Adj ectives

Adjectives in English seem straightforward as they do not change their form except
when they are comparatives or superlatives (tr,' Unit 22). But the different positions of
adjectives, e.g. concerned residents or residents concerned, and the sequence of groups
of adjectives can cause difficulty. This unit looks at these areas and at the use of
participle and compound adjectives. (For modification of adjectives x' Unit 25.)

.,riip ADJEcnvE PATTERNS

21 .1AAdjectives are words which give extra information about nouns. They do not change
Form andtheir form to show number or gender:
use The hero was plaged bg a goung bog. Severol goung girls took the secondorg roles
Many adjectives are formed from other words; notice the spelling changes:
+IC + (i)al + qble + ful + ent + tve
historY - Politics + fashion - beauty - depend - effect +
historic political fashionable beautiful dependent effective

+ ous + /ess participles ' 2l .2A) compounds (r

( 21 .2C)

danger - hoPe + interesting home-made

dangerous hopeless interested red-hot

Adjectives can sometimes act as nouns when they describe a particular group or
characteristic (.:.i..,, 28.1 B). We usually use the definite article and a plural verb:
Old people are becoming more numerous. = The old are becoming more numerous.
(OWe cannot use the possessive s with adjectives used as nouns or make them plural:
X Tlre-govsffiment is looking at the disabledts problens,
y' The government is looking at the problems of the disabled.
x Thelapaneses-enj@i+ing.
r' The Japanese (or Japanese people) enjog a high standard of living.
OWfren we make a brief comment in conversation we often usewhat + adjective +
noun or how + adjective:
What on amazing storgl X What-arnazing! y' How amazing!
21.18 Most adjectives can be used in front of a noun (attributive position), or after a linking
Attributive verb, e.g. be (predicative position):
position . Attributive'. We've just seen an exciting film.
' Predicative: That film was exciting.
O gut there are some adjectives which we usually only use in one position. Some
classifying adjectives (which describe what type of thing something is) and emphasising
adjectives are mainly used before a noun (see the table below):
X The-ptant theg are-building-outside-the-town-ischenieal
r' Theg're building a chemical plant outside the town.
Adjectives usually used in attributive position:
classifying chemical, chief, criminal, elder, entire, eventual, former, industrial, local,
adjectives lone, main, maximum, medical, national, nuclear, onlg, outdoorlindoor,
principal, social, sole, underlging, whole
emphasising mere, sheer, utter
adjectives
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 2l .1C Adjectives in predicative position are usually the complement of a linking verb (e.g. be.
Predicative become, feel , seem e" 30.28):
position When she heard the noise Marg became verA uneasA.
However, after certain verbs of thinking and feeling (i.e. consider, find, think) we can
omit the linking verb:
I considerlfind him (to be) verg reliable.
Many adjectives beginning with the letter o and adjectives describing health and
feelings are not usually used before nouns; we use them in predicative position:
x kg -notie4istarbthe-asleep-ehiWren,
r' TrA not to disturb the children; theA ore asleep.

Adjectives usually used in predicative position:

beginning with q ablaze, afloat, qfraid, olight, alike, alive, qlone, aloof, ashqmed,
askew, asleep, awake, qwqre
health and feelings content, fine, glad, ill, pleased, poorlg, readg, sorrg, sure, upset,
Iun)well

OThere are some fixed phrases/idioms in which we use normally predicative adjectltes
before a noun with a special meaning, e.g. glad tidings, an ill wind, a readg wit, a sorrT
stdte, an upset stomach.
Some predicative adjectives have equivalent words which can be used before a noun:
Theg are doing experiments on live onimalslanimals which ore alive.

