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NACHARAM/ MAHENDRA HILLS
SUBJECT: CHEMISTRY CARBON AND ITS COMPOUNDS notes CLASS: X
Organic chemistry: The study of carbon and its compounds (except CO , CO2and carbonates)
Q. Why carbon forms large number of compounds among all the elements in the periodic table?
Or
Mention the versatile nature of carbon.
Ans: i) tetra valency
ii) Small size
iii) ability to form strong covalent bonds
iv) Catenation
v) Isomerism
Catenation: The linking of carbon atoms with each other and other elements to form long chains,
branched and ring structures
Isomerism: The phenomenon exhibited by compounds having same molecular formula but different
structures is called isomerism and the compounds are called isomers.
Covalent bond: A bond formed by sharing of valence electrons between two atoms. Eg. H2, CO2, CH4 etc.
Compounds containing covalent bond in them are covalent compounds.
Properties of covalent compounds:
i) Compounds formed by sharing of electrons between two non‐metals
ii) Insoluble in water
iii) Do not conduct electricity in solid state or in aqueous solutions
iv) Have low melting and boiling point
v) Covalent bond is weaker bond when compared to ionic bond
Types of covalent bond:
i) Single bond: A bond formed by sharing of one pair of electrons .eg. H2, Cl2, H2O,HCl, NH3,
CH4 etc.
Lewis dot structures
ii) Double bond: A bond formed by sharing of two pairs of electrons eg O2,CO2, C2H4 etc.
iii) Triple bond: A bond formed by sharing of three pairs of electrons eg. N2, C2H2 etc
Polar covalent bond: A covalent bond acquiring partial charges due to the difference in electronegativity
of atoms Eg. HCl, HF, H2O etc.
Non‐polar covalent bond: A covalent bond with no partial charges because of less difference in
electronegativity of atoms. Eg. H2, CH4, CO2 etc
ALLOTOPY:
The phenomenon of existence of an element in different physical forms is called allotropy. Such physical
forms are called allotropes.
This occurs due to difference in the arrangement of atoms and so they have different physical
properties.
Eg:(1) Diamond, Graphite and fullerenes are allotropes of carbon.
(2) Phosphorus exists in red, white, black etc.
DIAMOND GRAPHITE
Tetrahedral structure of carbon atoms. Loosely packed layers of hexagonal rings of
carbon atoms.
Does not conduct electricity Conducts electricity
Non‐lustrous Lustrous
Hard in nature Soft and smooth in nature
No free electrons Free electrons
*Draw figure from pg 61 *Draw figure from pg 61
HYDROCARBONS:
Compounds containing hydrogen and carbon only.
CLASSIFICATION OF HYDROCARBONS
Flow chart to be drawn in blank side
(1) SATURATED HYDROCARBONS:
Hydrocarbons having only single bonds. Eg: Alkanes, Cycloalkanes
(2) UNSATURATED HYDROCARBONS:
Hydrocarbons containing double (or) triple bonds. Eg: Alkynes, Alkenes, cycloalkenes ,
cycloalkynes
Homologous series:
A series of organic compounds having same general formula, functional group and similar
chemical properties are called homologous series.
Members of homologous series differ from each other by a unit of ‐CH2 and have molecular
mass difference of 14amu
The compounds in a homologous series are named based on the rules given by IUPAC
nomenclature
NOTE: In the homologous series as the number of the C atoms increases, molecular mass
increases, melting and boiling increases, but chemical property remains same
I.ALKANES: They are saturated hydrocarbons with general formulaCnH2n+2 and with suffix ‘ane’ where
n=number of carbons
Eg: n=1, C1H2+2, CH4‐‐‐‐ Methane
n=2, C2H6 ‐‐‐‐‐Ethane
n=3, C3H8 ‐‐‐‐‐Propane
n=4, C4H10 ‐‐‐‐‐Butane
n=5, C5H12 ‐‐‐‐‐Pentane
n=6, C6H14 ‐‐‐‐‐Hexane
They are also called ‘Paraffins’ as they are less reactive.
