An Examination of Additive Manufacturing Processes.

Introduction
The ASTM F42 Technical Committee defines additive manufacturing (AM) as the “process
of joining materials to make objects from three-dimensional (3D) model data, usually layer
upon layer, as opposed to subtractive manufacturing methodologies”.
Recently, there has also been a rise in custom-tailored products. This can be achieved by 3D
printing, where even the most complex geometries are first created in CAD software and then
produced by a 3D printer. Most of these complex geometries would be impossible to create
using conventional manufacturing processes or otherwise be expensive. The products can be
produced in a single quantity or a small lot. It manufactures the desired product by
constructing it layer by layer. The wastage of materials in additive manufacturing processes is
almost negligible. Thus, it is environmentally positive.
Taking into consideration the nature, size, shape, and intended use of the product,
accordingly an appropriate additive manufacturing process can be chosen. A few materials
compatible with 3D printing are Metals, alloys, ceramics, polymers, composites,
biomaterials, and concrete are used to build 3D parts for their applications in industrial
machines, medical equipment, educational 3D models, and construction. The recent
developments in technology have greatly lowered the prices of 3D printing to the point where
retail businesses are now selling 3D printers to individuals. This has greatly boosted the DIY
(do it yourself) tutorials on various social media channels like YouTube, Instagram, etc.
when researchers have to find an optimum design and material for the product, then, earlier
they had to produce the product made of that specific material using traditional
manufacturing methods just to conduct some stress tests on it. This would turn out to be very
expensive. With the advent of 3D printing, these parts (however complex) are produced
relatively cheaply and made out of a combination of materials if needed.
Discussing the economic aspects of 3D printing, it is expected that this field will generate
about three to five million jobs in the US alone in the decade (2021-2030). This is expected to
bring 900 billion US dollars in revenue.
the national institute of science and technology abbreviated NIST has declared that additive
manufacturing processes have saved over 4.1 billion US dollars annually.
that being said, additive manufacturing also comes with its fair share of disadvantages, some
of which include
(1) high initial capital: Though 3D printing is more economical than conventional
manufacturing processes, the initial costs of acquiring a 3D printer, building good
infrastructure that will enable the 3D printer to do its job, etc can be expensive.
(2) post-production polishing is needed because the products made from AM processes
usually have a rough surface finish. These extra methods have to be specially performed for
medical equipment.
(3) material sourcing is also difficult for 3D printers. Even though plastics and metals are
readily available, most often, the metal has to be converted to powdered or liquid form to use
in the 3D printer. This adds to the cost.
there have been numerous papers discussing additive manufacturing processes, the goal of
this paper is to consolidate all recent advancements in one place,
the various topics discussed in the paper will be the advancements, challenges, applications,
common processes, ongoing research fields, etc.
before we delve into the literature review section. I want to provide a brief overview of the
same.
the following literature review is divided into six sections as follows.
(1) papers related to the usage of LENS technology
(2) Surveys and guidelines
(3) effect of various processes on parts manufactured by AM
(4) use of laser technology
(5) introduction of nanoparticles in AM alloys
(6) properties of alloys manufactured by AM

Literature Review

Section 1: use of LENS technology in AM

LENS stands for laser engineered net shaping. It is used to produce near net shaped metal
products and as expected, it has interesting applications in additive manufacturing
Wilson et al. [1] applied Lens technology to correct the formation of imperfect voids present
in turbine airfoils. The conclusions proved that the repaired airfoil and the initial geometry
deviated only by 0.03 mm mean precision, reduced carbon emissions by 45%, and resulted in
energy savings of about 36%. From the above, it can be seen that the aviation sector has
begun to get benefit from using AM advancements.
The paper above discusses how we can use LENS technology to correct defects in a product,
it explains us about the application of LENS. But we must know the advantages and
limitations of LENS technology itself. To do this, the researchers have focused on superalloy
made by LENS process and analysed this product’s grain structures, microstructure etc.

