2ND GRADING PROJECT

ADVANCED CHEMISTRY

KAYLA DENIZE GERARDINO OF GRADE 10-SSC

THE DIFFERENT FUNCTIONAL GROUPS

By: GERARDINO, Kayla Denize of Grade 10-SSC (Newton)

THE DIFFERENT FUNCTIONAL GROUPS IN ORGANIC CHEMISTRY:
Acid Anhydride, Alcohols, Aldehydes, Alkyl Halides, Amines, Amino,
Arenes, Carboxylic Acids, Ethers, Esters, Hydroxyl, Ketones, Methyl, and
Phosphate
 ACID ANHYDRIDE

What is Acid Anhydride?

Anhydride means ‘without water. It can be defined as a chemical compound formed by
eliminating water from another compound. Anhydride reacts with water to produce
either base or an acid.

In organic chemistry, it is a functional group

consisting of 2 acyl groups combined by an
oxygen atom. The non-metals which are
capable of reacting with water are only called
Acid anhydrides and non-metals that do not
react with water are not acids anhydrides.
In the case of organic chemistry, acid
anhydrides are formed from the dehydration of
two carboxylic acid groups.

ACID ANHYDRIDES – FAQs

ARE ACID ANHYDRIDES REACTIVE? ARE ACID ANHYDRIDES

ALWAYS SYMMETRICAL?
Acid anhydrides are formed from the
dehydration reaction of two classes of Acid anhydrides are
carboxylic acids, as their name suggests. derivatives of carboxylic
Anhydrides are highly reactive to nucleophiles acids, as the name suggests.
and are capable of acylation a variety of They may be symmetric in
proteins and other macromolecules that are theory (where the two groups
important functional groups. of R are identical) or
asymmetric (where the two
groups of R are different). Di
carboxylic acid-derived cyclic
WHY ARE ACID ANHYDRIDES REACTIVE? anhydrides are known as -di-
Anhydrides are less stable because the electron oic anhydrides.
donation to one carbonyl group competes with
the electron donation to the second carbonyl
group. Thus, compared with esters, where only ARE AMIDES MORE
one carbonyl group has to balance the oxygen REACTIVE THAN
atom, anhydrides are more reactive than esters. KETONES?
Amides can also be
hydrolyzed in an acidic state.
HOW ARE ACID ANHYDRIDES FORMED? In this case, amide O is first
protonated, followed by
A compound that has two acyl groups (R-C=O)
water’s nucleophilic attack on
bound to the same oxygen atom is an acid
carbon. There is no amide-
anhydride. Anhydrides are typically formed in
like resonance in the case of
the presence of a base when carboxylic acid
ketone, and a nucleophile will
reacts with acid chloride.
strike its C of C=O.
Examples of Acid Anhydrides
 PROPERTIES AND REACTIVITY OF ACID ANHYDRIDES:
Appearance, Water Solubility, and Boiling Point; Nucleophilic Substitution Reaction

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF ACID CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF ACID

ANHYDRIDES ANHYDRIDES

1) APPEARANCE NUCLEOPHILIC SUBSTITUTION

The odor is produced when acetic
anhydride combines with water
vapor in the air and moisture in the
nose to reform acetic acid. This
reaction with water is described in
detail on another page.
2) WATER SOLUBILITY
Aqueous solutions of acetic
anhydride do not exist.
REACTION
By changing the -OCOR group, the acid
anhydride undergoes a nucleophilic
substitution reaction. The higher
electronegativity of the Cl atom compared
to the -OCOR group makes it less
reactive than the acid chloride.

3) BOILING POINT
Absolute ethanol boils at 140 °C.
They are rather large polar
molecules with inter-dipole and
van der Waals dispersion forces.
However, it does not form
hydrogen bonds. This indicates a
lower boiling point than a
comparably sized carboxylic acid.

REACTIVITY OF ACID ANHYDRIDES

The bottom red group is never broken in

the ethanoic anhydride reaction. Like the
chlorine atom in acyl chloride, it looks like
a single atom in many ways. Acyl
chlorides often react by replacing chlorine
with another substance.
Using ethanoyl chloride as an example, the first reaction would be:

Gaseous hydrogen chloride is produced, which may later react with other components
of the combination. An anhydride slows down the reaction, but the main difference is
that acetic acid is formed as a by-product instead of hydrogen chloride.
 ALCOHOLS

What is Alcohol?
Alcohol is an organic compound that contains one or more hydroxyl (−OH) groups. The
general formula for alcohol is R−OH. Do not confuse alcohols with inorganic bases that
contain the hydroxide ion (OH−). The –OH group in alcohol is covalently bonded to a
carbon atom and does not ionize in solution.

The following are the steps for naming alcohol:

1) Name the parent compound by finding the longest continuous carbon atom chain
that also contains the hydroxyl group. If there is one hydroxyl group in the
molecule, change the final –e in the name of the alkane to –ol. If there is more
than one hydroxyl group, use the full name of the alkane and add a suffix to
indicate the number of hydroxyl groups. For example, two hydroxyl groups are –
diol, three are –triol, etc.
2) Number the carbon chain in a way that makes the sum of hydroxyl numbers as
low as possible.

3) Add the numerical prefix into the name before the name of the alcohol

4) Separate numbers with commas and separate numbers from names or prefixes
with a hyphen. There are no spaces in the name.