predicative ative afrqid qlike asleep ill

attributive tiveltiving frightened similar sleeping sick

2l . 1 D We use adjectives after indefinite words like something, an7one, no one, nothing,
Adjectives somewhere, etc.:
after nouns, X l:-rnleshing*for eheap-sonething,
pronouns, r' I'm looking for something cheap.
etc. Some adjectives, including some ending in -able and -ible, can follow a noun if the nour
follows a superlative adjective or the firstllastlnextlonlg:
Theg sag she's the oldest woman alive.
t'm afraid that's the last ticket available.
Adjectives that are followed by a prepositional phrase, e.g. interested in something.
suitable for somebodg (s. 1 5.5D), go after, not before, a noun:
X The-proieet wiltappeal' tslnterestedin eeologgi*tadents'
r' The proiect witl oppeal to students interested in ecologg.
This is similar to a reduced relative clause (:'* 51'1G)' We can also use a full relative
clause with the adjective in predicative position (*' 21 .1 C):
The proiect wilt appeal to students who are interested in ecologg.
O Some adjectives have a different meaning when used before or after a noun:
The meeting was full of concerned residents. (= worried)
The students concerned were a small minorifU' (= who took part/were involved)
t'm afraid we have opposite points of view. (= contrasting)
We used to tive in the house opposite. (= physically facing/across from us)
The present chairman is getting on a bit. (= current/existing now)
We took a vote of all members present. (= physically there)
Responsible porents have been outraged bg this show' (= caring/conscientious)
The person responsible wilt be caught and punished (= who did the action)
He gave us a ridiculouslg involved excuse. (= complicated)
The president gave medals to all those involved. (= who took part)
 ,, pARTrcrpLE (-rNc oR -ED) ADJEcnvEs

21 .24 We often use -ing and -ed participles as adjectives. We usually use them in the same
Position positions as other adjectives (tr 21.1B):
A win, even bg onlg one goal, would be a satisfging result.
I never find fast food verg satisfging.
Recommendations from satisfied customers got our business off the ground.
We follow up everA complaint from customers dissatisfied with our service.
Some participle adjectives (see the table below) can be used on their own before or
after a noun:
The chosen song features innovotive use of digitol sampling.
The song chosen mog be a disoppointment to lovers of traditional ballads.
O gut some participle adjectives (see the table below) can only be used after a noun:
X Please4ispose 1@,
/ Please dispose of gour cigarettes in the ashtrogs provided.
before or after a noun affected, chosen, identified, infected,
remai n i ng, sel ected, sto le n

only after a noun applging, caused, discussed, found,

provided, questioned, token

21.28 When we use participles as adjectives, -ing participles have an active meaningand-ed
Use participles have a passive meaning:
I alwags seem to plag for the losing team. (= the team which is losing)
She found the lost ring under the sofa. (= the ring which had been lost)
We often use participles as adjectives to describe feelings or opinions. We use -ing
participles to describe a feeling that something causes:
It was a frightening film. (= it frightened us/it made us feel afraid)
We use -ed participles to describe a feeling that someone experiences:
I felt frightened when I wotched that film. (= I was frightened/l experienced fear)
O lnanimate objects cannot have feelings so we don't usually use -ed adjectives about
feelings to describe them:
x @+si|<rash-was-ratherworrie&
y' The report wos rather worrging. (= The report made readers feel anxious.)
We can use thatlthose with all participle adjectives with a meaning like 'the one/the
ones that ...' (]li' 28.2A, B). ln this pattern we use that to refer to a thing and fhose to
refer to things or people:
The eosiest route is that taken bg Amundsen. (= the one which was taken by)
Those living in temporarg occommodation will be rehoused within three months.
(= those people who are living in)
I feel sorrg for those left behind. (= Those people that are left behind.)
(For more information on participles in phrases I Un', t 4.,

21.2C We sometimes combine participles with other words to make compound adjectives. The
Compounds participle usually comes last. Notice the use of hyphens when the compound adjective
is used before a noun:
This Japanese maple is a particularlg slow-growing varietg.
Handel's 'Xerxes' was a rarelg-pertormed opera until relativelg recentlg.
lnterest in Latino music is no longer confined to a Spanish-speaking audience.
The marines made a death-defging leap over the cliff edge.

218
 ww
GROUPS OF ADJECTIVES 2'l
21.3A We often use more than one adjective to describe a noun. The order of adjectives
Adjective generally follows this sequence of categories:
order
The 747's refurbished interior features fantastic qoft greg leather seats.

.a
opinion+size+quality/character+age+shape+colour+participles+origin+material+type+purpose

For sale: small, old, French carrioge clocl<.

