SPECIALIZATION: PHYSICAL SCIENCES

Focus: Geology
By: Dr. Virgil D. Duad
_________________________________________________________________________________________________

SPECIALIZATION: PHYSICAL SCIENCES

Focus: Geology
By: Dr. Virgil D. Duad

Competencies:
1. Characterize the different layers of Earth's interior and the processes that occur in each layer.
2. Describe the different movements of the Earth and its relation to the occurrences of the different
natural phenomena.
3. Explain how weathering and erosion shape the surface of the Earth.
4. Give ways of how volcanism and diastrophism can be helpful and detrimental to people.

PART I – CONTENT UPDATE

ABOUT THE EARTH

Earth, the third planet from the Sun is our home. It is the only known planet where life can survive. As far as
we know, there is no other planet in the universe like Earth. We have a very narrow temperature range that allows
water to remain a liquid. Life has developed over millions of years because of that liquid. What else makes us special?
Ninety-nine per cent of our atmosphere is made up of nitrogen and oxygen. The remaining one per cent of the
atmosphere consists of argon, carbon dioxide, water vapor, and other gases. If we had clouds of sulfuric acid or
methane, life may never have developed.

LAYERS OF THE EARTH

Once upon a time, billions of years ago, there was a whole bunch of atoms floating around the universe.
Slowly, those atoms and molecules came together and formed what we call the Earth. Now the Earth is a big ball of
matter that circles the Sun once a year. What is inside the planet? Most of the Earth is composed of the mantle and
the core.

The rules of density were in action when the Earth and its matter came together. Those rules explain how
the heavier substances moved towards the middle and the lighter substances wound up on top. It is just like sand
sinking to the bottom of a glass of water

The Crust

The crust is the thin outermost layer of the Earth. The crust is like the peel on an apple. It is much thinner
than the inner layers of the Earth. All life on the Earth exists on or within a few hundred meters above the crust.

The Earth's crust forms the upper part of the lithosphere. The lithosphere is the topmost solid part of the
Earth.

At the base of the crust, there is thought to be a significant change in the mineral composition of the rocks.
This relatively narrow zone of change is called the Mohorovicic discontinuity, or Moho, for short.

The Mantle

Scientists break the mantle into three distinct zones. The outer part of the upper mantle is a relatively thin but
hard and rigid zone. Beneath this rigid zone and extending downward to a depth of possibly 350 kilometers, is a zone
in which the rocks are so hot that they lose much of their strength and are easily deformed. This is called the
asthenosphere (weak sphere). The asthenosphere can flow like a thick liquid. When a solid has the ability to flow, it
has the property known as plasticity. Below the asthenosphere is the mesosphere (deep mantle), where the rocks
are believed to be rigid again.

The Core

Do not be confused with the next part. There is only one core. Like the mantle, scientists break the core into
layers. First is the outer core. Imagine this huge sphere of molten iron (Fe), floating and flowing around the inner
core. It is really a liquid. It is extremely hot and under a lot of pressure. Especially important is the idea that the outer
core creates the Earth's magnetic field. The whole Earth is a magnet because of the movement of ions in the outer
core. The molten iron flows like a huge river. In your physics course, you learned that magnetism and electricity are

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very closely related. As the iron river flows, they create an electric current. That current creates the magnetic field that
surrounds the planet. The magnetic field created in the center of the planet makes your compass point north and
protects the Earth from solar winds.

The inner core is under even more pressure. Even though it is

just as hot as the outer core, there is such high pressure that it stays solid.
Remember those rules about density? Well the most dense, most
compact, heaviest matter is found in the inner core. It is not pure iron like
the outer core. It is composed of iron, nickel, and sulfur.

Breaking Apart the Structure

The structure of the planet is fairly simple to understand.

Just as the atmosphere has layers, the upper layers of the Earth have
layers. If you look at the outside of the planet, you can see
that about sixty-five per cent of the planet is covered by
oceans of water. The rest, or thirty-five per cent of the surface,
is made up of the continents.

Ocean Zones

Let us look at the ocean zone first. Scientists break the floor of the
ocean into three basic levels. The abyssal plain is the deep ocean floor.
The mid-oceanic ridge is the
middle layer. The final division is
the ocean trench. The trench is
the deepest part of the surface of
the planet. The distance from the floor of the ocean to the top of a volcano in
Hawaii is higher than any mountain above the surface. On the edges of the
oceans are the continental slopes. They are the fringes of the continental
plates.