Examples of Alcohols
 THE TWO CLASSIFICATIONS OF ALCOHOL:
Aliphatic and Aromatic Functional Groups
ALIPHATIC ALCOHOLS
Aliphatic compounds are those
hydrocarbons that have both open and
closed chains. They can be saturated or
unsaturated, and the system can be an
open or closed chain.
Image. Molecular Structures of Five
Different Aliphatic Alcohols. Source
ALKANES, ALKENES, AND ALKYNES
There are three classifications of Aliphatic used in the production of flavorings,
Alcohols that are based on the numeric
description of the bonds between them,
namely, Alkanes, Alkenes, and Alkynes.
1) Alkanes (Single Bonds)
AROMATIC ALCOHOLS
Aromatic compounds have a single
closed-chain structure.
They are distinct classes of unsaturated
hydrocarbons based on the six carbon
moieties known as benzene.
They are also known as arenes or
aromatics, and the compounds have a
conjugated planar ring system that is
accompanied by a delocalized pi -
electron that alternates between double
and single bonds.
The aromaticity of the compound is
determined using Huckel's rule, which
states that the compound must be a
closed ring with delocalization of pi -
electrons and must follow the 4n+2 rule.
Image. Huckel’s Rule: Definition,
Formula, and Examples. Source
Aromatic alcohols have limited industrial
application. Because of their pleasant
odor, phenylethanols, for example, are
soaps, perfumes, and other products.
There are currently no limit values for
tolerable concentrations of these
substances in the air of such workplaces
The additional functional group
that contains only carbon and hydrogen is
an aromatic ring which is a six-carbon
ring with alternative double bonds. The
aromatic ring is also shown as a ring with
a circle in the middle representing the
double bonds.
 2) Alkenes (Double Bonds) Aromatic compounds are also known as
"mono- and polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons”.

3) Alkynes (Triple Bonds)

Image. Chemical Structure of Benzene –
an Example of an Aromatic Alcohol.
Source

Examples of Aliphatic Compounds: Examples of Aromatic Compounds:

Methane Benzene
Propane Toluene
Butane • Tryptophol.
Glycerol • Tyrosol.
• Ethyl alcohol • Phenethyl alcohol (Phenylethanol)

THE STRUCTURAL DIFFERENCES OF ALCOHOL:

Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary Alcohols

The classification is done in accordance with the carbon atom of an alkyl group attached to the
hydroxyl group. Chemical behavior and oxidation often vary on their structural type.

Most of the alcohols are known to be colorless liquids or even are said to behave as solid at
room temperatures. Alcohols with less molecular weight are said to be highly soluble in water;
and with their increase in molecular weight, they tend to become less soluble and their vapor
pressures, boiling points, densities, and viscosities increase.
 ALDEHYDES

What is an Aldehyde?
An aldehyde is an organic compound in which the carbonyl group
is attached to a carbon atom at the end of a carbon chain. The
figure shown is the general formula for aldehydes.

Nomenclature of Aldehydes

There are two general ways of naming aldehydes.

INTERNATIONAL UNION OF PURE AND THE COMMON NOMENCLATURE FOR

APPLIED CHEMISTRY (IUPAC) ALDEHYDES

The first method is based on the system
used by the International Union of Pure
and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) and is
often referred to as systematic
nomenclature.
This method assumes the longest chain
of carbon atoms that contains the
carbonyl group as the parent alkane.
The aldehyde is shown by changing the
suffix -e to -al. Because the carbonyl
group of an aldehyde can only be on the
end of the parent chain and, therefore,
must be carbon 1, there is no need to use
a number to locate it.
The other method of nomenclature for
aldehydes, referred to as common
nomenclature, is to name them after the
common name of the corresponding
carboxylic acid; i.e., the carboxylic acid
with the same structure as the aldehyde
except that ―COOH appears instead of
―CHO.
The acids are usually given a name
ending in -ic acid. Aldehydes are given
the same name but with the suffix -ic acid
replaced by -aldehyde. Two examples
are formaldehyde and benzaldehyde.

In the compound named 4-

methylpentanal, the longest carbon chain
contains five carbon atoms, and so the
parent name is pentane; the suffix -al is
added to indicate the presence of the
aldehyde group, and the chain is
numbered beginning at the carbonyl
group.

The methyl group is given the number 4,

because it is bonded to the fourth carbon
of the chain.

(Aldehyde. Chemical Compounds. The

chemical formula for 4-methylpentanal)
 Examples of Aldehydes

USES OF ALDEHYDES
Hundreds of individual aldehydes are used by chemists daily to synthesize other
compounds, but they are less important in industrial synthesis (that is, the production of
compounds on a scale of tons). Only one aldehyde, formaldehyde, is used to a
significant degree in industry worldwide, as determined by the number of tons of the
chemical utilized per year.

Formaldehyde
Formaldehyde (made predominantly by the
oxidation of methanol) is a gas but is generally
handled as a 37 percent solution in water, called
formalin. It is used in tanning, preserving, and
embalming and as a germicide, fungicide, and
insecticide for plants and vegetables, but its
largest application is in the production of certain
polymeric materials.
The plastic Bakelite is made by a reaction
between formaldehyde and phenol. It is not a linear chain but has a three dimensional
structure. Similar three-dimensional polymers are made from formaldehyde and the
compounds urea and melamine.
These polymers are used not only as plastics but even more importantly as adhesives
and coatings. Plywood consists of thin sheets of wood glued together by one of these
polymers. In addition to Bakelite, the trade names Formica and Melmac are used for
some of the polymers made from formaldehyde.
Other Carbonyl Compounds of Industrial Use

Other aldehydes of
industrial significance are
mainly used as solvents,
perfumes, and flavouring
agents or as
intermediates in the
manufacture of plastics,
dyes, and
pharmaceuticals.
Certain aldehydes occur
naturally in flavouring
agents. Among these are
benzaldehyde, which provides the odour and flavour of fresh almonds; cinnamaldehyde,
or oil of cinnamon; and vanillin, the main flavouring agent of vanilla beans.

THE PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF ALDEHYDES:

Physical State, Tautomerism, Boiling Point, and Dipole Moment; Nucleophilic Addition,
Reactivity, Reaction with Hydrogen Cyanide, Addition of Sodium Hydrogen Sulphite,
Addition of Alcohol, Addition of Ammonia and its Derivatives, and Reduction.

The only structural difference between hydrocarbons and aldehydes is the presence in
the latter of the carbonyl group, and it is this group that is responsible for the differences
in properties, both physical and chemical.
The differences arise because the carbonyl group is inherently polar—that is, the
electrons that make up the C=O bond are drawn closer to the oxygen than to the carbon.
This gives the oxygen a partial negative charge and the carbon a partial positive charge.
The polarity of a carbonyl group is often represented using the Greek letter delta (δ) to
indicate a partial charge (that is, a charge less than one).