.C1‐C5 are gases, C6‐ C11 liquids and higher alkanes are solids
They undergo substitution reaction as they are saturated.
Find below the Homologous series of alkanes with structures
II. ALKENES:
Unsaturated hydrocarbons having at least one double bond(C=C). These are also known as OLEFFINS
General molecular formula CnH2n , where n is the number of carbon atoms n= 2,3,4…….
They undergo addition reaction as they are unsaturated and reactive
III. ALKYNES
Unsaturated hydrocarbons having triple bond
General molecular formula CnH2n‐2 ,wheren = no. of carbon atoms , n= 2,3,4,…….
They undergo addition reaction as they are unsaturated.
IV. CYCLIC COMPOUNDS
i) Cycloalkanes : saturated cyclic hydrocarbon with general formula CnHn, , where n= 3,4,5 …,
They undergo substitution reactions
ii) Cycloalkenes: Unsaturated cyclic hydrocarbons with double bond with general formula
CnH2n‐2 , n= 3,4,5…… They undergo addition reactions
iii) Cycloalkynes: Unsaturated hydrocarbons with a triple bond. They undergo addition
reactions.
iv) Aromatic hydrocarbons: Unsaturated cyclic hydrocarbons with characteristic aroma eg.
Benzene, phenol, toluene etc.
Benzene C6H6 is a six membered aromatic hydrocarbon with alternate single and double
bond.
FUNCTIONAL GROUP: An atom or a group of atoms or a bond which decides the property of a organic
compound. Eg. Alcohol –OH , Aldehyde‐CHO, carboxylic acid –COOH, Alkenes – double bond etc.
Alkyl group: A hydrocarbon in which one of the hydrogen is removed. eg. methyl (–CH3), ethyl(‐C2H5)
(R‐G) R refers to alkyl group which decides physical property and G refers to functional group which
decides chemical property Eg. CH3‐COOH ( R= CH3) (G=COOH)
ISOMERISM:
The phenomenon exhibited by Compounds having same molecular formula but different structures are
called isomers and the phenomenon exhibited is called isomerism.
Isomers have different physical and chemical properties.
Eg. Isomerism in alkanes
1. Butane (C4H10) has two isomers namely
n‐ butane and Isobutane
2. Pentane (C5H12) has three isomers namely n‐pentane, isopentane and neopentane
3. Hexane (C6H14) has 5 isomersnamely n‐hexane, isohexane, neohexane, 3‐methyl pentane and
2,3‐ dimethylbutane.
V. ALCOHOL (R‐OH)
A group of hydrocarbons having –OH as functional group
IUPAC name: Alkanol
Common name : Alkyl alcohol
VI. HALOALKANES(R‐X) , X= F, Cl, Br, I
IUPAC name : Haloalkanes
Common name: Alkyl halide
VII. ALDEHYDE ( R‐CHO) IUPAC name: Alkanal
VIII. CARBOXYLIC ACID: (R‐COOH) IUPAC name: Alkanoic acid
IX .KETONES :(R‐CO‐R) IUPAC name Alkanone Common name ; Alkyl ketone
X. ESTERS: (R‐COO‐R)
IUPAC name: Alkyl alkanoate
Common name : Alkyl ester
XI. ETHERS (R‐O‐R)
IUPAC name : Alkoxy alkane
Common name: Alkyl ether
Chemical properties of hydrocarbons
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF CARBON COMPOUNDS
1) COMBUSTION:
The process of burning of a substance in the presence of air to give heat and light.
Eg: Burning of Coke C + O2 CO2
CH4 + 2 O2 CO2 + 2 H2O
C2H5OH + 3 O2 2 CO2 + 3 H2O
S.no Complete combustion Incomplete combustion
1 Requires sufficient supply of oxygen Insufficient supply of oxygen
2 Produces blue flame Produces orange or red flame
3 Forms no soot Forms black soot
4 Gives more heat Gives less heat
In comparison to saturated hydrocarbons, unsaturated hydrocarbons have more carbon. Hence, they
require more oxygen and burn with sooty flame. Saturated hydrocarbons burn with blue flame.