We always put the category which is most permanent or important (usually 'type' or
'purpose') next to the noun:
X TheSuilders-@ antiqaated-sgste m,
r' The builders tooh out the antiquated gas heating sAstem.
And we put opinion adjectives before all others:
x l+e-jast4ought+his-aew mobik-faatastie phone,
r' I've just bought this fantastic new mobile phone.
0 We Oon't usually use more than three or four adjectives before a noun. lf we want to
give more information we can use additional clauses:
llt's a charming smoll nineteenth-centurg French brass carriage clock.l
/ tt's a charming small French carriage clock, made of brass and dating from the
nineteenth century.
21.38 lf two adjectives describe different parts of the same thing we put and between them.
Paired X The-ehr'srne-steellaeade glintedln*the san+ight,
adjectives y' The chrome and steel facade gtinted in the sunlighf' (= Some parts were chrome'
some parts were steel.)
We always use and between two colours:
X Theptagers wilL-be-wearingtbtue red shtrts for'this ffiateh,
r' The ptagers witt be wearing blue and red shirts for this match.
We can use and between two adjectives which describe similar aspects of something:
She's tooking for a stable and long-lasting relationship.
When two adjectives describe contrasting aspects of the same thing we put but, Aet or
though between them:
The ftat was located in a rundown but central part of town.
Group theropg can be a simple get effective solution to this sort of problem.
21.3C When there are several adjectives in predicative position we usually put and before the
Using commas last one:
and and I'm afraid the hotel was ancient, dirtg and overpriced.
With longer lists of adjectives of the same category before a noun we can use commas
and put and before the last adjective, or we can simply list the adjectives:
I found him a friendlg, knowledgeable and dedicated guide.
I found him a friendlg knowledgeable dedicated guide.
We don't use and before the last adjective when the adjectives are of different
categories:
X Vb-enjoged-sitting in- -seats.
r' We enjoged sitting in the fantastic soft greg leather seats.

219
 Comp ari son
Cradable adjectives ($a 23.1)can be used to make comparisons. The rules for the
production of comparative and superlative forms of adjectives are generally
straightforward but there can be difficulties with spelling, exceptions in use, and the
different phrases which accompany them. This unit also describes ways of making
comparisons without using comparative and superlative forms, e.g. with like and as.

lllffiI coMpARAnvE AND suPERLArlvE ADJEcTIvES

22.14
Form and
use

We use comparative adjectives to compare two (or more) things or people, and
superlative adjectives to distinguish one thing or person from a number of others. This
table shows the forms of comparative and superlative adjectives and the basic patterns
they are used in:

comparative adjectives superlative adjectives

adjectives with one syllable:
cheop
ending in silent -et safe
ending in a consonant + g:
dra
ending in a single vowel +
a single consonant: big
adjectives with two or more
syllables:
expensive
irregular adjectives
good/bad
far
old
adjective + -er (+ than): fhe + adjective + -esf:
The hamburger is cheaper The hot dog is the cheapest.
(thqn the cheeseburger).
omit final -e: safer omit final -e: the safest
change g to i: drier change g to i: the driest
double the final consonant: double the final consonant:
bigger the biggest
more + adjective: the most + adjective:
The hamburger is more The cheeseburger is the
expensive (than the hot dog). most expensive.
betterlworse the bestlworst
further/fafther furthestlfarthest
olderlelder oldestleldest

We can use than to introduce a clause after a comparative adjective:

Los Angeles is bigger than I expected it to be.
We can use other phrases between a comparative adjective and athan clause:
Burgers were more expensive in this restaurant than in the others we visited