Aldehyde. The polarity of a carbonyl group is represented

using the Greek letter delta to indicate a particle charge.

The negative end of one polar molecule is attracted to the

positive end of another polar molecule, which may be a
molecule either of the same substance or of a different
substance.
 PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF ALDEHYDES
Aldehydes are a class of chemical compounds that are easily oxidized by the
environment. The ease with which they oxidize aids in their identification.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF
ALDEHYDES
1) PHYSICAL STATE
1) NUCLEOPHILIC ADDITION
In its gaseous state at ambient
temperature, formaldehyde,
while acetaldehyde is a volatile
liquid, are two different
chemicals. Therefore, C11 and
below are colourless liquids,
while C12 and higher are
solids. All other aldehydes and
ketones are colourless liquids.
2) TAUTOMERISM
An aldehyde’s oxygen atom
can migrate to the carbonyl
group’s hydrogen atom if it has
at least one hydrogen atom on
the carbon atom next to it,
termed the alpha () carbon.
Afterwards, the double bond
moves toward the carbon.
Tautomers are two isomeric
forms of carbonyl compounds
having a -hydrogen. There are
two distinct forms of ketosis,
with the hydrogen connected to
the -carbon and the carbonyl
oxygen linked by the migration
of the double bond.
2) REACTIVITY
3) BOILING POINT
Because they are non-polar
chemicals, ketone and
aldehyde boiling points are
greater than those of the other
non-polar compounds.
Although the boiling
temperatures of ketones and
aldehydes are lower than those
of the equivalent carboxylic
acids and alcohols, this is due
to the fact that they do not form
hydrogen bonds with one
another.
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF
ALDEHYDES
Nucleophilic addition reactions are
a type of chemical reaction in
which two nucleophiles combine to
form a nucleophile.
The following mechanisms
characterise the nucleophilic
addition reactions:
In the polar carbonyl group, a
nucleophile contacts the
electrophilic carbon atom from a
direction that is essentially
perpendicular to the plane of the
sp2 hybridised orbitals of the polar
carbonyl group.
A tetrahedral alkoxide intermediate
is formed due to the hybridisation
of carbon, which shifts from sp2 to
sp3 in this reaction.
A proton is captured by this
intermediate and transferred to the
reaction medium, yielding the
electrically neutral product. You
get a net outcome when you put
Nu– and H+ together across the
carbon-oxygen double bond.
Reactivity includes steric and
electronic differences, making
aldehydes more reactive than
ketones in nucleophilic addition
processes.
In addition, because ketones have
two relatively large substituents,
the approach of a nucleophile to
carbonyl carbon is more difficult in
ketones than in aldehydes, which
contain only one of these
substituents.
4) DIPOLE MOMENT
A double bond exists between
carbon and oxygen in the
carbonyl group of aldehydes
and ketones. In addition,
because oxygen has a higher
electronegative charge than
carbon, it draws the shared pair
of electrons, making the
carbonyl group more reactive
and polar. As a result,
aldehydes and ketones have
strong dipole moments.
5) SOLUBILITY
Hydrogen bonding makes it
possible for the lower members
of the ketones and aldehydes
to be soluble in water, and this
is especially true for those with
up to four carbons in their
structure. However, their higher
members do not dissolve in
water due to the high
concentration of hydrocarbons
in the solution, which prevents
the formation of H-bonds with
the water molecules in the
solution. In addition, there are
dipole-dipole interactions and
dispersive forces between the
water molecules and the
aldehydes and ketones.
3) REACTION WITH HYDROGEN
CYANIDE
Aldehydes and ketones react with
hydrogen cyanide (HCN) to
produce cyanohydrins, a type of
cyanide compound. In the
presence of pure HCN, this
reaction takes place very slowly.
Therefore, a base catalyses it, and
the cyanide ion (CN–), a stronger
nucleophile than carbonyl
compounds, quickly reacts with
them to produce the appropriate
cyanohydrin. A class of synthetic
intermediates known as
cyanohydrins exists.
4) ADDITION OF SODIUM
HYDROGEN SULPHITE
Sodium hydrogen sulfite reacts
with aldehydes and ketones to
create the compounds known as
additional products.
5) ADDITION OF ALCOHOL
When combined with monohydric
alcohol in the presence of dry HCl,
Aldehydes generate hemiacetal,
which, when combined with one
additional molecule of alcohol,
transforms into acetal.
6) ADDITION OF AMMONIA AND
ITS DERIVATIVES
Adding ammonia and its
derivatives to aldehydes and
ketones: Nucleophiles such as
ammonia and its derivatives H2N-
Z react with the carbonyl group of
aldehydes and ketones to form a
bond.
 Z can be any of the following: alkyl,
aryl, OH, NH2, C6H5NH,
NHCONH2, or any other
combination.

7) REDUCTION

When aldehydes and ketones

react with sodium borohydride
(NaBH4) or lithium aluminium
hydroxide, they form primary and
secondary alcohols, respectively
(LiAlH4).
 ALKYL HALIDES

What are Alkyl Halides?

Alkyl halides are compounds formed by replacing one or more hydrogen atoms in an
alkane with a halogen atom. Chloromethane is an example.

Introduction to Alkyl Halides

Haloalkanes are another name for alkyl halides. Alkyl halides
are compounds formed by replacing one or more hydrogen
atoms in an alkane with halogen atoms (fluorine, chlorine,
bromine, or iodine).
Alkyl halides are classified according to how the halogen atom is
positioned on the carbon atom chain. Primary, secondary, and
tertiary alkyl halides are the three types of alkyl halides.
Alkyl halide classifications are frequently used to help discern
patterns and trends in the chemical reactivity of alkyl halides.
Because halogens have a neutral bonding pattern of one
bond and three lone pairs, carbon and halogen always share
a single bond.