Welk et al. [22] have researched the nature of interfaces between grains of CoCrCuFeNiAl
super alloy printed by LENS. The printed samples were characterized using optical
metallography, SEM, conventional TEM and abrasion corrected TEM. They have reported
that, dendritic grains have two main phases
(1)as ordered B2 phase and (2) disordered bcc phase. High angle annular dark-field (HAAD)
imaging shows that B2 phase emerge to be stoichiometry form
Similarly,
Choudhuri et al. [23] have researched the phases and as-deposited microstructures of LENS
produced CoCrCuFeNiAlTi superalloy. They have published the conclusions of experiments,
computations, approximate phase evaluation sequence, and microstructural characteristics.
The primary product of solidification is the supersaturated Ti-stabilized alpha phase. The
higher-order of the alpha phase in the microstructure shows that it has formed earlier to the
βeta phase. The beta phase consists of Fe and Cr, whereas the alpha phase is enriched to have
Ni, Al, and Ti. Typically, fine-scale Cu formation is found at the direction of elastically soft α
phase.
the above two cases have been about the study of superalloys formed by LENS technology.
For a diverse overview, we will now explore a study on magnetic alloys. These are the alloys
which are attracted to a magnet
Mikler et al. [24] have researched three case studies of magnetic alloys (Ni–Fe–V, Ni–Fe–
Mo, and Fe–Si–B–Cu–Nb) manufactured by LENS process. Fine powders of elemental
materials obtained from Finemet with proper proportions are used as raw material, and the
resulted microstructures, phase transformations, and magnetic characteristics are studied.
With all processing conditions, these alloys have exhibited a metastable austenitic bcc phase
along with columnar grains. However, in some processing conditions, martensite plates
derived from the transformation of the martensitic phase resulted in residual stresses. Fe–Si–
B–Nb–Cu alloys, manufactured by LENS, presents the dendritic phase of alpha-Fe3Si and
little amount of Fe3B and Fe23B6 as by-products contained by inter-dendritic regions. But
within the alpha-Fe3Si dendritic region, a small fraction of Cu clustering was also identified.
As a result, coercivities and magnetization of LENS printed samples are comparable to other
specimens manufactured by conventional methods with same composition. The feasibility of
AM techniques is acknowledged for processing magnetic alloys by this study.
In many cases, the final microstructure of the product differs vastly from the initial feedstock.
It was questioned whether LENS technology can produce products without significant
disturbance in the microstructure.
Balla and Bandyopadhyay [31] have demonstrated the formation of Fe–Cr–Mo–W–C–Mn–
Si–B BMG using LENS process without losing the partial amorphous structure of feedstock.
No difference in the microstructures of successive layers was reported using XRD, SEM, and
DSC analysis. Between the scanning of successive layers, lower pre-deposit temperature was
maintained through a short delay to achieve the glass stability. Under these experimental
conditions, full amorphization was achieved by experiencing faster cooling rates than
required. Potential applications using BGMs can be effectively printed by optimizing the
parameters.

Section 2: papers related to surveys and guidelines.

Almost in all engineering fields and especially in the manufacturing fields, there are certain
standards that are highlighted by an international committee of respected scientists.
for example. If parts of an airplane don’t meet the standards as described by the agencies,
then, they cannot be used in the aircrafts. The next papers discuss how well developed these
standards are when it comes to additive manufacturing processes.
Monzón et al. [2] highlighted that the available guidelines and standards don't react to AM’s
characteristics appropriately. This scientist conducted an overview in which 22 companies
participated; roughly 50% of AM clients said that existing benchmarks were not good enough
and they proposed the improvement of benchmarks for mechanical properties testing, printing
parameters, and resilience. especially when it is obligatory for different businesses such as
pharmaceuticals, oil, and gas, aviation, and automobile.
There is another paper in which a researcher has attempted to design his own guideline,
however it is very limited to one particular alloy and not the overall AM process.
Nandwana et al. [20] have presented an attempt to present design guidelines for 3D binder
jetting of Inconel 718 alloy. According to the author, the different aspects to be considered to
manufacture near-net shaped parts through 3D binder jetting are as follows, - designing the
part geometry, powder size distribution, powder chemistry, choice of binder, the thickness of
the layer, spread speed, binder saturation, dry time and binder burnout, and sintering.
.
The next researchers have done an in depth analysis of the costs and expenditure in AM
processes. We often take it as granted that AM is relatively cheaper than other processes,
However their conclusions show that there is a great scope to further lower the expenditure.
Knofius et al. [4] examined the full costs of consolidation with AM strategies and concluded
that consolidated and complex components lead to a rise on overall expenditure than with
traditional processes. To overcome these restrictions, it is vital to create design techniques,
enhancement strategies, and maintenance techniques
Ulu et al. [5] accepted that the overall expenditure required by metal AM must be decreased;
to achieve this, they devised a process-based cost modeling (PBCM) for the metal AM
topology optimization to decrease the overall expenditure on material, work, and hardware
costs.