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 O tt ttre object of the comparison is a pronoun without a verb we usually use an object
pronoun (w 27.1D). lf there is a verb we use a subject pronoun:
ll'm taller than he.l y' I'm taller than him. r' l'm taller than he is.
O Wfren we have two or more adjectives with more in a list, we usually only use more
once:
lLester and Craves were more hardworking and more determined than the others.l
y' Lester and Craves were more hardworking and determined thon the others.
When we refer to a place or group we use in not of after superlatives.
X New-:le*i*one-ofahelargiest-eities of the*erld. r' ... in the world.
X H*sbg farthe-eleverest-s.tudentof"his-class, y' ... in his class.
But in formal English we can put an of phrase at the beginning of the sentence, before
the superlative.
Of the students in his class, he is the cleverest.
22.18 There are some exceptions to the rules of form and the patterns of use listed above.
Exceptions One-syllable adjectives ending in -ed and the adjectives real , right and wrong form the
comparative and superlafie with more and most (they do not take -er and -est):
X I-wa*boreder-thsn I wqs on-the-fligtht to Sgdneg,
y' I was more bored than I was on the flight to Sgdneg.
Many two-syllable adjectives ending in -lg, -9, -ow, -r and J, and the adjectives
common, handsome, mature, pleasant, polite, simple and stupid can have either more
and most or -er and -est:
The photographer wanted something more livelg (or livelier).
Your son needs to develop a maturer (or more mature) attitude to his work.
When we add a negative prefix to two-syllable adjectives ending in -g (e.g. happA -
unhappg) they can still take -er and -est:
He's the unhappiest man in the world.
(D ln informal spoken English we sometimes use a superlative adjective when we are
only comparing two things, especially if the two things make a set:
I've got two cars but the Mercedes is the best.
22.1C We can use elder and eldest (instead of older and oldest) to talk about people's ages,
lrregular especially people in the same family, but we can't use elder immediately after a verb:
adjectives Their eldestloldest son went to Harvard. Marg is the eldestlthe oldest.
X MU sister is eder (than ne). y' Mg sister is older (than me).
Note that we don't use elder and eldest to talk about the age of things:
f This-isthe-eWest-hoase in the-street, y' This is the oldest house in the street.
We use further or farther to talk about a'greater distance':
John's house is the farther one.
I've moved further awag from mA parents. (= a greater distance away)
O We use further (notfarther) with the meaning of 'extra'or'more':
Let me know if gou have ang further questions. (= extra/more)
22.1D Most one-syllable adjectives can also form the comparative and superlative with more
Emphasis or most instead of -er or -esf. We usually use this form for emphasis in spoken English:
and strength You should be more proud of the things Aou've alreadg ochieved. (= prouder)
I thinh this is the one she is the most proud of. (= proudest)
Comparatives can be made stronger or weaker by inserting a word or phrase in front of
them:
. Stronger: even, (verg) much, far, a lot, lots (informal), considerablg, a great deal
(formal) + comparative:
The cheeseburger's even more expensive than the fishburger.
' Weaker: a little, slightlg, a bit (informal), somewhaf (formal) + comparative:
The hot dog's a bit cheaper than the hamburger.
225
F
 *ff:q5
r]i?I\i i

, 22 We can make a superlative weaker or stronger in the same way.

' Stronger: bg far, easilg (informal) + superlative:
He's bg for the cleverest student in his class' (= He is much cleverer than the others )

She's easilg the best programmer in the company. (informal)

(= She is much better
than the others.)
' Weaker: one of , some of + superlative:
New York is one of the targest cities in the world. (= There may be some larger.J

To say that two things are equal we can use patterns like ls + no + comparative or
is
22.1E
EqualitY not + lnA + comParative:
price')
The fishburger is no more expensive than the hamburger. (= They are the same
(= They are the same price
The fishburger isn't ang cheaper than the hamburger. )

We use /ess and least as the opposite of more and most. We use these words
with all
22.1F
/ess and adjectives including one-syllable adjectlves:
Ieast l prefer the paistea pattern; ifs /ess bold than the others.
The hot dog is the least exPensive'
e But in informal English we usually prefer to make negative comparisons of this kind
with nof 0s ... os ("" 22.28):
t prefer the paisteA pattern; it isn't as bold as the others'
(For the use of morelmostllesslleasfl with nouns 25'4A' B )

ADJECTIVES WITH AS, SO, TOO, ENOUGH AND SUCH

22.24 we can say that two things are equal by using os + adjective + os. (Also '' 22.3D):
0s ...0s The hamburger is as expensive as the fishburger'
We make this comparison more emphatic with lusf :

we reallg shoutdn't have gone; it's iust as bad as I predicted it would be!
To say that things are almost equal we uselusf about, about, almost or nearlg:
t've had iust about as much as I can take'
She's nearlg as old as I was when I got married'

22.28 We make a negative comparison with nof aslso + adjective + as:

not 0s ... as The hot dog isn't as expensive as the hamburger' (= The hot dog is cheaper'J
We can modify this comparison with nearlg or quite:
The hot dog isn't nearlg so expensive as the cheeseburger. (= lt is much cheaper.)
The hot dog isn't quite as expensive as the hamburger' (= lt is slightly cheaper')
ln informal spoken English we can use nof angthing like, nothing like or nowhere near +
os + adjective:
The fishburger isn't angthing like as expensive as the cheeseburger.
The fishburger's nothing tike (or nowhere near) as expensive as the cheeseburger'