Zones of Land

Chances are, you are on land right now. Scientists would say you
are living on the sial. The sial is the part of the crust that is above water. It is
a continental plate floating over the globe. Right underneath the sial is the sima. The sima is the layer of the Earth's
crust that covers the entire planet. The sial is different in that it can begin and end where the plates do. You can think
of the sima as the ocean floors. Under the sima is the mantle. When you consider the mantle, you really start talking
about the inner workings of the planet.

PLATES ARE MOVING BENEATH YOU

Scientists have traveled all over the Earth and found evidence that supports the ideas of plate tectonics. First,
they looked at the continents. Ever notice how Africa and South America look like they could fit together? Scientists
did. They cut up a map, moved the continents close together, and came up with a huge landmass called Pangaea
(one super-continent).

Scientists also looked at the fossils on the different continents. They found that fossils on Australia were
similar to the ones in Southern Asia. They think the same plants once lived on the continents, but when they split
apart, new plants developed. When they were digging, they also looked at the types of rocks. The West Coast of
Africa has very similar rock formations to those on the East Coast of South America. They are too similar to be a
coincidence.

The basic idea behind plate tectonics is that there are seven major plates on the surface of the Earth. There
are also bunches of minor plates. The plates are like the skin of the planet. They constantly move around the planet.
When we say constantly moving, we are talking centimeters each year. You could not sit down and watch it happen.
Or can you? You could. If you watched an earthquake happen.

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These plates make up the top layer of the Earth called the lithosphere. Directly under that layer is the
asthenosphere. It is a flowing area of molten rock. There is constant heat and radiation given off from the center of
the Earth. That energy is what constantly heats the rocks and melts them. The tectonic plates are floating on top of the
molten rock and moving around the planet. Think of it as ice floating at the top of your soda. When the continents and
plates move, the movement is called continental drift.

Convergent Boundaries

Think of the molten rock in the asthenosphere, not as rock, but as a

liquid. It has currents and it flows just like any other liquid. When two
tectonic plates push into one another, the boundary where they meet
is called a convergent (destructive) boundary. What happens at
the convergent boundary depends on what kind of crust - continental
or oceanic - the leading edge of each tectonic plate has. When two
continental plates collide, their edges may strike head on. The impact
of such a collision crumples the edges. The rocks of the continents
buckle and fold forming mountains.

When two oceanic plates collide, their edges buckle downward, forming a deep trench. In a process called
subduction, one plate is thrust downward into the mantle. As the subducted plate is pushed into the mantle, it melts.
Molten rock can then break into the surface. As a result, a string of undersea volcanoes erupt. In time, an island arc,
or string of volcanic islands bordering a trench may form.

Sometimes an ocean plate collides with a continental plate. The denser oceanic plate plunges downward. A
deep trench forms. Some magma from the subducted plate is pushed up forming volcanoes.

Divergent Boundaries

A divergent boundary is a boundary between two plates that are

moving apart. Sea-floor spreading takes place at divergent boundaries. As
the plates move apart, hot, molten rock rises up and fills the gap. The molten
rock cools and hardens into new sea-floor material. This material is added to
the moving plates. At the same time, the continents on the moving plates are
carried apart.

Mid-ocean ridges and rifts also form at divergent boundaries. Ocean

ridges form as the plate boundaries are pushed up by the magma welling up
between them. Rifts form between the plates as they are pulled apart.

Transform Fault Boundaries

In some places, plates are not moving away or towards each other. These places are called transform fault
(neutral) boundaries. The edges of plates slide past each other. Movements along transform faults produce many
earthquakes, but little volcanic activity.

Deformation of the Crust

The Earth's crust is constantly changing. Such changes result from deformation - the bending, tilting, and
breaking of the crust. Plate tectonics, the movement of the lithospheric plates, is the major cause of crust deformation.
We will talk about faulting, folding, a dip-slip, and a strike-slip. Each type of interaction gives a unique geographical
result that helps scientists understand Earth's movements deep below the surface.

Folding

Folding happens when two pieces of a plate come together and push against each other. Take a piece of
paper and place it on the table. Now push the ends together. You should see the paper get a big bulge in the middle.
That bulge is like the folding that happens on Earth. You get ripples in the surface. Obviously, there will be high and
low points. The high points of the ripples are called anticlines. The low points of the ripples are synclines.