Section 3: the effect of post-processing operations of AM products

Sometimes, even after a product is produced, it is not perfect. It may lack in properties like
surface roughness and so.
Kok et al. [3] looked into the mechanical properties of numerous metal AM items and
concluded that post-processing like heat treatment may give the specified mechanical
properties. Inspection is required after manufacture to recognize defects such as voids,
porosity, and undesirable grain characteristics
To investigate how cold rolling will affect AM manufactured parts, Colegrove et al. [6] used
four rolling methods, shown in the Figure below. In this study, Ti and Al were used. The
conclusion was that rolling methods improved both the microstructure and mechanical
properties of Ti and Al. however, porosity decreased noticeably.

Lee et al. [7] researched the theoretical aspects of TTP for two-dimensional and three-
dimensional printing processes. TTP is capable of printing very minute products with the
least feature sizes approximately 100 nanometres. However, PμSLA and TTP are constrained
by the following, photosensitive polymers, and their expensive optical system. This stops the
technology from further applications.

Section 4: LASER technology in AM processes.

with the help of laser technology, combined with AM processes, it is now possible to
manufacture alloys with ease, some examples include,
Wang et al. [8] have produced 304 L austenitic SS walls by laser-based DED AM
technology. They have studied the effects of heat input on microstructural and mechanical
properties. Anisotropic lengthening of grain size is found higher in the longitudinally printed
specimen as compared to the transversely printed specimen. The component manufactured by
lower liner heat input showed a greater tensile strength which can be credited to its finer
microstructure compared to the other made by higher linear heat input, which exhibited a
coarse grain structure
in the next paper, an alloy of stainless steel was produced by laser technology and its
properties were studied.
17-4 PH stainless steel produced laser-based AM techniques are researched by Lin et al. [9].
The microstructure of 17-4 PH SS included martensite laths and small amounts of of M7C3
and NbC carbides which are responsible for the strengthening. This makes the laser formed
and repaired 17-4 PH SS have equal mechanical properties with variation in ductile
properties
The use of laser is not just limited to ferrous alloys, it can just as easily be applied to non
ferrous materials with greater ease. This is because non ferrous materials have a lower
melting point than its ferrous counterparts.
Schmidt et al. [10] have produced an Al alloy by the addition of scandium through the laser-
based AM process. The material exhibits the highest tensile strength of 530 MPa when tested
along with the build orientation. the hardness of the specimen greatly increases after being
subjected to aging treatment. Plasticity as a result of ductile behavior is also high. (reduction
in cross-sectional area of 20% and elongation of 14%) when compared to other Al alloys.
Another example of a non ferrous alloy is,
Brandl et al. [14] have stated that laser deposited Ti6Al4V and wrought Ti6Al4V (AMS
4928) have comparable mechanical properties.
Zong et al. [15] manufactured TC11 alloy through lased-based AM to investigate the effects
of high strain response. They have investigated the strain behavior in two states,
(1) as-deposited and (2) heated state. At the as-deposited state, the grain structure was good
in the combination of both equiaxed coarse and fine grains this resulted in excellent yield
strength with poor plasticity. On the other hand, test results in at heat-treated state revealed
reduced yield strength due to the presence of ultrafine α lamellas, but there was a
considerable improvement in terms of plasticity.
Zhang et al. [16] researched the tensile properties of laser AM printed specimens of TC21.
Testing after heat-treated horizontal, and vertical samples has shown different results.
Horizontal samples have a greater strength, whereas vertical samples can elongate better

Up until now, we have seen alloys of common materials like Fe and Al being produced by
laser technology.
however, with this tech, we can even produce alloys of some lesser known elements like
Ytterbium