We use another type of 'comparison'when we describe the result of a particular

qualit'
22.2C
so, too and or characteristic. We can use several structures:
enough ' so + adjective + lthat) clause:
I'm afraid I can't identifg her. It was so dark (that) I couldn't see her firce. (= lt was
very dark. The result was that I couldn't see her face')
' too + adjective (+ forlto Phrase):
It was too dark (for me) (to see her face).
. (not) adjective + enough (+ forlto phrase):
It wasn't light enough (for me) (to see her face)-
A more formal alternative to these forms is so + adjective + os fo phrase:
lt was so dark as to make it impossible to see her face'

226
 22.2D We can use os and such to introduce a comparison. There are two patterns:
as and such' ds + adjective +o + noun +ds:
It wasn't as bad a result as I'd expected. (=11was a better result than l'd expected.)
' such a + adjective + noun + as (or fhof clause):
It wasn't such a bad result as I had expected.
It wos such a dark night that I couldn't reallg see her face.

ffiff,| orHER ryPES oF coMPARtsoN

22.3A We can describe how something increases or decreases by repeating the same
Progressive comparative two or sometimes three times, putting and between the forms:
comparison Her visits to the countrg to see her son become rarer and rarer. (= increasingly rare)
As the illness progressed the patients grew more and more detached from realitg.
Marching into the sunset, the figures became smaller and smaller ond smaller.
22.38 To describe how a change in one thing causes a change in another, we can use two
Combined comparative forms with fhe. Note the use of the comma after the first clause:
comparison The longer gou leave it, the worse it'll get.
We sometimes omit the verb be in the clauses:
The more sophisticated the product, the more substantial the potential profit.

22.3C When we contrast two related qualities, we always use more (not -er):
Contrastive x@ y' I'm more sad than disappointed.
comparison Her eges are more green than greg.
We can also use not so much ... as or rother than:
l'm not so much disappointed as sad.
Her eges are green rather than greA.

22.3D We often describe something by comparing it to something else which has similar
Iike and as qualities. These comparisons are known as'similes'. There are two forms:
. os + adjective + os:
Listening to her was about as interesting as watching paint drg.
(ln informal English we sometimes omit the first os She loohs white as o sheet.)
. like + noun or verb phrase:
The cruise ship was like a skgscraper lging on its side.
There are many idioms in which we use these two patterns:
You're as white as a sheet; I thinls gou'd better see q doctor.
I feet fult of energy todaA - I slept like o log last night.
Q We use tike (not os) before a noun when we are making a comparison between two
things which seem similar:
X )lo*look-qs,a+na*uhob-seen o ghost! y' You look like a man who's seen a ghost!
when Mitse puts on his dark suit he looks like a waiter' (= He resembles a waiter')
Q We use os (not lihe)before a noun when we are describing someone's job, role or
identity, or something's function:
x SinenbwerkW-Iit<e-a'waiter-durW the-sanmer"vaeatiefr.
y' simon's working as a waiter during the summer vacation. (This is his job.)
IJse gour pagrott number as a password for the computer. (This is its function.)
Q We can also describe something by comparing it with something similar without
using like or as; this is known as a 'metaphor':
We hope the new treatg will form a bridge between our two nations. (a bridge =
metaphor for a linkl
Metaphors are common in poetry and literary English:
Sometimes too hot the ege of heaven shines. {ege of heaven = metaphor for the sun)

227
 Gradable and ungradable
adjectives
Adjectives are 'describing' words. Most adjectives have a meaning which can be made
stronger or weaker; these are called'gradable adjectives'. Other adjectives have a
meaning which is extreme or absolute and cannot easily be made stronger or weaker.
These are called 'ungradable adjectives'. The differences in the way we use these two
kinds of adjectives can cause problems even for advanced students. This unit looks at
these different types of adjective and the ways in which we can modify their meaning.
(For adjective use in general *.Unit 2l:for adjectives used in comparisons e Unit 22.)