A mixture of acetylene ( Ethyne C2H2) and oxygen is used in oxy‐acetylene torch, so that there is
direct supply of oxygen and complete combustion takes place.
Fuels like coal, coke which do not vaporize on burning do not form the flame.
TEST FOR UNSTURATION:
*Unsaturated hydrocarbons decolourise the purple coloured Baeyer’s reagent (alkaline KMnO4).
* Unsaturated hydrocarbons decolourise red bromine liquid.
*Unsaturated hydrocarbons burn with sooty flame.
2) OXIDATION:
Addition of oxygen or removal of hydrogen is called Oxidation.
Ethanol undergoes oxidation with alkaline KMnO4 or acidified k2Cr2O7 which are oxidizing agents and
convert it to ethanoic or acetic acid.
C2H5OH + ( O) CH3COOH + H2
3)SUBSTITUTION REACTION:
A reaction in which an atom or group of atoms are replaced with other atoms is called substitution
reaction.
Saturated hydrocarbons undergo substitution reactions.
Eg: Halogenation of alkanes.
CH4 + Cl2 sunlight CH3Cl + HCl
chloromethane
CH3Cl + Cl2 CH2Cl2 + HCl
Methylchloride/dichloro methane
CH2Cl2 + Cl2 CHCl3 + HCl
Chloroform/trichloro methane
CHCl3 + Cl2 CCl4 + HCl
Carbon tetrachloride/tetrachloro methane
NOTE: The above reactions occur in the presence of sunlight(photochemical reaction)
4) ADDITION REACTION:
Adding one or more atoms to a reactant to form a single product.
Unsaturated hydrocarbons undergo addition reaction.
Eg: Hydrogenation of oils.
HYDROGENATION REACTION:
Addition of hydrogen to unsaturated hydrocarbons to make it saturated in the presence of Nickel(Ni)
or Palladium(Pd) catalyst.
Eg: (1) C2H4 + H2 Ni/Pt/Pd C2H6
(2) CH2=CH‐CH3 + H2 Ni/Pd C3H8
(3) C2H2 + 2 H2 Ni/Pd C2H6
5) DEHYDROGENATION REACTION : (Removal of hydrogen.)
2 C2H5OH + 2 Na 2 C2H5ONa + H2
Question:
A carbon compound ‘X’ used as industrial solvent when dropped with a piece of Na evolves a
colourless gas which burns with pop sound.
(a) Name ‘X’ and gas evolved.
Answer: Ethanol and H2
(b) Name the reaction.
Answer: Dehydrogenation reaction
(c ) Write the related equation.
Answer: 2 C2H5OH + 2 Na 2 C2H5ONa + H2
6) DEHYDRATION:
Removal of water.
C2H5OH conc.H2SO4 C2H4 + H2O
The above reaction occurs in presence of concentrated Sulphuric acid which acts as a dehydrating
agent.
7) ESTERIFICATION:
The reaction of carboxylic acids with alcohol in the presence of an acid catalyst which gives rise to a
fruit smelling ester is called esterification.
Carboxylic acid + Alcohol H2SO4 Ester + H2O
CH3COOH + C2H5OH H2so4 CH3COOC2H5 + H2O
( Activity 4.8, Figure 4.11‐‐‐‐‐ to be written on the white side of class work)
8)SAPONIFICATION:
The reaction of an ester with an alkali to form soap and Alcohol.
Ester + Alkali Soap + Alcohol
CH3COOC2H5 + NaOH heat CH3COONa + C2H5OH
PROPERTIES OF ETHYL ALCOHOL(C2H5OH )
Colourless liquid.
Inflammable (catches fire easily)
Good solvent.
Boiling point is 78.2oc.
Freezing point is ‐118oc.
99% pure ethanol is called absolute alcohol.