Another detailed investigation by Pauly et al. [27] on the fabrication of Fe-based BMG using
Ytterbium fiber laser with operating parameters of 3470 mm/s scanning speed and 320 W
power input found that the printed specimen was not 100% amorphous. The printed part
using Fe-based BMG is presented in Fig. 21 (a). The author claimed that, though the final
structure was not fully amorphous, there was no difference between the feedstock and the
product
In the next studied, the effect of laser power and its resulting microstructure was studied to
find out the optimum power level
Li et al. [28] have used a laser-based AM process with four different powers of laser vary
from 80 W to 200 W to print Al-based BMGs. The investigation was carried out to report the
relationship between laser parameters and microstructures of BMGs. The faster heating and
cooling rates have been applied to a low volume of materials to reduce the thermal effects on
the printed material nearer to printing zones. Higher laser power leaves thermal stresses
within the printed material, creating cracks, and lower power is not sufficient to melt the
material. The power has a major influence on the morphological aspects and mechanical
characteristics of laser-printed BMGs [28].
To overcome these drawbacks, the re-melting of AM printed cubes in a similar way of Pauly
et al. [27] using lasers have been investigated by Li et al. [29]. After printing each layer of
BMGs, they were re-scanned by lasers again with low power of 80 W. Re-melting of layers
have shown reduced residual stresses and increased super-plasticity properties over glass
transition temperatures. With these positive results of re-melting, authors have manufactured
micro-sized gears using Al-based BMGs and compared the crack propagation before and
after re-scanning. It is noticed that the crack is halted after re-scanned.

Section 5: Nanoparticles.
 A nanoparticle is a small particle that ranges between 1 to 100 nanometres in size.
Martin et al. [11] introduced nano-sized nucleants to Al alloys. They concluded that the
introduction of nanoparticles to these alloys enabled them to successfully print using the
SLM technique, this was previously not possible. The resulting fine-grained, equiaxed,
roughly equal-sized grains and crack-free microstructure have mechanical properties
comparable to wrought material.
Another study concerning the use of nanoparticles was done by,
Wen et al. [12]. He researched the mechanical properties of TiB2 nanoparticles decorated
2024Al alloy samples manufactured by LSF. The below figure illustrates the SEM images of
2024 Al powder embedded with TiB2 nanoparticles. After manufacturing by LSF, the
microstructural images at the bottom, middle, and boundary regions exhibited an equiaxed
columnar grain structure grown along the deposition direction, as shown in Figure. The
mechanical properties such as tensile strength, yield strength, microhardness, and elongation
have shown excellent improvement as compared to pure alloys.

Shuai et al. [13] researched the impact of incorporating hydroxyapatite (HA) into Mg–Zn
alloy to slow down the bio-degradation using the SLM process. This resulted in the formation
of a bone-like apatite layer along with fine grains, which have shown very encouraging
results in terms of slowing down degradation. The percentage of the inclusion of HA content
decreased the grain size and increased the bone-like apatite due to the process of
heterogeneous nucleation.

Murr et al. [32] researched the microstructural and mechanical characteristics of an alloy
named Inconel 625 manufactured by the EBM process. The test specimens were prepared
using hot-isostatic pressing at a temperature of 1120 ◦C and exhibited columnar architecture
with the ‘γ’ phase along the direction of building orientation. The analysis is done using
scanning electron microscopy (SEM), x-ray (energy dispersive) spectrometry, x-ray
diffraction (XRD), and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). Upon hot-isostatic pressing,
these columnar grain structures transformed into an equiaxed grain structure containing
NbCr2 precipitates. Though the yield strength of test components slightly reduced from 0.41
to 0.35 GPa, ultimate tensile strength (UTS) has shown an increase from 0.75 GPa to 0.77
GPa, and elongation by about 25%.

