DEPARTMENT: WATER RESOURCE IRRIGATION ENGINNERING

PROGRAM: - IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE ENGINEERING (Msc.)

COURSE:-IRRIGATIONAND DRAINAGE MANAGEMENT (IDE-734)

REVIEW ON PRINCIPLES OF ON-FARM WATER MANAGEMENT PRACTICES

USING FOR AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTIVITY

REVIEWED BY CHANAKO DANE

ID: - PRAWTI/007/14

SUBMITTED TO: - DEMELASH WENDEMENEH (PhD)

FEBRUARY/2023

AMU

ETHIOPIA
Abstract
Water is one of the most critical inputs for obtaining maximum production of crops in the world.
Crop production in Ethiopia is largely dominated by rain-fed agriculture, which is suffered by
climate change, due to occurrence of erratic rain falls. To overcome these problems, a Numbers
experimental research conducted on crop productivity and water use efficiency (water
productivity) for better on –farm water management without significant yield loss in different
parts of the country with different climatic zone. Therefore, the objective of this review paper is
to compile the principles of on-farm water management on yield and water productivity.
Accordingly, Deficit irrigation with furrow types used as irrigation water saving strategy, which
is good when deficit level is less than 20% without significant yield reduction. Interestingly,
both 100% ETc alternate furrow with 85% ETC save extra water with little yield reduction and
conventional furrow 75% ETc is better than 100 %ETc in terms of water saving in. Appling
irrigation water throughout the whole season reduced the water productivity and may save water
even yield reduction during mid and matured season. Similar to deficit irrigation, imposing
moisture stress across different crop growth stages provided huge advantage. Withholding
irrigation during development and mid-season stage had greatly reduced the yield and dry.
However, imposing moisture stress during initial and late season stage had less impact on yield.
The soil moisture depletion level factor (P) adopted from FAO is more general and not site
specific, require adjustments, though the research conducted at Wondogenet Agricultural
research center reported that the FAO adopted p factor (60% ASMDL) provided medium with
water saving .

Key words: - on-farm water management, deficit irrigation, ETc and water productivity

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Table of Contents

Abstract .......................................................................................................................................................... i
Abbreviation ................................................................................................................................................ iii
Tables ........................................................................................................................................................... iv
1. Introduction ......................................................................................................................................... 1
1.1. Background ................................................................................................................................. 1
1.2. Statement of the Problem ........................................................................................................... 2
1.3. Objective ...................................................................................................................................... 2
2. Literature review ................................................................................................................................ 2
2.1. Deficit and furrow irrigation as an on-farm strategy to maximize yield water
productivity in dry areas ........................................................................................................................ 2
2.2. Effect moisture stress at different growth stages on yield and water productivity ............... 4
2.3. Using Furrow irrigation method with mulching for productivity .......................................... 5
2.4. Soil moisture depletion level effect on crop yield ..................................................................... 7
3. Synthesis of result in tables and graphs ............................................................................................ 8
4. Conclusion ........................................................................................................................................... 9
5. References .......................................................................................................................................... 10

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 Abbreviation

AFI Alternate furrow irrigation

ASMD Allowable soil moisture depletion
CFI Conventional furrow irrigation
DI Deficit irrigation
ETc Crop evapotranspiration
FAO Food and agricultural organization
FFI Fixed furrow irrigation
WP Water productivity

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Tables
Table 1 Effect of Deficit irrigation and furrow types on crop yield & water productivity under
on-farm water management ............................................................................................................ 4
Table 2.Effect moisture stress at different growth stage on yield water productivity .................... 5
Table 3.Effect of furrow irrigation method and mulching on onion bulb yield and water
productivity for on- farm water management ................................................................................. 6
Table 4.Effect of different Soil moisture depletion level on yield and Wp of Vernonia crop ........ 7
Table 5.Compiled results of yield and water productivity .............................................................. 8
Graphs

Graph 1.Compiled yield of different levels of irrigation---------------------------------------8

Graph 2.Water productivity of compiled activities----------------------------------------------8

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 1. Introduction
1.1. Background

Water is considered as the most critical resource for sustainable agricultural productivity in
worldwide. Improving water management practices in agriculture is crucial for maintaining
global food security and alleviating rural poverty. Irrigated land now accounts for about 20% of
the world's farmed area and takes care for 55% of global food production. (Yenesew Mengiste,
2015)

Globally, irrigation represents 70% of diverted water. Enhancing water productivity is a major
concern both globally and locally (Haileslassie et al. 2016). Water productivity is particularly
important in areas of water scarcity. Excess water supply and wastage is the main causes of low
agricultural water productivity. Low water productivity may also result under water shortage
conditions if the stress is to the extent to significantly affect yields.