Faulting

Faults in a plate are usually parallel to each other. They run up and down the plate in an area called a fault
zone. Many people think of California when they think of faults. That is because areas with a lot of faults have a lot of
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earthquakes. In reality, there are faults all over world, not just in California. Those fault zones may only be a few
meters long or they can travel for kilometers without ending. There are two big types of faults: dip-slips and strike-
slips.

Dip-Slips

A dip-slip fault occurs when two pieces of land change their vertical (up-and-down) position compared to
each other. After the movement, one side is higher than the other side.

Strike-Slips

A strike-slip (lateral, wrench) fault happens when two pieces of land move horizontally (side-to-side) to
each other. That movement would be towards the left or towards the right compared to the other piece. We talked
about California before. The San Andreas Fault in California is an example of a large strike-slip. It is the point where
the Pacific Plate and the North American Plate move against each other.

EARTHQUAKES

Have you ever experienced an earthquake? Some people do all the time. There are dozens every day but
they are usually very small. You tend to remember the big ones. Earthquakes are the breaking and cracking of the
rocks inside the continental plates. The breaks happen after stress has built up in the surrounding area. There are
usually very few or no quakes when the plates move slowly. When there is a fast movement of the plate, there is a
snap.

Changing The Landscape

More than buildings collapse when an earthquake hits. The land itself is totally changed. You can see scars
across the landscape. Those scars appear when one block of land has moved relative to another. Roads are often
displaced. They either become uneven or full of cracks. Streams can also change course. Sometimes rocks can fall
and block the stream. Other times, the land is even lowered in certain areas. When it is lower, it is easier for the water
to flow in the new direction.

Changes also happen on larger scales. Fault valleys and troughs can be created. These areas have large
amounts of fracturing (the fracture zone is large). After the land has opened up, weather begins to act on the area
and erosion follows. Slowly, new valleys are reated.

Waves Across The Land

You might think, "If it only happens in one place, why can you feel
them hundreds of kilometers away?" The crack happens where the quake
starts. Ripples then move out in waves across the plate. Those waves are
called seismic waves. Those waves shake everyone up within a specific
area.

When scientists analyze an earthquake, they look at several parts.

They find out where the focus is. The focus (hypocenter) is the exact point
where the earthquake originated. It is usually many kilometers below the
surface of the Earth. Scientists also look to see where the epicenter was.
The epicenter is the point on the surface directly above the focus. When you think about the epicenter, try to
remember there is actually a crack in the crust many kilometers below.

Seismic waves that travel the fastest are called primary (P) waves. P waves arrive at any given point before
any other type of seismic wave. P waves travel through solids, liquids, and gases. P waves are longitudinal
(compressional) waves. They cause rock particles to move back-and-forth in the direction the waves are moving.

Seismic waves that do not travel through the Earth as fast as P waves do are called secondary (S) waves. S
waves arrive at a given point a certain time interval after P waves. S waves travel through solids but do not travel
through liquids and gases. S waves are transverse waves. They cause the rock particles to move at right angles to the
direction of the waves. Both P and S waves are classified as body waves because they travel through the Earth's
interior.

The slowest seismic waves are called surface (L) waves. L waves arrive at a given point after the primary
and secondary waves. L waves travel from the focus directly upward to the epicenter. Then, they move along the
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Earth's surface the way waves travel in the ocean. L waves cause the most amount of damage during an earthquake
because they bend and twist the Earth's surface.

Built For Quakes

After an earthquake, you can turn on the television and see all sorts of footages showing buildings that did not
quite survive. Buildings are built for up-and-down forces. If you jump on the floor a bunch of times your house will stay
up. Earthquakes have forces that move side-to- side. Houses are not built for that direction of energy. When the Earth
moves side-to-side, a house cannot wobble and it snaps. The walls collapse and the roof falls in. Really tall
skyscrapers are well designed for earthquakes. They are built to withstand strong winds. When strong winds happen,
they can move side-to-side and sway if needed.

VOLCANOES

There are three main types of volcanoes: cinder, shield, and composite. A small, steep-sided, cone-shaped
volcano made of volcanic cinders and other rock particles is called a cinder cone. Shield volcanoes are usually
found in the middle of tectonic plates. Islands like Hawaii are good examples of this type of volcano. There is a hole in
the middle of the plate and magma moves out and piles on top of itself, slowly building a mountain of rock. That
magma comes from small tunnels which scientists call vents.