Section 6: Various tests on alloys

Yang et al. [18] researched to examine the impact of SFE on the strength and plasticity
behaviour at higher temperatures. They have manufactured different compositions of Ni-
based alloys with increasing Co percentage by mass. Specimens manufactured with different
compositions of Co are tested for mechanical behaviour. Using laser scanning confocal
microscope, the microstructures were examined. The primary phase of ‘gamma’ contents is
the same for all the samples, and the second phase of ‘gamma’ contents increased with an
increase in Co%.
an alloy named Inconel 718 which is manufactured using the EBM process has been
researched by Tayon et al. [19] on its microstructure evolution, crystallography, and
mechanical properties. The microstructure of as-deposited grains on the direction of
deposition has shown a mostly rich and strong texture. Heat treatment, (for example) solution
aging of the specimen, resulted in the generation of a recrystallization on its microstructure,
which in turn resulted in decreased concentration of texture. Mechanical testing results
reported higher levels of tensile strength and yield strength as compared to cast specimens

The following researcher manufactured the same NiTi alloy using different AM processes
and then compared them to each other.
Wang et al. [21] have manufactured and compared the properties of NiTi alloys using various
AM processes such as DED, SLM, and selective EBM techniques. DED printed SMAs
showed features such as phase transformation and interlayer fusion. In SLM printed SMAs it
is difficult to bring desired phases and produced keyhole defects due to differing energy
levels. Selective EBM is found to be not compatible with NiTi SMAs. LENs can be used to
manufacture NiTi SMAs, but a very in-depth information on process parameters and its effect
on microstructure and phase stability is needed. Manufacturing of SMAs using AM
techniques requires post-processing heat treatment to lower the temperature of martensitic
transformations, which leads to deformation.
Section 7: various AM processes to manufacture alloys
Zopp et al. [17] researched the manufacturability of Ti5553 using the SLM process. The
optimization in process parameters and grain sizes were studied to obtain the highest density
and surface quality. They concluded that it is possible to obtain 99.9% of its original density
by optimizing process parameters. On the other hand, the higher surface quality can be
obtained by maintaining grain sizes in the range of 25 and 32 μm.
Li et al. [25] have employed binder jetting AM technique to manufacture NdFeB isotropic
bonded magnets. After production, the specimens were infiltrated using eutectic alloys of a
low-melting-point such as NdCuCo and PrCuCo. The authors have concluded that the density
and mechanical strength of magnets are improved than as-deposited porous magnets. On the
other hand, intrinsic coercivity has shown improvement from 732 kA/m to 13
Caputo et al. [26] have manufactured near net-shaped Ni–Mn-Ga magnetic parts from pre-
alloyed SMAs using binder jetting technique. Ni–Mn-Ga powders, which are spark eroded
from liquid nitrogen (LN2) and liquid argon (LAr) and ball milled, are used for investigation.
Net shaped porous structure resulted from sintering, curing after printing ensures the
feasibility of AM techniques in processing SMAs. Suitable morphologies with apparent
porosities were obtained, as shown in Fig. 18, and these parts were able to go through
reversible martensitic transformation upon heating and cooling. These parts are referred as
thermo-magneto-mechanical trained 3D manufactured parts. The parts manufactured in this
study are shown in Fig. 19
Liang et al. [30] have experimentally investigated the functional properties of SLM
manufactured Fe-based porous metallic glass matrix composites. They have reported that
SLM manufactured parts have shown excellent functional characteristics such as catalytic
activity and reusability up to 45 times higher without any decay in its functional efficiency.

Summary
The advantages of AM techniques such as freeform manufacturing capability, material
savings, mass customization, and economical prototyping capabilities attributes to the
increasing use of AM techniques in aerospace, automobile, biomedical, and other engineering
industries.
The main challenges observed from the literature concerning metallic materials are difficulty
in bringing required microstructural characteristics that directly influence the mechanical and
other properties
Due to less strength characteristics, polymer based 3D printed parts are limited to low load-
bearing applications, but polymer-based composite preparation is still an attractive topic for
researchers.
3D printing processes are highly advantageous while processing ceramic-based materials
since it is challenging to manufacture highly complex ceramic parts through conventional
manufacturing
3D printing of biocompatible materials is limited due to less number of available materials
Printing speed is one of the major challenges faced by most AM techniques due to layer by
layer addition of materials. Especially when scaling up the part sizes, lower printing speeds
highly influences the development time for new applications
This review article infers that significant attempts are being made during the evolution of AM
techniques to provide better scientific knowledge on the AM processes
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