. f, MODIFYING GRADABLE ADJECTIVES

23.14 Gradable adjectives represent a point on a scale. For example , cheop and expensive are
Cradable and adjectives on the scale of 'how much something costs'. Ungradable adjectives represent
ungradable the limits of a scale (s 23.2A below).
adjectives
ungradable adjectives free freezing vastlenormous
(limit of the scale)
(verg cheap)
t
gradable adjectives
cheap
(not verg cheap)
cold large

(a bit expensive)
expensive hot small
I (very expensive)

ungradable adjectives priceless boiling minutelting

(limit of the scale)

We can make comparative and superlative forms from all gradable adjectives:

Yes- lt's much cheaper.

Let's buy some tickets.

23.18
We can make gradable adjectives stronger withverg, but not with the adverb
Strengthening absolutelg:
the adjective X That new iaeket looh*absolutelg expensive,
r' That new jacket looks verg expensive.
2?2
 There are several other modifiers which we use to strengthen the meaning of these
adjectives: so, rather, reallg, extremelg, terriblg, most (formal), prettg (informal):
Last night's motch was terriblg exciting.
I felt prettg upset after the accident. (informal)
The chapter on the earlg sonnets was most instructive. (formal)
We often use less common adverbs to modify certain gradable adjectives. Although
verg is commonly used to strengthen any adjective, your English will sound more fluent
and natural if you learn to use other combinations of adverb and adjective:
I was bitterlg disappointed at mA exam results.
Mg brother is painfullg shg.
The students in this school are highlg intelligent.
Note that we can often only use certain adverbs with certain adjectives (for commonly
used combinations w 23.4).

23.1C Cradable adjectives can usually be made weaker by the words fairlg, slightlg, a (little)
Weakening bif (informal) and somewhof (formal):
the adjective I've been feeling slightlg dizzg all morning.
Mg friend was a bit drunk. (informalJ
The police reported that the mon was somewhat inebriated. (formal)
ln conversation, a bit is a useful way to make a critical remark more polite:
You're a bit overdressed, aren't gou?
We can use not verg and not at all to weaken gradable adjectives after the verb be:
The end of term test wasn't verg long and it wasn't at all difficult.

23.1D With gradable adjectives quife usually means 'fairly' but can have other
quite meanings. The different meanings are only apparent in spoken English as they are
dependent on stress and intonation:
The lecture was quite interesting. (unmarked = fairly interesting)
quite interesting (stress on adjective = ffior€ interesting than the speaker expected)
quite interesfing (stress on adverb = less interesting than the speaker expected)
(For quite with ungradable adjectives * 23.28.)

MODIFYINC UNCRADABLE ADJECTIVES

23.24 Ungradable adjectives (e.g. enormous, vast, ting, priceless, free) have a meaning which
Ungradable represents the limit of a scale. For example the limits of the scale of 'how much
adjectives something costs' (h table in 23.1A) are free (= it costs nothing) and priceless (= its cost
is too great to be counted). Ungradable adjectives are not usually used in comparatives
and superlatives (but w 25.2D), and we do not use verA to make them stronger:
X The-Mingi-uases-ere-ffiore-prketess*han the'Egrgptian m urnnies,
r' The Ming voses are more valuable thon the Eggptian mummies.
l( Entranee+slhe-ftil)setlrn-is-ver!-free :
y' Entrance to the museum is obsolutelg free.
23.28 A common way to intensify the meaning of ungradable adjectives is with the adverb
lntensifying absotutetg. We use this device to add emphasis in spoken and informal English; it is not
the adjective common in writing:
I couldn't swim in the seo; the water was absolutelg freezing.
The show was absolutelg fabulous.
When we usequite with ungradable adjectives, it has a similar meaningto'completely',
emphasising the strength of the adjective:
The tenor's performance wos quite amazing.
You're quite correct.