The other big type is a composite volcano (strato-volcano). This type of volcano is usually what you think of
as a volcano. It is shaped like a cone and mainly made up of alternating layers of solidified lava and rock particles
which has piled up and compacted over the years. Examples of these volcanoes are Mounts Bulusan, Canlaon,
Hibok-Hibok, and Mayon. There is so much lava and lots of rocks and ashes. Those rocks are called pyroclastics
(tephra).

Structure Basics

We will start at the bottom when we look at the structure of a

volcano. All of the molten rock in the asthenosphere finds weaknesses in the
crust. The molten rock creates a main passageway called a central vent. As
the magma rises, secondary vents develop. Those secondary ones are just
smaller and branch from the main tube. At the top of the volcano, at its
highest point, is a funnel-shaped pit called a crater. Some volcanoes have a
large basin-shaped depression called a caldera. A caldera forms when a
volcano gets hollow and then collapses on itself. A caldera could look like a
large indentation on the side of the volcano, or it could form at the very top.

Lava Movement

We already discussed the parts of a volcano. You must be wondering what happens with the lava. How does
it get to the surface? All of the magma is created in the asthenosphere. The asthenosphere is the layer of molten rock
just beneath the continental plates. The magma slowly rises through the lithosphere. It rises because it is hot, less
dense, and because of the increased pressure below. The magma slowly moves up the vents. Eventually, passages
called diapers are created. And behold, the lava flows from the volcano!

Types of Lava

Just as there are multiple types of volcanoes, there are three types of lava. Silicic (felsic, granitic) lava is a
type you should be able to figure out. Have you ever heard of the element silicon? Silicon is the main component of
silicic lava. It is seventy per cent silicon dioxide compounds. This type of lava has formed most of the continents.

The second type is mafic (basaltic) lava. It has the least amount of silicon dioxide compounds, less than fifty
per cent. It has a lot of iron and manganese compounds to make up for the difference. It makes up most of the rock at
the bottom of the ocean.
Last, but not least, is intermediate (andesitic) lava. It is in the middle in more ways than one. It has percentages of
silicon substances in between silicic and mafic lava types. It is also the type of rock that makes up the edges of the
continents (between the ocean floors and main continental plates).
Other Effects of Volcanism

Erupting volcanoes have caused disasters throughout history. Yet, volcanoes have also produced some of the
world's best farmland. Ash and lava from volcanic eruptions add minerals to soil. These minerals are needed for plant

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growth. For this reason, farmers consider the ash from eruptions a kind of instant fertilizer. After an eruption, farmers
in nearby areas report a dramatic increase in crop yields. This increase is due to ash that fell on their fields.

ROCKS AND MINERALS

Rocks and minerals are different things. Rocks are groups of different minerals pushed together and
combined. They do not have easy chemical formulas with which to describe their makeup. A ruby is considered a
mineral. It is a nice and pretty crystal with the same compounds throughout the object. But the rock that surrounds that
ruby has many different compounds (and even a few pieces of ruby mixed in). There is an easier example that many
people can relate to. Think about quartz. On its own (as a mineral) it is a nice and pretty crystal. But a piece of granite
often has loads of quartz. It is ground up and crushed, but it is still bits of quartz. Granite is a rock and quartz is a
mineral.

A rock is grouped, or classified, according to how it was formed. Rocks can be classified into three different
types: igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic.

Igneous Rocks

Igneous rocks are the ones that were superheated and were originally liquid. They often start their lives
below the crust and then get pumped out. There are two basic types of igneous rocks. There are the rocks that make
it to the surface (extrusive) and the ones that are stuck in the crust just below the surface (intrusive). These igneous
types have all hardened after having been molten. If you walk around a volcano, you will find those extrusive types.
The intrusive types are usually found in areas called plutons and dikes, big old pools of molten rock that were just
beneath the surface. Some examples of igneous rock are granite, all volcanic rock, basalt, and obsidian.

Metamorphic Rocks

This rock type is created by heat and/or pressure. Even though heat is involved, they did not start as molten
rock. You often find metamorphic rock near volcanoes and sources of super hot rock. The heat from the magma
changes all of the rock around it. Try another explanation. Look at the name 'metamorphic.' It looks like the word used
to describe insects that go through a metamorphosis. It is the same concept. Some force (heat/pressure) has
changed these rocks from one type into a new type. The result is a metamorphic rock. Some examples are marble,
jade, slate, and gneiss. Because pressure and heat are involved, these rock types are usually found deep beneath the
surface. They are also found near fault lines where plates push against each other and create enormous pressures.
Over time, because of the movement of the crust, these metamorphic rocks are pushed to the surface where you can
find them every day.