Common Names of Alkyl Halides

Many organic compounds are related to alkanes, and this similarity is reflected in many
common names. Alkane reactions with halogens result in halogenated hydrocarbons,
which are compounds in which one or more hydrogen atoms of a hydrocarbon have
been replaced by halogen atoms: replacing only one hydrogen atom results in an alkyl
halide (haloalkane). The common names of alkyl halides are made up of two parts: the
name of the alkyl group and the stem of the halogen's name, followed by the suffix -ide.
 THE THREE CLASSIFICATIONS OF ALKYL HALIDES
Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary Alkyl Halides

PRIMARY ALKYL SECONDARY ALKYL TERTIARY ALKYL

HALIDES HALIDES HALIDES

In a primary (1°) In a secondary (2°) In a tertiary (3°)

haloalkane, the carbon
bonded to the halogen
atom is only attached to
one other alkyl group.
haloalkane, the carbon
bonded with the halogen
atom is joined directly to
two other alkyl groups that
can be the same or
different.
halogenoalkane, the
carbon atom holding the
halogen is attached
directly to three alkyl
groups, which may be any
combination of same or
different.

Example: Example: Example:

PROPERTIES AND CHARACTERISTICS OF ALKYL HALIDES

1) ALKYL HALIDES HAVE HIGHER BOILING POINTS THAN ALKANES

When we compare the boiling points of alkanes and haloalkanes, we can see
that haloalkanes have higher boiling points than alkanes with the same number
of carbons. The first of two types of forces that contribute to this physical property
is London dispersion forces. London dispersion forces increase with molecular
surface area, as you may recall from general chemistry. When haloalkanes are
compared to alkanes, the surface area of haloalkanes increases due to the
substitution of a halogen for hydrogen. Increased surface area causes an
increase in London dispersion forces, which leads to a higher boiling point.

2) SOLUBILITY OF ALKYL HALIDES

a. Solubility in Water
Despite the polar carbon-halogen bond, alkyl halides have little to no water
solubility. The attraction between the molecules of alkyl halide is stronger
than the attraction between the molecules of alkyl halide and water. Alkyl
halides have little to no solubility in water, but keep density in mind.
Dichloromethane and other polyhalogenated alkanes can have densities
greater than water.

b. Solubility in Organic Solvents

Alkyl halides are soluble in most organic solvents. The London Dispersion
forces play a dominant role in solubility.
 AMINES

What are Amines?

Amines are organic compounds that can be considered ammonia derivatives (NH3). An
amine's general structure can be abbreviated as RNH2, where R is a carbon chain.
Amines, like alcohols, can be classified as primary, secondary, or tertiary.
The following are the steps in naming Amines, based on the International Union of Pure
and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC):
1) Name the alkyl groups that are attached to the amine's nitrogen atom. If there are
more than one alkyl group, arrange them alphabetically. Use the di or tri prefix if
there are two or three of the same alkyl group.
2) With no spaces, follow the alkyl group name with the suffix -amine.

Examples of Amines
 AMINO

What is an Amino Functional Group?

The amino group serves as a functional group in many
biological systems. A nitrogen atom is bonded to two hydrogen
atoms to form an amino group. An amine is a molecule that
contains an amino functional group. The image shown is the
general structure for amino.
Amino groups are also known as amine groups at times. A
subcategory of amine is amino. Amine refers to any nitrogen-containing group with a
lone pair. Nitrogen with a lone pair and at least two hydrogens bonded to it is referred to
as an amino group. A primary amine is also an amino group. The term "primary" refers
to having only one non-hydrogen bond.

NOMENCLATURE OF AMINO
In IUPAC naming conventions the amino functional group is referred to using ‘-amino’.
The group is referred to similar to other functional groups. That is, the position is labeled
with a number followed by ‘-amino’. If there is more than one amino group then a prefix
such as ‘di’ may be added to the amino.

In some other naming conventions, ‘-amine’ refers to the amino group.

Here are several examples of molecules and their name.

Ammonia NH3:

1-aminobutane: 2-amino-2-methylbutane:

Examples of Amino Groups

 REACTIVITY OF AMINO GROUPS:
Gabriel Amine Synthesis, Hofmann Rearrangement, Curtius Rearrangement, and
Hoffman Elimination

NAMED REACTIONS DEFINITION

1) Gabriel Amine Synthesis Used to form a primary amine from alkyl halides

2) Hofmann Rearrangement Forms a primary amino group with the loss of

one carbon starting from a carboxylic acid
derivative

3) Curtius Rearrangement This reaction mechanism is similar to the

Hofmass rearrangement but reacts with an acyl
azide.

4) Hoffman Elimination This reaction converts an amino group to an

alkene. The amino group is methylated to make
it a better-leaving group and then heated with
silver oxide to complete the reaction.

Amino Group vs Carboxyl Group

Amino groups and carboxyl groups are the

two main functional groups in amino
acids. They also have a similar structure in
some ways.

Carboxyl and amino groups are often

grouped in the mind because they are both
critical parts of amino acids. And between
two amino acids they react to form a
peptide bond.

Amino Acids
Amino acids are the basic building blocks of proteins. There are 20 common amino
acids. Amino acids connect to form peptide bonds through a reaction between the
amino group and the carboxyl group. The amino functional group is therefore critical to
building all the proteins that makeup life on earth.

Peptide bond formation reacts an amino group with a carboxylic acid to form a peptide
bond and water.
 ARENES

What are Arenes?

Arenes are aromatic hydrocarbons. The term "aromatic" originally referred to their
pleasant smells (e.g., from cinnamon bark, wintergreen leaves, vanilla beans, and anise
seeds), but now implies a particular sort of delocalized bonding. Aromatic hydrocarbons
(sometimes called arenes or aryl hydrocarbons) are hydrocarbons with sigma bonds
and delocalized ππ electrons between carbon atoms forming rings.