233
 Although we use absolutelg with many ungradable adjectives, there are some adjectives
which are never intensified with absolutelA and some where we prefer to use other
intensifying adverbs such as completelg, totallg and utterlg. There are no grammar rules
which explain these combinations so it is best to learn them as vocabulary items
(e 23.4).
I'm afraid Aour answer is completelg wrong.
Since the accident Henrg has been totallg deaf in one ear.
Susan was utterlg appalled bg her husband's dishonestg.
We can also use a most before ungradable adjectives used before a noun:
Hilarg has a most amazing hoirstgle.
23.2C We do not usually make ungradable adjectives weaker by using the modifiers fairlg,
0lmost, slightlg, a (little) bit, somewhot or not verg:
nearla, etc. X T-heir'favout ite psssessisn-is a slightlg prketess Satsuffis -vase,
X I'wouWn:t-reeer*nend-the-shew;"it*not-verg.{abutea*,
But we do use almost, nearlg, procticallg or virtuallg to indicate a point close to the
absolute meaning of ungradable adjectives:
He never turns the heating on - it's practicallg freezing in there.
The batterg in mg calculator is almost dead.
After six months with the disease he was nearlg deaf and virtuallg blind.
23.2D Because ungradable adjectives represent the limit of a scale, they are not usually used
Comparatives in comparatives and superlatives. However, in spoken English many 'ungradable'
and adjectives can be used gradably when we are comparing similar things at one end of a
superlatives scale and can then be used in comparisons:
I've never been more exhausted than I was after the New York marathon.
Thqt was the most delicious meal gou've ever cooked!
With comparatives of this type we often use sfil/ more or even more:
Their house is even more enormous than Richard's!

u MODTFYTNG ADJECTTVES rN INFORMAL ENGLISH

23.34 There are several modifiers which we use with both gradable and ungradable adjectives
reallg, real , to make their meaning stronger. The most common in informal English is reallg:
etc. That film was reallg exciting. It's reallg freezing in here!
ln informal US English real can be used instead of reallg:
That watch looks real expensive.
Expressions such as nice and and good and can be used to intensify many adjectives:
The hotel was nice and clean. I'll come when I'm good and readg.
ln very informal English, dead and a number of slang words (e.g. bleeding) can be used
as intensifiers:
The rollercoaster ride was dead scarg.
(D We usually do not use these colloquial modifiers in formal English:
lHer Majestg was dead interested in the traditional Maori dancing.l
lThe bank is reallg sorrg about having to refuse gour application for a loan.l
23.38 Some adjectives can have both gradable and ungradable meanings, depending on
Cradable and whether the speaker feels the adjective describes an absolute quality or one which is
ungradable relative to something else:
l'm afraid there are no rooms -the hotel is full . (ungradable = completely full)
The hotel's verg full but I think I can get gou a single room for tonight. (gradable =
has many guests but there is still some space)
Other adjectives like this are: emptA, beautiful , black, delicious, new, possible.

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COMMON ADVERB + ADJECTIVE COLLOCATIONS
These collocations are taken from the British National Corpus. (Below, 'sb' = somebodA
and 'sth' = something.)

adverb + adjective
bitterlA cotd, disappointed, divided, hostile, humiliated, hurt, opposed, resented,
resentful, upset
completelg acclimatised, olone, different, droined, emptglfull, extinguished, immune
(fromlto sth), incapable (of sth), incomprehensible, lost, negotive, new,
open (with srJ (= honestl, overloohed, revised, rightlwrong, untenable
deeptgashamed'ottached(tosblsth)(=strongfeelingfor),conscious,conservative'
depressed, disappoi nted, disturbed, divided, embedded, embittered, hurt,
indebted (to sb), ingrained, in love with, involved, involved (in sth)' lamented,
meoningful, moving, religious, rutted
entirelg absent, beneficiat, clear, different, false, fitting, free, global, impersonal,
logol, new, obvious, serious, unconvincing' unexpected
heavitg qrmed, booked, built, censored, criticised, embroiled (with sblsth), flavoured,
guarded, involved (in sth), muscled, polluted, populoted, protected,
pubticised, regulated, represented, scented, soiled, taxed
hideouslg bad, burnt, deformed, disfigured, disfiguring, effective, embarrassing,
expensive, iniured, turid, mangled' scarred, swollen, uglg, unhggienic
highlA

painfullg acute, qware, evocqtive, teqrned, loud, obvious, self-conscious, sensitive, shg,
slow, small, sparse, thin
perfectlg arranged, bqtonced, capabte, fitting (= appropriate)' formed' genuine' good'
healthg, normal, ptaced, proper, rational, reasonable, (qll) right' safe, still,
strai g htfo rward, unde rstq n da b I e, vol i d
seriouslg damaged, exposed, hlr 1= 63ry''ug"d), ill, impaired, rich, threatened'
undermined, wealthg
totallg

utterlA abandoned, otone, appatted, cqreless' deiected, destroged, devoted (to sb)'
different, disqstrous, fearless, futile, impossible, irresistible, lacking, ruthless,
tragic, unacceptable, unqttai nable, unquestioning, useless, wrecked

235