Sedimentary Rocks

The last of the big three rock types is probably the most rare, unless you live near the coast. Sedimentary rock
types are created when sediment compresses. It is pretty simple. Here is the setup: A river flows through a canyon
and picks up a bunch of silt. The sediment and silt runs downstream and deposits where the river ends. It could be in
a flood plain or a valley, but we are using a coastline as an example. When that material gets to the beach, it sits
there. Now if you watch this happen over millions of years, more and more sediment builds up and compacts. That
compacted sediment eventually becomes a type of rock. Examples of sedimentary rock include sandstone, anthracite,
and limestone.

WEATHERING AND EROSION

Whenever rocks are exposed at the Earth's surface, they change. Air, water, and living things cause these
changes. Rocks may change in size, shape, or chemical composition. As the rocks change, they are broken down into
smaller and smaller pieces. Weathering is the breaking down of rocks into smaller pieces by natural processes.

Some weathering processes change only the way a rock looks. The breaking down of rock without changing
its chemical composition is called physical (mechanical) weathering. The following are the agents, or causes, of
physical weathering: temperature, frost action, organic activity, gravity, and abrasion.

Some weathering processes change the chemical composition of a rock. Chemical weathering is the
breaking down of rock by changing its chemical composition. Such changes often weaken a rock's structure. As a
result, physical weathering more easily breaks down the rock.

Many substances on Earth cause chemical weathering. Water, oxidation, carbonation, sulfuric acid, and
plant acids are responsible for most of the chemical weathering of rocks.
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Soil

Soil contains the water and minerals plants need to make food. All animals, directly or indirectly, depend on
plants for food. Thus, soil is necessary for life to exist.

Soil is a product of the processes of weathering. It is a mixture of weathered rock and humus. Humus is
material produced by the breaking down of plant and animal remains. It is the main source of nutrients for plant
growth. Humus mixes with clay and sand, adding nutrients to the soil. These added nutrients enrich the soil. Other
substances such as air, water, and living things can be found in soil.

Agents of Erosion

Many processes working together are changing the shape of the Earth's surface. The processes of
weathering break down solid rock into sediments. Other processes then pick up and move the sediments. Erosion is
the process by which weathered rock and soil particles are moved from one place to another. As sediment is moved, it
smooths down and wears away rock, changing the shape of the land. The process by which sediments are laid down
in new locations is called deposition. Deposition changes the shape of the land.

The processes of weathering and erosion break down mountains and other landforms. Deposited materials,
however, build up new landforms. Weathering, erosion, and deposition are all part of an unending duel between forces
that wear down and build up the land.

Gravity, wind, running water, glaciers, and waves can cause erosion. These are the five agents of erosion.
An agent of erosion is a material or force that moves sediments from place to place.

PART II – ANALYZING TEST ITEMS

1. Through what process does the ocean floor constantly renew itself?
A. Continental drift C. Subduction
B. Sea-floor spreading D. Terranes

The correct answer is B.
A great deal of volcanic activity occurs at the mid-ocean ridges. Lava erupts
from the rift valley that runs the length of a ridge. When the lava wells up and
hardens, the ocean floor is pushed away on either side of the ridge. The
hardened lava forms new ocean floor. This process is called sea-floor
spreading.

Choice A. Continental drift is a hypothesis that suggests the continents have been in different positions
through geologic time.

Choice C. Subduction is the process whereby an oceanic plate moves under another plate, descends
into the mantle, and melts.

Choice D. A terrane is a piece of land with a geologic history distinct from that of the surrounding land.

2. What is the state of balance between the thickness of the crust and the depth at which it floats on the
asthenosphere?
A. Isostasy C. Strain
B. Shearing D. Stress

The correct answer is A. The floating crust exerts a downward force. But the mantle also exerts a
force. Its force is exerted upward on the crust. A balance exists between the
downward force of the crust and the upward force of the mantle. The
balancing of these two forces is called isostasy.

Choice B. Shearing is a system of forces that pushes against a body from different sides not directly
opposite each other.

Choice C. Strain is the change in shape and volume of rocks that occurs due to stress.

