WEEK 3

Elements of Poetry
Sound
Figures of Speech

World Literature
English Class
Professor: John Michael Cultura
Elements of Poetry

As with narrative, there are "elements" of poetry that we can focus on to enrich our
understanding of a particular poem or group of poems. These elements may include,
voice, diction, imagery, figures of speech, symbolism and allegory, syntax, sound,
rhythm and meter, and structure. While we may discuss these elements separately,
please keep in mind that they are always acting simultaneously in a story. It is difficult,
for example, to discuss voice without talking about imagery, sound, meter, diction and
syntax. Above all, these elements reveal something about the poem's "theme,"
meaning, or function.

Poetry, first of all looks different from prose on the printed page. It is made up of lines
and ending unevenly on the right-hand margin, while prose works are made up of
sentences put together in paragraph forms. Because it tries to say so much in so
compact a form, the meaning it imparts seems to be more complex and more difficult to
grasp than what is usually found in prose narratives and essays.

Every poem is an expression of human sentiment, sometimes happy, sometimes bitter,

sometimes casual. Since the poem is an utterance, it always has a speaker and some
motivation or provocation for the utterance. Usually, it has a listener too, his presence at
least implied. In a sense, therefore, a poem is like fiction and drama – it has a story to
tell.

POETRY ASSUMPTIONS

Readers of poetry often bring with them many related assumptions:

 That a poem is to be read for its "message,"

 That this message is "hidden" in the poem,
 The message is to be found by treating the words as symbols which naturally do
not mean what they say but stand for something else,
 You have to decipher every single word to appreciate and enjoy the poem.
There are no easy ways to dispel these biases. Poetry is difficult because very often its
language is indirect. But so is experience - those things we think, feel, and do. The lazy
reader wants to be told things and usually avoids poetry because it demands
commitment and energy. Moreover, much of what poetry has to offer is not in the form
of hidden meanings. Many poets like to "play" with the sound of language or offer an
emotional insight by describing what they see in highly descriptive language. In fact,
there can many different ways to enjoy poetry; this reflects the many different styles and
objectives of poets themselves. For an overview of the many ways to read a poem,
click here. Finally, if you are the type to give up when something is unclear, just relax!
Like we just said, there can be many different approaches to examining poetry; often
these approaches (like looking for certain poetic devices or examining the meaning of a
specific phrase) do not require a complete and exhaustive analysis of a poem. So, enjoy
what you do understand!

FIRST APPROACHES

Read the poem (many students neglect this step). Identify the speaker and the situation.
Feel free to read it more than once! Read the sentences literally. Use your prose
reading skills to clarify what the poem is about.Read each line separately, noting
unusual words and associations. Look up words you are unsure of and struggle with
word associations that may not seem logical to you.Note any changes in the form of the
poem that might signal a shift in point of view. Study the structure of the poem, including
its rhyme and rhythm (if any). Re-read the poem slowly, thinking about what message
and emotion the poem communicates to you.

Voice: Speaker and Tone-

As DiYanni notes, tone refers to the poet's "implied attitude toward its subject. Tone is
an abstraction we make from the details of a poem's language: the use of meter and
rhyme; the inclusion of certain kinds of details and exclusion of other kinds; particular
choices of words and sentence pattern, of imagery and of figurative language" (479). A
poem could convey reverence toward its subject, or cynicism, fear, awe, disgust, regret,
disappointment, passion, monotony, etc. Tone has a great deal to do with meaning, for a
description of a parent would be radically different depending on a poet's attitude toward
that parent.

Sound, Rhyme, Rhythm, and Meter

Syntax refers to word order, but word order creates certain sounds, images, and
attitudes. As I noted in the Elements of Fiction handout, the way a writer chooses words,
arranges them in sentences and longer units of discourse, and exploits their
significance relates to his or her style which conveys more than the verbal identity of a
writer; in fact, syntax reflects the way a writer sees the world. For example, Faulkner's
convoluted, complicated, long, and often formal prose conveys something about the
way Faulkner sees the South that he writes about. Hemingway, on the other hand, with
his minimal, fragmented, often interrupted and staccato style reveals something about
his typical preoccupation as well, World War I and its devastating effect on relationships.
Again, "form is content." How something is said is just as important as what is said.

While sound is important in narrative, it is especially important in poetry because of

poetry's connection to song and dance, and sound has everything to do with syntax.
Using harsh sounds to convey a harsh environment is particularly effective, as is the
use of soft sounds to convey more delicate emotions or actions. How sentences are
arranged often determines how a sentence sounds. Rhyme, arranging a sentence so
that one word rhymes with another, can help organize a poem, but it can also
emphasize or contrast actions or emotions.

