Floods: Causes, Types, Control and Management in Global

Perspective & Justification of Flood Control and Management

Interventions in Bangladesh

Md. Abu Ryhan

Department of Geography and Environment

University of Dhaka
 Question to Answer

Mention the general causes, types, control and management approaches of flood from a global
perspective. Justify the current and prospective flood control and management interventions in
Bangladesh (e.g., different types of structural and non-structural measures) by considering site-
specific (e.g., coastal flooding, inland riverine flooding, a flash flood in hilly areas etc.) factors.
Introduction
A flood is a temporary overflow of water onto land that is normally dry. It is the most common
natural disaster in the world. It may result from rain, snow, coastal storms, storm surges, and
overflow of dams and other water systems. It develops slowly or quickly. Flash floods can
come with no warning. It may cause an outage, disrupt transportation, damage buildings, and
create a landslide. The term flood is generally used when the flows in the rivers and channels
cannot be contained within natural or artificial river banks. By spilling the river banks, when
water inundates flood plains and adjoining high lands to some extent or when the water level
in the river or channels exceeds a certain stage, the situation then termed as flood (Hossain,
2004).
Flood management is an important issue in recent times as the amount of loss is largely
dependent on proper management. If the management is effective, the loss will be lower.
Bangladesh is a developing country, is trying to manage floods with its small resources.
Previously it tried to manage flood with structural measures but that was not so effective.
Hence, besides structural measures, it uses non-structural measures too. And it results well.
The loss due to flood has decreased tremendously.
In this assignment, we will try to find out the causes of floods, floods types, floods control, and
management in the global context. And justify whether flood control and management
interventions used in Bangladesh are effective or not.

Causes of Flood
Flood causes for different causes. Here, I summarized some general causes of flood in the table
and later I discuss about the causes of flood in the context of Bangladesh as well as the Indian
subcontinent.

Causes of flood
Natural Causes Human induce causes
• Intense precipitation • Changes in land use
• Prolonged rainfall • Unplanned urbanization
• Snow melt or ice thaw • Bad farming Practices
• Strom surges • Deforestation
• River Bank Overflow • Poor dam construction
• Volcanic eruptions • Poverty (Unable to manage flood)

The factors responsible for the recent low frequency floods in Bangladesh can be analyzed in
terms of short-term (immediate causes) and long-term processes. Evident phenomena that take
place prior to and during floods, which can easily be related as plausible causes for floods, are
termed short-term processes. On the other hand, the slowly occurring phenomena which cannot
be tied to the flood problem directly are termed long-term processes. However, both the causes
are discussed below:
Short-term Causes
(A) Monsoon downpour: An increased amount of precipitation can cause flooding. An above
normal monsoon downpour in the Ganges-Brahmaputra-Meghna drainage system is thought to
be the primary cause of the 1988 flood in Bangladesh (GOB and UNDP, 1989; Brammer,
1990). It is not known, however, if the heavy precipitation is actually an effect of other
processes such as the greenhouse effect or destruction of forests in the upstream region.
(B) Synchronization of Flood Peaks: The synchronization of flood peaks for the major three
rivers took place within a two weeks’ time period, causing a sudden increase in water level in
virtually all areas of the country (GOB and UNDP, 1989; Brammer, 1990). While the
synchronization of flood peaks can explain the cause of the 1988 flood, it fails to explain the
reason for an overall increased propensity for low frequency floods in recent years such as
occurred in 1974, 1984, 1987, and 1991. The answer might lie in other long-term processes
that reduce the water carrying capacity of the drainage system and decrease land elevation with
respect to the base level of the rivers in Bangladesh.