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Choice D. Stress is a force that applies pressure to rocks in the Earth's crust.

3. According to the elastic rebound theory, what happens when the rocks are strained past a certain point?
A. Deforms C. Melts
B. Fractures D. Rebounds

The correct answer is B. According to the elastic rebound theory, the rocks on each side of a fault are
moving slowly. If the fault is locked, strain in the rock increases. When they
are strained past a certain point, however, the rocks fracture, separate at
their weakest point, and rebound.

Choice A. Deformation is the breaking, bending, tilting, and folding of rocks.

Choice C. Melting is the change of phase (state) from a solid to a liquid.

Choice D. Rebound means to spring back to the original position or shape.

4. What type of volcano has a narrow base, very steep slope, and rarely more than a few hundred meters high?
A. Cinder cone C. Shield cone
B. Composite cone D. Strato-volcano

The correct answer is A. A cinder cone is a volcano made mostly of cinders and other rock particles
that have been blown into the air. Cinder cones have very steep slopes, often
close to forty degrees. Because the fragments are loosely arranged and thus
tend to roll down a slope easily, they are rarely a few hundred meters high.

Choice B. A composite cone is a volcano built up of alternating layers of tephra and hardened lava
flows.

Choice C. A shield volcano is a gently sloping, dome-shaped volcano composed almost entirely of
hardened lava flows.

Choice D. Strato-volcano is another name for composite cone.

5. What type of rock forms from magma that cools and hardens?
A. Clastic C. Metamorphic
B. Igneous D. Sedimentary

The correct answer is B. A rock is grouped, or classified, according to how it was formed. One type of
rock is formed from magma or lava. Magma is found deep inside the Earth.
Lava is magma that reaches the Earth's surface. When magma and lava
cools, they harden into igneous rocks.

Choice A. Clastic rock is sedimentary rock formed from sediments that have been cemented or
compacted together. These sediments are often broken bits of rocks and minerals.

Choice C. Another type of rock is formed when already existing rock is changed by great heat, great
pressure, or chemical action. This new rock is called metamorphic rock.

Choice D. Sediments are small bits of matter deposited by water, ice, or wind. They can be bits of rocks,
shells, or the remains of a plant or animal. A sedimentary rock is formed when sediments are
cemented together or hardened by other processes.

6. Which layer of the mantle consists of slowly flowing solid rocks that support the moving tectonic plates?
A. Asthenosphere C. Oceanic crust
B. Lithosphere D. Terrane

7. What is formed by two tectonic plates moving away from each other?
A. Convergent boundary C. Fracture
B. Divergent boundary D. Transform plate boundary

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8. In what region along lithospheric plate boundaries is one plate pushed under another?
A. Convergent boundary C. Subduction zone
B. Rift valley D. Transform fault boundary

9. Which type of stress squeezes rocks together?

A. Compression C. Shearing
B. Faulting D. Tension

10. What happens when rocks are subjected to high pressure and high temperature?
A. Adjust C. Fracture
B. Deform D. Plateau

11. Forces acting on the crust have produced cracks, or breaks, in rocks. Which type of break exists when there
is no movement in the rocks along either side of a crack?
A. Fold C. Hanging wall
B. Fracture D. Normal fault

12. Which characteristic of an earthquake causes the most damage?

A. Deep epicenter C. Intermediate focus
B. Deep focus D. Shallow focus

13. In which medium/media can P waves travel?

A. solids only C. solids and liquids only
B. liquids and gases only D. solids, liquids, and gases

14. Which aspect of an earthquake is expressed by the Richter scale?

A. Intensity C. Magnitude
B. Location D. Speed

15. What type of lava is associated with explosive volcanic eruptions?

A. Felsic C. Pahoehoe
B. Mafic D. Tephra

16. What is the depression that results when a volcanic cone collapses into an empty magma chamber?
A. Caldera C. Fissure
B. Crater D. Vent

17. Before an eruption, the upward movement of magma beneath push out the surface. What may happen to the
sloping surface of the volcano?
A. Bulges C. Gets darker
B. Caves in D. Melts

18. Which of the following gives intrusive igneous rocks a coarse grained texture?
A. Large crystals C. Heavy elements
B. Small crystals D. Fragments of different shapes and sizes