Reducing irrigation water use by increasing irrigation water productivity is crucial to meet the
ever increasing water demand for agriculture (Bekabil U.T. 2014).

The aim of on-farm water management is to narrowing-down yield gaps by optimizing the time
of water application to enhance plant water uptake. Irrigation water is generally limited or
mismanaged in all irrigation schemes, and is among the major challenges constraining
agricultural production in Ethiopia (Haileslassie et al., 2016).

Smallholder irrigation schemes in Ethiopia are generally characterized by poor on-farm water
management practices and hence poor performances (Derib et al., 2011). The poor on-farm water
management emanates from both excesses and insufficient allocation of resources (Haileslassie
et al., 2016). As water supplies are limited, the farmer's goal is to maximize net income per unit
of water used. Since there is a reasonable increase in the price of agricultural production, great
attention is required to increase water productivity. (Yenesew Mengiste, 2015)

According to the investigation of Gobena D. et al, (2021) Increasing irrigation efficiency by

applying improved water management strategies that could be the prime objective for sustainable
irrigated agriculture. This could be achieved by creating awareness and improving farmers’

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knowledge, particularly on how, how much and when to irrigate and appropriate on farm water
management principles for crops to be productive in agricultural activities (Desale K. etal,.2021)

1.2. Statement of the Problem

Water is a vital component of agricultural production. It is essential to maximize yield or

production. Water has to be applied in the right amounts at the right time in order to achieve the
right amount of crop yield. However, water management is poor and Production potential of the
country under irrigation decline from time to time. Expected yield is not produced by farmers.
So, effective on farm water management under irrigated agriculture is important to ensure food
security

As result this paper review is going to reveal the issue related to principles of on-farm water
management practices using for agricultural productivity

1.3. Objective
The relationship between on- farm water management and agricultural productivity is less direct.
The attempt of this paper is to bridge this gap via reviewing of different literatures and to realize
how on-farm practices should ensure that water management is produced under sustainable
economic and recognizing how irrigation water application practices affect water management,
will help farmers to manage water efficiently, which will satisfy the highest expectations of the
food security.

2. Literature review
2.1. Deficit and furrow irrigation as an on-farm strategy to maximize yield water
productivity in dry areas
Deficit irrigation is the application of less water than is required for potential ET and maximum
yield, resulting in conservation of limited irrigation water (Mulugeta M. & Narayana K., 2015).
The main objective of deficit irrigation is to save limited water with relatively insignificant yield
reduction. Because, the production of crops during dry period is impossible without irrigation.

The feasibility of deficit irrigation was tested for maize crops at Melkassa, deficit levels were
combined with furrow methods (conventional, fixed and alternate) and has been argued that the
level of irrigation supply under deficit irrigation should be between 50-100% of ETc.

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Results observed under that different level of deficit irrigation had a significant effect on maize
fresh biomass and highly significant effect on grain yield. The highest water use efficiency of
2.06kgm-3 was obtained from alternate irrigation system at 70%ETc of crop water application.
The highest grain yield of 8.4 tons per ha was obtained from conventional furrow irrigation at
100%ETc of crop water application and had no significant difference with 85% of crop water
application.

Alternate furrow irrigation at 70% of crop water application showed 20 % yield reduction and
saved 65% irrigation water which will be used to irrigate extra unit of land there by producing
additional maize while at 100% ETc of crop water application it resulted in 50% water saving for
5.5% yield reduction. They conclude that Applying irrigation water throughout the whole season
for maize crop reduced the water productivity (Mulugeta M. & Narayana K., 2015).

Also similar positive result have been reported for Onion in Dubti (Afar) from factorial
combination of Furrow irrigation systems (Alternate, Fixed and Conventional) and three levels
of deficit irrigation (50% of ETc, 75% of ETc &100% of ETc) water application. From this study
the highest bulb yield were obtained from CFI with 100% ETc which is 25.46 ton/ha with 0%
water saving and 24.54 ton/ha and 11.45% yield reduction and saved 46.47% of water which be
available to irrigate another Unit of Land. Therefore Alternative furrow irrigation with 100%
ETC increased water use efficiency with insignificant yield reduction and can solve a problem of
water shortage and recommended method for on farm water management (Zinabu A.2019)