Long-term Causes
(A) Local Relative Sea Level Rise: If sea level rises in an area at a rate faster than the rate of
land aggradation due to sedimentation, then land elevation decreases. Any decrease in land
elevation can cause increased inundation by rivers overflowing at bank full stage. The rate of
local relative sea level rise is 7 mm/year around the coastal areas of Bangladesh (Emery and
Aubrey, 1990).
(B) Inadequate Sediment Accumulation: The only way for land to counter the effects of a
rising sea is for sediment to accumulate at a rate that is sufficient to keep pace with the rate of
sea level rise. Limited data show that the average sediment accumulation rate for the last few
hundred years in the coastal areas of Bangladesh is 5-6 mm/year, which is not enough to keep
pace with the rising sea level (Khalequzzaman, 1989). As a result, net land elevations must
have been decreasing over time, resulting in more flood inundations.
(C) Subsidence and Compaction of Sediments: Most deltas subside due to the weight of the
thick sediment layer. Subsidence along with compaction reduces land elevation with respect to
the rising sea level (Pilkey et al., 1989). Even though the rate of subsidence and compaction
are not yet well documented, based upon our knowledge about processes active in other deltas
it can be assumed that Bangladesh's delta is also undergoing subsidence and compaction.
(D) Riverbed Aggradation: Because of low gradients and high sediment loads, the riverbeds
of most of the rivers in Bangladesh aggrade very quickly. Riverbed aggradation is most
pronounced for the Ganges and its distributaries. Riverbed aggradation reduces the water
carrying capacity of rivers, causing them to overflow their banks. This recent increase in
riverbed levels must have contributed to the increased flooding propensity in Bangladesh.
(E) Deforestation in the Upstream Region: Deforestation of steep slopes is assumed to lead
to accelerated soil erosion and landslides during monsoon precipitations. This in turn is
believed to contribute to devastating floods in the downstream regions such as in Bangladesh
(Alexander, 1989).
(F) Damming of Rivers: Damming of a river reduces the velocity of water flow downstream
from the dam. As a result of reduced velocity, the sediments carried by the river start to settle
down faster on the riverbed, causing riverbed aggradation and in turn reducing the water
carrying capacity of the river (Shalash, 1982). Hence, there occurs flood.
(G) Soil Erosion due to Tilling: Surface run-off can easily wash away the topsoil from
cultivated land. This surface erosion reduces land elevation, which in turn increases flood
intensity in an area. The land elevations in Bangladesh must have been reduced over time due
cultivation.
(H) Excessive Development: Rapid population growth creates extra pressure on the land of
already overcrowded Bangladesh. Agricultural lands give way to housing developments and
roads. This rapid development and urbanization must have aggravated the flooding problem in
Bangladesh.
(I) Seismic (Earthquake) and Neotectonics Activities: Earthquakes cause movement of the
land, and this can change the topography of the region and alter river courses. A sudden change
in a river course can cause substantial flooding. For example, the Old Brahmaputra changed its
course to its present location following an earthquake in the mid eighteenth century (Er-Rashid,
1978).
(J) Greenhouse Effect: The world is about to enter a period of rapid warming. Should the
greenhouse effect become a reality, the low-lying coastal areas will be affected by a rising sea
level of even greater magnitude (Milliman et al. 1989; Gable and Aubery, 1990). Bangladesh
will be severely impacted by such an increase in sea level (Brammer 1989).

Types of Flood
The submergence of land that is usually dry by an overflow of water is known as flood. Floods
can be classified into different types as mentioned below:

1. Areal Floods
Areal floods are caused when excessive snowmelt or high rainfall accumulates on land,
sometimes to hazardous depths. Flood happens when surface soil becomes saturated so that
water can no longer seep underground. Such events are more common in areas where the water
table is shallow like a floodplain or when rain falls incessantly due to a series of storms. Also,
the nature of the ground influences infiltration of water. Frozen, rock or concrete grounds act
as barriers to water infiltration. Areal flooding is also common in endorheic basins when
precipitation exceeds evaporation.
2. Riverine or Flash Floods
Floods occur in all types of stream and river channels due to a variety of reasons. Landslides,
ice, debris, increased precipitation, higher speed of glacial melt, tropical cyclones,
thunderstorm, etc., are all factors that might trigger a sudden rise in the water level of the
flowing water body. Muddy floods are produced when huge volumes of sediments from the
flooded land are carried as run-off by the river or stream either in the suspended form or as bed
load. Areas with dry climate are usually susceptible to sudden, rapid flooding events like flash
floods. In dry areas, rivers might have a large basin but narrow channels and a seasonal spike
in rainfall is sufficient to trigger a rapid flooding event. One example of a river that causes
frequent devastating floods is the Yellow River of China which is thus nicknamed as “China's
Sorrow.”
3. Pluvial or Surface flood
A Pluvial or surface water flood is caused when heavy rainfall creates a flood event
independent of an overflowing water body. One of the most common misconceptions about the
risk who stay near the location of the water body.

4. Estuarine Floods
Estuarine floods are usually caused by high-velocity winds or low barometric pressure. A
higher river flow at the upstream of the river might also inundate the downstream estuarine
banks of the river.

5. Coastal or Surge Foods

Coastal floods are caused by storm events at the sea like tropical cyclones or, in extreme cases,
by tsunamis. Such extreme weather or geological phenomena generate massive waves that
inundate coastal areas. Coastal floods are the most extreme in nature as large volumes of water
wipe away everything that comes in the path into the sea. Coastal floods are also predicted to
increase in the future due to global warming induced sea level rise.