19. Which of the following is an example of an igneous extrusion?

A. Batholith C. Lava plateau
B. Dike D. Stock

20. Which of the following is an example of a chemical sedimentary rock?

A. Breccia C. Evaporite
B. Coal D. Gneiss

21. Which of the following increases the surface area of rocks exposed to weathering?
A. Burial C. Leaching
B. Joints D. Quartz grains

22. Where does chemical weathering occur most rapidly?

A. cold, dry climates C. hot, dry climates
B. cold, wet climates D. hot, wet climates

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23. What is the transport of weathered materials by a moving natural agent called?
A. Erosion C. Soil creep
B. Mass wasting D. Weathering

24. Which is the most effective of all mass movements?

A. Landslide C. Rockfall
B. Mudflow D. Soil creep

25. Which mineral group contains metals, silicon, and oxygen?

A. Silicate minerals C. Sulfide minerals
B. Sulfate minerals D. Ores

PART III – ENHANCING TEST TAKING SKILLS

1. A rock is hard, crystalline, and dense. Its crystals are large and arranged in alternating light and dark colored
layers. It contains no fossils. What type of rock is most likely being described?
A. clastic sedimentary rock C. foliated metamorphic rock
B. extrusive igneous rock D. nonfoliated metamorphic rock

2. Which of the following is an example of an igneous rock?

A. Gneiss C. Marble
B. Granite D. Sandstone

3. Which clastic sedimentary rock is formed by the cementation of pebbles, gravel, and sand?
A. Conglomerate C. Sandstone
B. Rock gypsum D. Shale

4. Which layer makes up most of the Earth's mass and volume?

A. Core C. Magma
B. Crust D. Mantle

5. Which elements make up most of the Earth's crust?

A. copper and nickel C. iron and silicon
B. iron and nickel D. oxygen and silicon

6. How does oceanic crust compare with continental crust?

A. oceanic crust is granitic C. thicker than continental crust
B. as thick as continental crust D. thinner than continental crust

7. Which of the following is the wearing away of rocks by solid particles carried by wind, water, and other
forces?
A. Abrasion C. Joint sheeting
B. Exfoliation D. Root-pry

8. Which agent causes most of the chemical weathering?

A. Air pollution C. Sulfuric acid
B. Nitrates D. Water

9. What term refers to the size of individual soil particles?

A. Horizon C. Profile
B. Porosity D. Texture

10. Which landscape region has the lowest overall elevation?

A. Coastal plain C. Mountain belt
B. Interior plain D. Plateau

11. What are the large areas of very old, exposed rock that form the core of each continent?
A. Cratons C. Meridians
B. Icecaps D. Shields

12. What is the process by which sediments are laid down in new locations?
A. Abrasion C. Erosion
B. Deposition D. Transportation
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13. Which are two examples of rapid mass wasting?

A. earthflows and landslides C. landslides and slump
B. earthflows and soil creep D. slump and soil creep

14. What type of stress pulls rocks apart?

A. Compression C. Tension
B. Shearing D. Torsion

15. In which type of fault do blocks move horizontally past one another?
A. Lateral C. Reverse
B. Normal D. Thrust

16. What kind of valley is formed when the block of land between two normal faults slides downward?
A. Anticline C. Horst
B. Graben D. Syncline

17. What is the balancing of floating crystal rock on the denser mantle called?
A. Buoyancy C. Isostasy
B. Drift D. Suspension

18. Which is the most common cause of earthquakes?

A. Faulting C. Seismic waves
B. Folding D. Tsunamis

19. Where does the most violent shaking during an earthquake occur?
A. Epicenter C. Hypocenter
B. Focus D. Ring of Fire

20. Which seismic wave causes most of the damage during an earthquake?
A. L C. S
B. P D. V

21. What is the smallest pyroclastic material blown into the air during a volcanic eruption?
A. Volcanic ash C. Volcanic cinder
B. Volcanic bomb D. Volcanic dust

22. In which process does the ocean floor plunge back into the Earth's interior?
A. Convection C. Deformation
B. Convergence D. Subduction

23. What theory is used to explain the formation of the Earth's crust and its movements, collision, and
destruction?
A. Continental drift C. Plate tectonics
B. Magnetic stripes D. Sea-floor spreading

24. What is created by the collision between two oceanic plates?

A. Convection currents C. Mountain belts
B. Island arcs D. Rift valleys

25. According to current ideas, to which landmass was South America originally connected to?
A. Africa C. Eurasia
B. Australia D. India

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