NOMENCLATURE OF BENZENE-DERIVED COMPOUNDS

Benzene, C6H6, is an organic aromatic compound with many interesting properties.
Unlike aliphatic (straight chain carbons) or other cyclic organic compounds, the
structure of benzene (3 conjugated π bonds) allows benzene and its derived products to
be useful in fields such as health, laboratory, and other applications such as rubber
synthesis.
Benzene-derived products are well known to be pleasantly fragrant. For this reason,
organic compounds containing benzene rings were classified as being "aromatic"
(sweet smelling) amongst scientists in the early 19th century when a relation was
established between benzene-derived compounds and sweet/spicy fragrances.
Unlike aliphatic organics, the nomenclature of benzene-derived compounds can be
confusing because a single aromatic compound can have multiple possible names
(such as common and systematic names) be associated with its structure. In these
sections, we will analyze some of the ways these compounds can be named.

Some common substituents, like NO2, Br, and Cl, can be named this way when it is
attached to a phenyl group. Long chain carbons attached can also be named this way.
The general format for this kind of naming is:
(positions of substituents (if >1)- + # (di, tri, ...) + substituent)n + benzene.

For example, chlorine (Cl) attached to a phenyl group would be named chlorobenzene
(chloro + benzene). Since there is only one substituent on the benzene ring, we do not
have to indicate its position on the benzene ring (as it can freely rotate around and you
would end up getting the same compound.)
Examples of Arenes
 Properties of Arenes
BOILING POINTS
In benzene, the only attractions
between the neighbouing molecules
are the van der Waals dispersion
forces. There is no permanent dipole
on the molecule. Benzene boils at
80°C, which is higher than other
hydrocarbons of similar molecular size
(pentane and hexane, for example).
The higher boiling point is presumably
due to the ease with which temporary
dipoles can be set up involving the
delocalized electrons.
Methylbenzene boils at 111°C.
Methylbenzene is a larger molecule,
thus, the van der Waals dispersion
forces will be increased.
Methylbenzene also has a small
permanent dipole; thus, there will be
dipole-dipole attractions as well as
dispersion forces. The dipole is due to
the CH3 group's tendency to "push"
electrons away from itself. This also
affects the reactivity of methylbenzene
SOLUBILITY IN WATER
The arenes are insoluble in water.
Benzene is quite large compared with
a water molecule. For benzene to
dissolve, it would have to break a
significant number of the existing
hydrogen bonds between the water
molecules. In addition, the quite strong
van der Waals dispersion forces
between the benzene molecules would
require breaking; both of these
processes require energy. The only
new forces between the benzene and
the water would be van der Waals
dispersion forces. These forces are not
as strong as hydrogen bonds (or the
original dispersion forces in the
benzene), therefore, only a limited
amount of energy is released when
they form. It simply isn't energetically
profitable for benzene to dissolve in
water. It would, of course, be even
worse for larger arene molecules.
MELTING POINTS
It is often expected that
methylbenzene's melting point would
be higher than benzene's as well, but it
isn't as it is much lower. Benzene melts
at 5.5°C; methylbenzene at -95°C.
Molecules must pack efficiently in the
solid if they are to optimize their
intermolecular forces. Benzene is a
tidy, symmetrical molecule and packs
very efficiently. The methyl group that
protrudes from the methylbenzene
structure tends to disrupt the closeness
of the packing. If the molecules are not
as closely packed, the intermolecular
forces don't work as well, causing the
melting point to decrease.
REACTIVITY
Benzene is resistant to addition
reactions. Adding something new to
the ring would require that some of the
delocalized electrons form bonds with
the substituent being added, resulting
in a major loss of stability because the
delocalization is broken.
Instead, benzene primarily undergoes
substitution reactions - replacing one or
more of the hydrogen atoms with a
new substituent, preserving the
delocalized electrons as they were.
The reactivity of a compound like
methylbenzene must be considered in
two distinct parts:
Alkyl groups attached to a benzene ring
are oxidized by alkaline potassium
manganate(VII) solution. This oxidation
does not occur in the absence of the
benzene ring.
 CARBOXYLIC ACIDS

What are Carboxylic Acids?

An organic compound with a carboxyl functional group is known as a carboxylic acid.
They are abundant in nature and are also synthesized by humans. Carboxylic acids
deprotonate to form a carboxylate anion with the general formula R-COO-, which can
form a variety of useful salts such as soaps.
Carboxylic acids are the most important functional group in C=O. This type of organic
compound can be obtained through various routes; for example, some carboxylic acids,
such as citric acid, lactic acid, or fumaric acid, are produced through fermentation; the
majority of these carboxylic acids are used in the food industry.

Nomenclature of Carboxylic Acids

Generally, these organic compounds are referred to by their trivial names, which contain
the suffix "-ic acid". Acetic acid is an example of a common name for carboxylic acid
(CH3COOH). The suffix "-oic acid" is assigned to these compounds in the IUPAC
nomenclature.
The following are the steps for naming Carboxylic Acids, based on the International
Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry:
1) The suffix “e” in the name of the corresponding alkane is replaced with “oic acid”.
2) When the aliphatic chain contains only one carboxyl group, the carboxylic carbon
is always numbered one. For example, CH3COOH is named as ethanoic acid.
3) When the aliphatic chain contains more than one carboxyl group, the total
number of carbon atoms is counted and the number of carboxyl groups is
represented by Greek numeral prefixes such as “di-”, “tri-“, etc.
4) A carboxylic acid is named by adding these prefixes and suffixes to the parent
alkyl chain. Arabic numerals are used for indicating the positions of the carboxyl
group.
5) The name “carboxylic acid” or “carboxy” can also be assigned for a carboxyl
substituent on a carbon chain. An example of such nomenclature is the name 2-
carboxyfuran for the compound 2-Furoic acid.

Examples of Carboxylic Acids

 ETHERS

What are Ethers?

Ether is an organic compound in which two hydrocarbon groups are bonded to the
same atom of oxygen. An ether is represented by the general formula R−O−R’. The R’
in the formula means that the hydrocarbon group can be the same as R or it can be
different.
Nomenclature of Ethers
The following are the steps in naming Ethers:
1) The parent compound is given by the word ether, which appears at the end of the
name.

2) The names of each alkyl group come before the word ether. If the two
alkyl groups are the same, the prefix –di is used. If the two alkyl groups are
different, they are listed in alphabetical order.
3) Spaces are left between the names of the alkyl groups (if different) and before
the word ether.