Ethanol + Methanol is called methylated spirit(used in spirit lamps).
USES OF C2H5OH :
Spirit lamps.
Industrial solvent.
As an anti‐freeze in cold countries.
As beverage.
As antiseptic.
Question:
Why is the mixture of acetylene and oxygen is used to obtain oxyacetylene torch for welding
purpose?
Answer: A mixture of oxygen and acetylene is used so that there is direct supply of oxygen with
complete combustion and large amount of heat is given out.
PROPERTIES OF ETHANOIC ACID ( CH3COOH)
Colourless with strong odour.
5% to 8% of ethanoic acid is called vinegar due to its high freezing point of 11oc. It is also called glacial
acetic acid.
USES OF CH3COOH :
In cooking.
As preservative for jams and pickles.
In making esters.
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF ETHANOIC ACID:
1) Reaction with base
Eg: CH3COOH + NaOH CH3COONa + H2O
2) Reaction with bicarbonate to form salt, water and CO2
Eg: CH3COOH + NaHCO3 CH3COONa + H2O + CO2↑
3) Reaction with carbonates
Eg: 2 CH3COOH + Na2CO3 2 CH3COONa + H2O + CO2↑
TEST FOR ALCOHOL AND CARBOXYLIC ACID:
Physical test:
Odour
Litmus test
Chemical test:
Only acetic acid reacts with carbonates and bicarbonates to form salt,water and Carbondioxide but
alcohols do not react.
Ques: A carbon compound ‘X’ used as industrial solvent on reacting with concentrated H2SO4
forms ‘Y’, which on further reaction with hydrogen in the presence of nickel forms ’Z’ which on
burning forms CO2 and H2O.Identify X,Y and Write related balanced equations.
Answer: X: C2H5OH
Y: C2H4
Z: C2H6
C2H5OH concentrated H2SO4 C2H4 + H2O ( dehydration reaction )
C2H4 + H2 Ni/ Pt C2H6 ( hydrogenation reaction )
2 C2H6 + 7 O2 4 CO2 + 6 H2O (combustion reaction )
Ques: A carbon compound ‘X’ used as anti‐freeze on reacting with alkaline KMnO4 forms ‘Y’. The
compound Y on further reacting with ‘X’ in the presence of an acid forms fruity smelling substance ‘Z’.
Identify X,Y,Z. Write related equations.
Answer:
X: C2H5OH Y: CH3COOH Z : CH3COOC2H5
C2H5OH + [O] Alkaline KMnO4 CH3COOH + H2 (oxidation)
CH3COOH + C2H5OH H+ / H2SO4 CH3COOC2H5 + H2O (esterification)
SOAPS AND DETERGENTS:
Soaps are sodium salts of higher fatty/ carboxylic acids. (General formula R‐COONa) , R is long chain alkyl
group
Detergents are salts of benzene sulphonic acids.
Soft water contains sodium ions
Hard water contains salts of calcium and magnesium –chlorides, carbonates and bicarbonates.
Question: What are micelles?
Answer: Micelles are the particles formed when soaps are mixed with water containing a hydrophilic
end which is ionic and a hydrophobic tail end which is alkyl end.
(Draw figure 4.12 ,page: 74 on the white side of the classwork)
Question: What is Scum?
Answer: When soap is mixed with hard water, the salts of soap combines with salts of hard water to
form a precipitate called scum.
Question : Explain cleansing action of soap.
Answer: When soaps are mixed with water, it breaks into micelle particles containing a hydrophilic head
ionic end which removes water soluble dirt and a hydrophobic tail end which removes oil dirt. On
agitation, oil dirt is surrounded by hydrophilic tail ends of micelles and are removed from the body.
(Draw figure 4.13,page 75)
Question: How are detergents affective than soap? (or) How can the hardness of water be tested?
Answer: Soaps are mixed with hard water. The salts of soap combine with salts of hard water and form a
precipitate called scum. But detergents do not form any scum and are effective both in soft and hard
water. Hence, we can test the hardness of water using soaps.