SOUND DEVICES
Alliteration

Meaning: This device involves the repetition of the initial consonant sound of a series
of words, often consecutively. Alliteration is most easily explained to students through
looking at a few simple tongue twisters, such as Peter Piper or She Sells Seashells.

Example:

Betty Botter bought a bit of butter

But, the bit of butter Betty Botter bought was bitter

So Betty Botter bought a better bit of butter

Assonance

Meaning: Similarly to alliteration, assonance involves the repetition of sounds in a

series of words, often consecutive words. However, rather than repeating the initial
sounds, assonance focuses on the internal vowel sounds that are repeated.

Example:

  We can find many examples of assonance in poetry and song. Here’s an example

Consonance

Meaning: Consonance is the consonant-focused counterpart to assonance. It involves

the repetition of consonant sounds in the middle or at the end of words, as
distinguished from alliteration where the initial sound is repeated.

Example: The crow struck through the thick cloud like a rocket

Onomatopoeia
Meaning: Onomatopoeia refers to the process of creating words that sound like the
very thing they refer to. For many students, the first introduction to onomatopoeia
goes back to learning animal sounds as an infant. Words such as Oink! Chirp! Woof!
and Meow! can all be thought of as onomatopoeic.

Example: Aside from animal noises, the names of sounds themselves are often
onomatopoeic, for example:

Bang!

Thud!

Crash!

Rhyme

Meaning: Rhyme refers to the repetition of sounds in a poem. Various types of rhyme
are possible, however in English we usually use the term rhyme to refer to the
repetition of the final sounds in a line, or end rhyme. Letters are often used to denote
a rhyme scheme. A new letter is ascribed to each of the different sounds. For
example, in the following example the rhyme scheme is described as ABAB.

Example:

  The people along the sand

All turn and look one way.

They turn their back on the land.

They look at the sea all day.

[From Neither Out Far Nor In Deep by Robert Frost]

Rhythm

Meaning: Rhythm in poetry involves sound patterning. A lot of classical poetry

conforms to a systematic regularity of rhythm which is referred to as the poem’s
meter. This involves the combining of stressed and unstressed syllables to create a
constant beat pattern that runs throughout the poem. Each pattern of beats is called a
foot. There are various possible combinations of stressed and unstressed syllables,
or feet, and these patterns have their own names to describe them. While it is
impossible to explore all of these in this article, we take a look at one of the more
common ones below.

Example:

  Shall I compare thee to a summer’s day

Metre (Poetry)

In poetry, metre (British) or meter (American; see spelling differences) is the

basic rhythmic structure of a verse or lines in verse. Many traditional verse
forms prescribe a specific verse metre, or a certain set of metres alternating in a
particular order. The study and the actual use of metres and forms of versification are
both known as prosody. (Within linguistics, "prosody" is used in a more general sense
that includes not only poetic metre but also the rhythmic aspects of prose, whether
formal or informal, that vary from language to language, and sometimes between poetic
traditions.

Figures of Speech
Unconsciously, we usually use figures of speech in our ordinary conversations, like
“You are my angel”, “She speaks like a machine gun”, “I heard the whisper of the
wind”. These are just sample of figurative language uttered not in its literal sense but
imply a deeper sense of meaning to the speaker and the listener.

Figure of speech is an utterance not in its literal sense but in its implication. Most of
the figures of speech became idiomatic expressions or idioms because it is widely
used by many and became part of the vocabulary. The following are reasons why
speakers, conversationalists, and writers use figures of speech.

1. It makes the language more colorful and interesting.

2. It gives more effect to the listener or to the reader.
3. It gives more vivid and concrete description

The following are the most commonly used figures of speech.

Simile – A simile (/ˈsɪməli/) is a figure of speech that directly compares two things.[1]

[2]
 Similes differ from metaphors by highlighting the similarities between two things using
words such as "like", "as", or "than", while metaphors create an implicit comparison (i.e.
saying something "is" something else). This distinction is evident in the etymology of the
words: simile derives from the Latin word simile ("similar, like"), while metaphor derives
from the Greek word metaphor in ("to transfer").[4] While similes are mainly used in
forms of poetry that compare the inanimate and the living, there are also terms in which
similes are used for humorous purposes and comparison. It is also  a phrase that
uses a comparison to describe. For example, “life” can be described as similar to “a
box of chocolates.” You know you’ve spotted one when you see the words like or as in a
comparison.