Examples of Ethers
 THE CLASSIFICATIONS OF ETHERS:
Symmetrical and Asymmetrical Ethers; Aliphatic and Aromatic Ethers

SYMMETRICAL AND ASYMMETRICAL CLASSIFICATION OF ETHERS

Ethers are generally classified into two categories on the basis of the substituent
groups attached: symmetrical and asymmetrical. Symmetrical ethers are when two
identical groups are attached to the oxygen atom. Asymmetrical ethers, on the other
hand, are when two different groups are attached to the oxygen atom.

SYMMETRICAL ETHER ASYMMETRICAL ETHER

ALIPHATIC AND AROMATIC CLASSIFICATION OF ETHERS

ALIPHATIC ETHERS AROMATIC ETHERS

1) Low molecular weight aliphatic 1) They are water-insoluble.

ethers are water-soluble.

2) They have low boiling points. 2) They have high boiling points.

3) Substitution of H atoms is not 3) They can undergo electrophilic

observed. aromatic substitution.

EXAMPLE OF ALIPHATIC ETHER EXAMPLE OF AROMATIC ETHER

 PROPERTIES OF ETHERS:
Physical and Chemical Properties
Ethers exhibit a wide range of physical and chemical properties. The following are
specific and definite properties of ethers.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF ETHERS
1) BOILING POINTS
The C - O bonds in ether are polar
and thus ethers have a net dipole
moment.
Ethers have much lower boiling
points as compared to isomeric
alcohols. This is because alcohol
molecules are associated with
hydrogen bonds while ether
molecules are not.
2) SOLUBILITY
Ethers containing up to 3 carbon
atoms are soluble in water, due to
their hydrogen bond formation with
water molecules.
The solubility decreases with
increase in the number of carbon
atoms. The relative increase in the
hydrocarbon portion of the
molecule decreases the tendency
of H-bond formation.
Ethers are appreciably soluble in
organic solvents like alcohol,
benzene, acetone etc.
3) STRUCTURE OF ETHERS
Ethers are a class of organic
compounds that contain an
sp3 hybridized oxygen between
two alkyl groups and have the
formula R-O-R'. these compounds
are used in dyes, perfumes, oils,
waxes and other industrial uses.
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF ETHERS
1) CLEAVAGE OF C-0 BOND
Ethers are generally very
unreactive in nature. When an
excess of hydrogen halide is
added to the ether, cleavage of C-
O bond takes place leading to the
formation of alkyl halides. The
order of reactivity is given as
HI>HBr>HCl
R-O-R + HX → RX + R-OH
2) ELECTROPHILIC SUBSTITUTION
The alkoxy group in ether activates
the aromatic ring at ortho and para
positions for electrophilic
substitution. Common electrophilic
substitution reactions are
halogenation, Friedel Craft’s
reaction etc.
3) HALOGENATION OF ETHERS
Aromatic ethers undergo
halogenation, for example,
bromination, upon the addition of
halogen in the presence or
absence of a catalyst.
4) FREIDEL CRAFT’S REACTION
OF ETHERS
Aromatic ethers undergo Friedel
Craft’s reaction for example
addition of alkyl or acyl group upon
the reaction with alkyl or acyl
halide in the presence of a Lewis
acid as catalyst.
 ESTERS

What are Esters?

Esters are organic compounds that are derivatives
of a carboxylic acid in which the hydrogen atom of
the hydroxyl group has been replaced with an alkyl
group. The structure is the product of a carboxylic
acid (the R-portion) and an alcohol (the R-portion).
Figure shown is the general formula for an Ester.

The R group can either be a hydrogen atom or a carbon chain. The R’ group must be a
carbon chain since a hydrogen atom would make the molecule a carboxylic acid.

The following are the steps in naming Esters:

1) Identify and name the alkyl group (R’) that has replaced the hydrogen of the
hydroxyl group. This is the first part of the ester name.
2) Name the carboxylic acid portion of the molecule (R-COO), but change the
ending of the name from –oic acid to –oate. This is the second part of the ester
name.
3) Leave a space between the alkyl group name and the name of the carboxylic
acid derivative.

Examples and Uses of Esters

 HYDROXYL

What are Hydroxyls?

Hydroxyl groups are simple structures composed of an oxygen atom bonded to two lone
pairs by a hydrogen atom. They are easily hydrogen bonded, producing either a net
positively or negatively charged ion. This group can also take part in chemical reactions
that connect molecules, forming chains of sugars or fatty acids. Many organic
compounds are converted into alcohols when a hydroxyl group is added, increasing
their water solubility.
One hydrogen atom is bonded to one oxygen atom to form
a hydroxyl group. Its chemical formula can be written as -
OH or HO-. The '-' denotes the carbon to which the
hydroxyl group is attached.
The R in the structural formula represents the organic
molecule's carbon backbone, to which the hydroxyl binds.
Ethanol is a hydroxyl-containing compound with a carbon backbone that makes up the
alcohol in many adult beverages.
Also spelled hydroxy, this functional group provides important functions to both alcohols
and carboxylic acids.

What are the Properties of Hydroxyl Functional Groups?

The hydroxyl group has hydrophilic properties. As the oxygen atom has higher
electronegativity, the electron pair from the water hydrogen atom is attracted to it,
creating a negative charge. This is also a polar group and enhances hydrogen bonding
in organic compounds.

Examples of Hydroxyls
 KETONES

What are Ketones?

A ketone is an organic compound in which the carbonyl group is
attached to a carbon atom within the carbon chain. The shown
figure is the general formula for ketones.
Ketones have significant physiological effects. As a result, they are found in a variety of
sugars and compounds used in medicine, including cortisol, an anti-inflammatory.
Acetone is a common ketone (CH3COCH3). Acetone is water soluble and can dissolve
a wide range of organic compounds. Because of its low boiling point of 56°C, it can be
removed from reactions by evaporation. It is frequently found in industrial solvents like
paint strippers and nail polish removers.