6. Urban Flooding
When the inundation of a built environment, especially an area of dense population occurs, it
is called urban flooding. Several factors might lead to flooding of urban areas like excessive
rainfall, snowmelt, flash flooding, etc. Such types of flooding might recur or be more forceful
in urban areas without proper drainage systems. Urban flooding strongly affects communities
living in the flooded areas. Floodwater might accumulate on property, seep through the floors
of buildings via sewer pipes, sinks, and toilets and create a completely unhygienic situation in
the urban environment.

7. Catastrophic Flooding
Catastrophic flooding is caused by a sudden, unexpected change in the environment that is
powerful enough to trigger flooding of large areas. Such floods usually have a devastating
impact on life and property in the flooded areas. Causes of such catastrophic flooding are as
follow:
 ▪ Failure of infrastructure: Catastrophic floods might be caused by a major
infrastructure failure like the collapse of a dam.
▪ Drainage channel modification: Earthquakes, landslides, and volcanic eruptions often
trigger a change in the topology of land, shifting water channels to a completely new
position. Such drainage channel modification due to a catastrophic event might trigger
deadly floods. Lahars and outburst floods are examples of such catastrophic floods.
▪ Tsunami: Tsunamis triggered by undersea earthquakes are also examples of
catastrophic flooding and can have a devastating effect on coastal areas at the receiving
end of the tsunamis.

Floods and Flood Management in Bangladesh

Floods in Bangladesh
Bangladesh is a low-lying, riverine country located in South Asia with a largely marshy jungle
coastline of 710 km (441 mi) on the northern littoral of the Bay of Bengal. Formed by a delta
plain at the confluence of the Ganges (Padma), Brahmaputra (Jamuna), and Meghna Rivers
and their tributaries, Bangladesh’s alluvial soil is highly fertile, but vulnerable to flood and
drought.

Natural calamities, such as floods, tropical cyclones, tornadoes, and tidal bores—destructive
waves or floods caused by flood tides rushing up estuaries—ravage the country, particularly
the coastal belt, almost every year. Annual monsoon flooding results in the loss of human life,
damage to property and communication systems, and a shortage of drinking water, which leads
to the spread of disease. For example, in 1988 two-thirds of Bangladesh’s 64 districts
experienced extensive flood damage in the wake of unusually heavy rains that flooded the river
systems. Millions were left homeless and without potable water. Half of Dhaka, including the
runway at the Shahjalal International Airport—an important transit point for disaster relief
supplies—was flooded. About 2,000,000 tonnes (2,204,623 short tons; 1,968,413 long tons) of
crops were reported destroyed, and relief work was rendered even more challenging than usual
because the flood made transportation of any kind exceedingly difficult.

Fig: floods in Jamalpur district 2015 (left; source: ICCCAD, 2015), Inundated houses are seen
in Sunamgong (right; AFP, 2020)
However, Bangladesh experiences four major types of floods. These are as follow:

Types of Floods Description

Occur during mid-April before the on-set of the south-westerly
Flash Foods
monsoon.
Happen in the deltas in the south-western part of the country and are
Rain-Fed Floods
increasing in low-lying urban areas.
These are the most common; the areas are inundated during monsoon
River Floods
season along the river and in cases far beyond the riverbanks.
Occur along the coastal areas of Bangladesh, which is about 800 km
along the northern part of Bay of Bengal. In case of important
Storm Surge
cyclones, the entire coastal belt is flooded, sometimes causing great
Floods
loss of lives. Coastal areas are also subjected to tidal flooding from
June to September.

Flood Management in Bangladesh

At present, flood control has been replaced by flood management concept in terms of living
with flood, making benefit of it, and minimizing its losses. Flooding is a natural phenomenon,
which cannot be prevented. The flood control measures and policies should be directed to
mitigation of flood damage, rather than flood prevention. Resources should be allocated to help
people adopt a life style that is conformable to their natural environment. Indigenous solutions
such as changing the housing structures and crop patterns can help reduce flood damage.
Moreover, good governance, appropriate environmental laws, acts and ordinances will be
necessary to achieve sustainable economic development and to reduce any environmental
degradation. In addition, implementation of an improved real-time flood and drought control
warning system can reduce the damage caused by floods. In recent years, improved forecasting
& early warning system and preparedness measures have helped to reduce the number of lives
lost by natural disasters.
However, Bangladesh tries to deal with flood and disaster with structural and non-structural
measures. Systematic structural measures began by implementing flood control projects in
sixties after the colossal flood of 1963. Non-structural measures have introduced in seventies.
Flood Management by Structural Measures
Structural option provided some benefits specially increase in agricultural production at earlier
period but some adverse effects were observed later on (Nishat et. al., 2000). Notably, the
construction of high embankment along the both banks of the rivers in some cases resulted in
rise in bed levels due to siltation causing obstruction to drainage. In the coastal areas, although
the construction of polders prevented salinity intrusion, but resulted in restriction of the
movement of the tidal prism, sedimentation of tidal rivers and obstruction to the gravity
drainage. Another important impact on agriculture was found that the farmers in most cases
opted for production of cereal crops, especially HYV rice enjoying a flood free situation rather
than going for crop diversification. Structural measure caused many adverse effects on the
aquatic lives especially on open water fisheries. Here given several structural measures for
flood management:

National and to the extent feasible, have been raised above flood level. Raising
Regional Highways feeder and rural roads will be determined in the context of disaster
and Railways management plans.
River Maintenance River maintenance through dredging is also going on in a limited
and Erosion case due to the high cost. Efforts are continued for erosion control on
Control medium and small rivers.
Where possible Flood Control, Drainage and Irrigation projects have
been constructed. FCD/I project are of two types, namely (i) full
flood control facilities; and (ii) partial flood control. Till date FCD/I
Flood Control and
projects provide facilities in about 5.38 million ha which is about
Drainage Project
59% of the country’s net cultivated land (BWDB, 2001). Flood
control and drainage structures have also been provided in major
cities to make the cities flood free.
School buildings are so constructed that they can be used as flood-
cum cyclone shelter especially in the coastal zone with highest risk
Flood Cum
of flood and storm surge. These structures are not intended to change
Cyclone Shelter
the flood regime, and therefore, considered as no-structural measures
of flood management.

1 2

fig: 1. Embankment reconstruction at another river’s

edge; 2. Concrete Dam; 3. Construction of the new
embankment.

Source: Perera, D. (2016)

Flood Management by Non-Structural Measures
Introduction of non-structural option i.e., Flood Forecasting and Warning System in
Bangladesh started from early ‘70s and contributed to the improvement of the capacity for
flood preparedness and minimization of flood losses. Other non-structural measures are
discussed in the following.
Flood Forecasting and Warning: Flood warning is concerned to reduce sufferings to human
life and damages of economy and environment. Flood forecasting and Warning Service of
Bangladesh was established in 1972 as a permanent entity under Bangladesh Water
Development Board (BWDB). Initially co-axial correlation, gauge to gauge relationship and
Muskingumcunge Routing Model were used for forecasting. From early nineties a numerical
modelling-based approach has been applied for flood forecasting and warning. Using the
principal concept of mass transfer based on the continuity and momentum equations, dynamic
computation has been used in this method. Very briefly, it comprises of estimating water levels
using hydrodynamic simulation model. Research on Modelling System and capacity building
in the forecasting is currently emphasized. During the moha plabon (the severest flood) of the
country in 1998, loss of lives and damage of FCD/I projects were minimum mainly because of
flood forecasting and early warning (Islam and Dhar, 2000).
Flood proofing: Efforts have been made to provide vulnerable communities with mitigation
by raising homesteads, schools and marketplaces in low-lying areas (rather than flood control)
and in the char lands so that peasants can save their livestock and food stuff.
Flood Zoning and Insurance: Concept of flood zoning and flood insurance are not practiced
in the country till date. Flood zoning will facilitate development in a co-coordinated way to
avoid expensive investments in vulnerable areas. Proper land development rules need to be
developed based on the flood-zoning map.
Other non-structural measures practices are:

• working with communities to improve disaster awareness.

• develop disaster management plans.
• relief and evacuation.

Conclusion
Bangladesh is a small part of a bigger hydrodynamic system. The system comprises several
countries in the region, mutual understanding and cooperation among the co-riparian countries
will be necessary in order to formulate long term and permanent solution to the flood problem.
Mutual understanding and cooperation among the countries have not yet happened.
Individually, Bangladesh has taken many steps to mitigate the bad impacts of flood. Formally,
it took structural measures, but they were not much effective. Then it has taken several non-
structural measures and these have become more effective than previous. Structural as well as
non-structural measures are being emphasized for flood management in Bangladesh. It has
been proved that non-structural measures have significant effect on flood damage
minimization. Flood and disaster cannot fully be controlled, prevented or eliminated, but
damages can be reduced significantly by integration of measures and co-ordination of agencies.
Flood forecasting and early warning is very important for a flood-prone country like
Bangladesh. An effective and timely flood forecasting along with mitigation measures, both
structural and non-structural, can save lives and properties, thus minimize the damages from
disaster. (Rahman, 2005)

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