Metaphor – A metaphor is a figure of speech that, for rhetorical effect, directly refers to

one thing by mentioning another.[1] It may provide (or obscure) clarity or identify hidden
similarities between two ideas. Metaphors are often compared with other types of
figurative language, such as antithesis, hyperbole, metonymy and simile.[2] One of the
 most commonly cited examples of a metaphor in English literature comes from the "All
the world's a stage" monologue from As You Like It:

All the world's a stage,

And all the men and women merely players;
They have their exits and their entrances ...

Metaphors are most frequently compared with similes. It is said, for instance, that a
metaphor is 'a condensed analogy' or 'analogical fusion' or that they 'operate in a similar
fashion' or are 'based on the same mental process' or yet that 'the basic processes of
analogy are at work in metaphor'. It is also pointed out that 'a border between metaphor
and analogy is fuzzy' and 'the difference between them might be described
(metaphorically) as the distance between things being compared'. A metaphor asserts
the objects in the comparison are identical on the point of comparison, while a simile
merely asserts a similarity through use of words such as "like" or "as". For this reason, a
common-type metaphor is generally considered more forceful than a simile.

 A metaphor states that one thing is another thing

 It equates those two things not because they actually are the same, but for the sake of

comparison or symbolism

 If you take a metaphor literally, it will probably sound very strange (are there actually

any sheep, black or otherwise, in your family?)

 Metaphors are used in poetry, literature, and anytime someone wants to add some

color to their language

Personification – Personification occurs when a thing or abstraction is represented

as a person, in literature or art, as an anthropomorphic metaphor. The type of

personification discussed here excludes passing literary effects such as "Shadows hold
 their breath", and covers cases where a personification appears as a character in

literature, or a human figure in art. The technical term for this, since ancient Greece,

is prosopopoeia. In the arts many things are commonly personified. These include

numerous types of places, especially cities, countries and the four continents, elements

of the natural world such as the months or Four Seasons, Four Elements, Four

Winds, Five Senses, and abstractions such as virtues, especially the four cardinal

virtues and sins, the nine Muses, or death.

Metonymy – is the use of a linked term to stand in for an object or concept. You'll find
examples of metonymy used frequently in both literature and everyday speech. You
might use it yourself without even realizing it.

Sometimes metonymy is chosen because it's a well-known characteristic of the concept.

A famous example is, "The pen is mightier than the sword," from Edward Bulwer
Lytton's play Richelieu. This sentence has two metonyms:

 "Pen" stands for "the written word."

 "Sword" stands for "military aggression."

As with other literary devices, one of the main purposes of a metonymy is to add flavor.

Instead of saying, "These chicken wings, coleslaw, and green beans are delicious," you

could say, "This dish is delicious." Now, you've avoided naming all the separate

elements of the meal, breaking up some of the awkwardness and making the sentence

more vibrant.

Hyperbole – Hyperbole (/haɪˈpɜːrbəli/) is the use of exaggeration as a rhetorical

device or figure of speech. In rhetoric, it is also sometimes known as auxesis (literally

'growth'). In poetry and oratory, it emphasizes, evokes strong feelings, and creates

strong impressions. As a figure of speech, it is usually not meant to be taken literally.

Hyperbole is often used for emphasis or effect. In casual speech, it functions as

an intensifier:[5][6] saying "the bag weighed a ton"[7] simply means that the bag was

extremely heavy.[8] The rhetorical device may be used for serious or ironic or comic

effects.[9] Understanding hyperbole and its use in context can help understand the

speaker's point. Hyperbole generally conveys feelings or emotions from the speaker, or

from those who the speaker may talk about. It can be used in a form of humor,

excitement, distress, and many other emotions, all depending on the context in which

the speaker uses it.

Irony – The basic meaning of irony is the difference between how things seem to be and
the reality. As a literary technique it is used when a certain outcome is revealed, but is
not what readers were expecting or hoping for. Irony can be difficult to define; it's often
subjective and depends on the audience's expectations.
Take the song "Ironic" by Alanis Morissette. There were many heated debates when it
came out over whether the situations described in the song are actually ironic or just
unfortunate incidents. And over the years there were more debates about whether the
song really is ironic because it's called "Ironic" but nothing in the song is ironic.
Confusing? Yes, that's irony.

While it is possible for one person to find something ironc that another person does not,
there are several defined types for irony that apply in life and in literature as you can
see from the irony examples below.

End of Week

English Class
World Literature