STRUCTURES OF KETONES
Ketones contain a carbonyl group, which is
covalently double-bonded to an oxygen atom. The
remaining two bonds are to other carbon atoms or
hydrocarbon radicals. R1 and R2 represent carbon
chains that are either identical or distinct.
The image shown is the basic structure of a
Ketone. The most basic molecular formula of a
ketone is RCOR due to its structure. Because the -
CO- group is attached to carbon atoms on both
sides, this is known as a Keto group.

NOMENCLATURE OF KETONES
For ketones, R and R’ must be carbon chains, of either the same or different lengths.
The following are the steps for naming ketones:
1) Name the parent compound by finding the longest continuous chain that contains
the carbonyl group. Change the –e at the end of the name of the alkane to –one.
2) Number the carbon atoms in the chain in a way that the carbonyl group has the
lowest possible number.
3) Add the numerical prefix into the name before the name of the ketone.
4) Use a hyphen between the number and the name of the ketone.

Carbonyls vs Ketones
It is critical to understand the distinction between carbonyl and ketone. Carbonyl groups
have a carbon atom with a double-bonded oxygen atom, whereas ketones have a
carbonyl group attached to an alkyl group. The main point is that carbonyl groups are
constituents of ketones, not the other way around.
 Aldehydes vs Ketones
The chemical composition
and molecular structure of
aldehydes and ketones are
similar. They are both
carbonyl functional groups.
The only difference is the
carbonyl carbon atoms.

Aldehydes are carbonyl compounds with an R group and a Hydrogen atom. An

aldehyde's R group can be either a hydrocarbon chain or a hydrogen. Ketones, on the
other hand, have R and R' substituents attached to the carbonyl carbon.
The following are five notable differences in addition to the structure:
1) GENERIC FORMS
Aldehydes have the generic form R-CHO, whereas ketones have the generic
form R-CO-R'.

2) CHEMICAL REACTIVITY
Aldehydes have a higher chemical reactivity than ketones. Ketones are difficult to
oxidize without breaking the carbon chain.

3) CARBONYL LOCATION
Because of the hydrogen attachment, the aldehyde functional group is at the end
of the carbon chain. The ketone functional group, on the other hand, is always
found in the middle of the carbon chain.

4) TYPICAL OCCURRENCE
Aldehydes are associated with volatile compounds, whereas ketones are
associated with sugars.

5) IUPAC NOMENCLATURE
The suffix "-al" is used for aldehydes, while the suffix "-one" is used for ketones.

Examples of Ketones
 REACTIVITY OF KETONES
Nucleophilic Reactions, Reduction Reactions, Oxidation Reactions, and Aldol
Condensation Reactions

1) Nucleophilic Reactions
Ketones are formed through nucleophilic addition reactions in which the electron-
rich nucleophile attacks the electron-deficient electrophiles. The carbon atom
within the carbonyl acts as the electrophile in ketones.

a. Addition of Cyanide
Cyanohydrins are formed when ketones react with HCN (hydrogen cyanide).
As a result, the CN- (strong nucleophile) compound reacts with the carbonyl
compound to form cyanohydrin.

b. Addition of Grignard Reagents

Ketones can also form alcohols when they react with Grignard reagents.
Nucleophilic addition is used by the Grignard reagent to add to the carbonyl
group. As a result, an adduct is formed, which is then converted into alcohol.
Tertiary alcohol is produced by the reaction with ketones.

2) Reduction Reaction
Ketones can go through reduction where there is a loss of oxygen and a gain of
hydrogen.

a. Reduction to Alcohols
Catalytic hydrogenation converts ketones to their corresponding alcohols. The
addition of hydrogen occurs in the presence of either catalysts (platinum,
nickel) or sodium borohydride (NaBH4). Ketones are converted into
secondary alcohols during this process.
 b. Wolff-Kishner Reduction Reaction
In Wolff-Kishner reduction, the carbonyl group in a ketone reduces to a CH2
group.

3) Oxidation Reaction
Ketones can undergo oxidation reactions but require strong oxidizing agents and
elevated temperatures. The oxidation consists of carbon-carbon bond cleavage
and forming a carboxylic acid.

4) Aldol Condensation Reaction

Ketones are able to undergo Aldol Condensation Reactions.

Uses of Ketones
 METHYL

What are Methyl Groups?

Methyl groups, which consist of a central carbon
atom bonded to three hydrogen atoms, are
extremely stable. Even in the presence of
extremely strong acids or bases, the functional
group is typically unreactive. Despite this stable
configuration, methyl groups can participate in
reactions that translocate the entire functional
group to another compound, a process known
as "methylation," which is important in
processes such as epigenetics, gene
expression, liver detoxification, and
neurotransmitter synthesis.
Despite their low reactivity, methyl groups have
a significant influence on their surroundings, affecting cellular functions. The formula of
the methyl group is –CH3. The image shown is the general structure of the methyl group.

BEHAVIOR, PROPERTIES, AND CLASSIFICATIONS OF A METHYL GROUP:

Non-Polar Covalent Bond and Hydrophobicity

The methyl group is frequently found in

larger organic compounds. For example,
in the diagram shown, it can be seen that
a methyl group is part of two different
organic structures.
Because of this attachment, the
presence of a methyl group in an organic
compound may influence how it behaves
in a solution or even in our bodies.

THE TWO CLASSIFICATIONS OF A METHYL GROUP

NON-POLAR COVALENT BOND HYDROPHOBICITY

A non-polar bond is a type of covalent The extreme dislike of water by an atom

bond that describes how two or more
atoms exchange electrons. Covalent
bonds are formed when atoms are willing
to share electrons with one another in
order to remain bonded.
A non-polar covalent bond is formed
when two atoms share an equal number
of electrons. When atoms form non-polar
covalent bonds, there is no electron
hogging.
or molecule is referred to as
hydrophobicity. When we look at the
nomenclature, or name, of this term, we
see that the prefix, hydro-, means 'water,'
and the suffix,phobic-, means 'fear.' A
molecule that is hydrophobic is classified
as non-polar in terms of non-polar
bonding. While these molecules enjoy
sharing electrons with one another, when
placed in a water-containing solution, the
process of sharing ceases.
 PHOSPHATE

What is a Phosphate?
Phosphate, chemical formula PO43-, is a chemical compound
made up of one phosphorus and four oxygen atoms. When it is
attached to a molecule containing carbon, it is called a
phosphate group. It is found in the genetic material DNA and
RNA and is also in molecules such as adenosine triphosphate
(ATP) that provide energy to cells.
Phosphates can form phospholipids, which make up the cell membrane. Phosphate is
also an important resource in ecosystems, especially in freshwater environments.

