorama (Karnataka), Bama in Tamilnadu have captured conscientisation of Dalit
women under leadership of Dr. Bhimrao Ambedkar.

8. Conclusion:

Learning of 12th to 15th century Bhakti movement, 19th century social reform movement
and the first half 20th century freedom movement of India have been important
precursor for the women’s rights movement that began 1970s onwards.