FUNCTIONS OF PHOSPHATE GROUPS:

Part of Nucleic Acids, Activating Proteins, Part of Energy Molecules, Part of
Phospholipids, Part of Buffer Cells, In Ecosystems, and In the Body

1) Part of Nucleic Acids

DNA and RNA, the genetic material of all living
things, are nucleic acids. They are made up of
nucleotides, which in turn are made up of a
nitrogenous base, a 5-carbon sugar, and a
phosphate group. The 5-carbon sugar and the
phosphate group of each nucleotide attach to
form the backbone of DNA and RNA. When
nucleotides are not attached to other
nucleotides to form part of DNA or RNA, two
more phosphate groups are attached.

2) Activating Proteins
Phosphate groups are necessary for protein
activation, which allows proteins to perform
specific functions in cells. Phosphorylation, or
the addition of a phosphate group, activates
proteins. Protein phosphorylation occurs in all
living things. Proteins are deactivated by
dephosphorylation, which is the removal of a
phosphate group.

3) Part of Energy Molecules

The primary source of energy in cells is
adenosine triphosphate.It is composed of
adenosine and three phosphate groups, and
the energy derived from ATP is carried in the
chemical bonds of the phosphates. Energy is
released when these bonds are broken. When
the molecule ADP is phosphorylated, ATP is
formed. Phosphate groups can also be found
in less common energy molecules than ATP,
such as guanosine triphosphate (GTP),
cytidine triphosphate (CTP), and uridine
triphosphate (UTP) (UTP).
4) Part of Phospholipids
Phospholipids are the main component of cell
membranes. Each phospholipid is made up of
a lipid molecule and a phosphate group. Many
phospholipids arrange in rows to form what is
called a phospholipid bilayer, a double layer of
phospholipids. This bilayer is the main
component of membranes such as the cell
membrane and the nuclear envelope that
surrounds the nucleus. It is semipermeable,
meaning that only certain molecules can pass
through it and enter or exit the cell.

5) Part of Buffer Cells

Phosphate functions as a buffer in cells. A
buffer keeps a substance's pH neutral, not
too acidic or basic. Because most biological
activities can only occur at a neutral pH, living
things require neutral conditions. Phosphate-
buffered saline, a buffer solution containing
water, salt, and phosphate, is frequently used
in biological research.

6) In Ecosystems
Phosphorus is a nutrient that limits plant
and animal growth in freshwater
environments. An increase in
phosphorous-containing molecules such
as phosphates can cause an increase in
plankton and plants, which are then eaten
by other animals such as zooplankton and
fish, continuing up the food chain to
humans. An increase in phosphates will
initially increase the number of plankton
and fish, but too much will limit other vital
nutrients, such as oxygen. This oxygen
depletion is known as eutrophication, and
it can kill aquatic animals. Phosphates
can be increased by human activities
such as wastewater treatment, industrial
discharge, and agricultural fertilizer use.

7) In the Body
Bones and teeth contain approximately
85% of the phosphorus in the human
body. The main component of teeth and
bones that gives them their hard structure
is calcium phosphate. Phosphorus is the
second-most common element in the
body after calcium, and it is critical that
there is an adequate supply of it.
Phosphorus can be found in grains, milk,
and protein-rich foods.
 REFERENCES:
Sites, Sources, and References

Britannica (2023). Aldehydes.

https://www.britannica.com/science/aldehyde/Uses-of-aldehydes

BYJU (2023). Physical and Chemical Properties of Ether

https://byjus.com/chemistry/properties-ethers/#physical-properties-of-ethers

BYJU (2023). What is an Acid Anhydride?

https://byjus.com/chemistry/acid-anhydrides/

Chemistry Learner (2023). Huckel’s Rule.

https://www.chemistrylearner.com/huckels-rule.html

Chemistry Talk (2023) Ketones.

https://chemistrytalk.org/the-ketone-functional-group/

DewWool (2021). Benzyl Alcohol-Chemical Structure: Uses, and Properties

https://dewwool.com/benzyl-alcohol-chemical-structure-uses-properties-safety/

Sparkman, D. O. and Kitson, F. G. (2011). Esters.

https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/chemistry/ester#:~:text=Esters%20are%20
chemical%20compounds%20derived,fatty%20acid%20esters%20of%20glycerol.

Homework Study (2023). The Difference Between Alkanes, Alkenes, and Alkynes.
https://homework.study.com/explanation/what-is-the-difference-between-alkanes-
-and-alkynes.html

Libretexts Chemistry (2021). Arenes.

https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Organic_Chemistry/Supplemental_Modul
es_(Organic_Chemistry)/Arenes

Libretexts Chemistry (2021). Physical Properties of Ether.

https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Organic_Chemistry/Supplemental_Modul
es_(Organic_Chemistry)/Ethers/Properties_of_Ethers/Physical_Properties_of_Et
her

Mizunami M., (2018). Molecular structures of five aliphatic alcohols used in odor
discrimination experiments.
https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Molecular-structures-of-five-aliphatic-
alcohols-used-in-odor-discrimination-experiments_fig2_6989771

Turito (2022). Acid Anhydrides – Definition, Structure, Properties & Uses.

https://www.turito.com/blog/chemistry/acetic-anhydride

Vedantu (2023). The Difference Between Aliphatic and Aromatic Functional Groups.
https://www.vedantu.com/question-answer/state-the-difference-between-
aliphatic-and-class-11-chemistry-cbse-5fd79a56c0af9500a2b88218