Other experiment conducted in Areka agricultural research center at Mirab Badawacho Woreda
to evaluate furrow irrigation system (alternate, fixed and conventional) water management and
effect on onion yield and water use efficiency results showed that there is no significant
difference between the treatments on plant height, bulb diameter, bulb weight, and yield of
onion, but alternative(11.4kg/m3) and fixed furrow irrigation11.06kg/m3 save 50% of irrigation
water as compared to conventional furrow irrigation. The minimum water use efficiency is
obtained under conventional furrow irrigation and a significant difference over alternative and
fixed furrow irrigation. Therefore, For Onion, irrigation with Alternative and Fixed furrow
irrigation were recommended as it gives yield very near to that under full irrigation, provides
good saving water application time, energy, irrigation water and improves crop water
productivity.(Tamirneh k. et al 2022)

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Other similar trials was conducted on different crops (Sun flower, hot pepper and potato) across
various regions of the country reported similar results economic irrigation water productivity and
environmental benefits for alternate furrow irrigation method (AF) was much
superior as compared to other furrow irrigation methods as well as efficient use of agricultural
water management (Efriem T. and GebreKiros G.,2019, Habtamu D. 2019, Asnake T., Bayan
A.and Fikadu G, 2021)
Table 1. Effect of Deficit irrigation and furrow types on crop yield & water productivity under on-farm
water management

Irrigation treatments(%Etc) Yield (kg/ha) WP(kg/m3)

AFI 100%ETc 7942.8 1.72
AFI 85%ETc 7477.3 1.92
AFI 70%ETc 6657 2.06
AFI 50%ETc 4661 2.02
FFI 100%ETc 5968.3 1.29
FFI 85%ETc 5349.4 1.36
FFI 70%ETc 4122.1 1.27
FFI 50%ETc 3112.4 1.35
CFI 100%ETc 8412.9 0.912
CFI 85%ETc 7141.2 0.91
CFI 70%ETc 6075.7 0.94
CFI 50%ETc 5611.6 1.21
2.2. Effect moisture stress at different growth stages on yield and water productivity

Unlike deficit irrigation, moisture stress is one of strategy of water saving practice in which
irrigation is skipped in any of growth stages of crops that is supposed to be less sensitive to
drought. The major factors that forced many farmers to reduce irrigation water are cost of
irrigation pumping, inadequate irrigation scheme capacity and limited water resources.

Having this problems as a gap, Robel et al., (2017) evaluated the response of maize to moisture
stress at different growth stages under prevailing climatic condition of Haru, western Wellega
Zone. From their finding, skipping irrigation at both development and mid-seasonstage indicated
as reduced the yield and dry biomass by about 35 and 40%, respectively

Similarly, an experiment was conducted on Response of Onion (Allium Cepa L.) to Soil Moisture
Stress Conditions at Different Growth Stages in Melkasa Agricultural Research Center with the
aim of identifying effect of skipping irrigation in any of its development stage or in combination
of stage (Gobena D. et at., 2021). They conclude that the maximum bulb yield 31.50t/ha was

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obtained from fully irrigated onion at all stages (the control) but lower water productivity of
Onion. Withholding irrigation at initial and late season stage increased onion water productivity
and reduced yield response factor by saving 29.3% water which had 8.8kg/m3 water
productivity
Table 2.Effect moisture stress at different growth stage on yield water productivity

stages of irrigation at different grain yield (kg/ha) crop water productivity(kg/m3)

growth stages
IA 8357.7 0.5
DMMa 6887.6 0.57
IMMa 4411.8 0.57
IDMa 4575.5 0.95
IDM 5705 0.94
MMa 4674.4 0.97
DMa 5376 1.28
DM 5391.7 0.84
IMa 3011.6 0.72
IM 3456.9 0.82
ID 4059.5 1.84
Ma 3213.2 1.35
M 3872.7 1.22
D 3770.1 2.29
I 1826.7 2.65
No irrigation 1021.6 0
2.3. Using Furrow irrigation method with mulching for productivity

Research recently conducted by Ashebir H. etal.,(2021) Effect of Furrow Method and Mulch on
Bulb Yield and Water Productivity of Irrigated Onion revealed that significantly highest
marketable yield (39.5 t/ha) of onion was recorded from CFI and followed by AFI method (34.3
t/ha). However, from their report the highest WUE (9.7 kg/m3) was obtained from AFI method
when compared with the CFI method which was 5.7 kg/m3. There was 18 to22% increment of
marketable yield and WUE of the onion by applying mulching over the non-mulching condition
and 42% improvement of WUE by using AFI over the conventional furrow method.

Similarly experiment conducted by Meskelu E. etal.,(2018) in Wondogent Agricultural research

center on Integrated Effect of Mulching and Furrow Methods on Maize Yield and Water
Productivity was reported that Significantly a higher growth, yield and yield component of maize

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was recorded due to conventional furrow irrigation method than alternate and fixed furrow
irrigation method.

However, higher water use efficiency was obtained due to alternate furrow irrigation method.
Moreover, higher growth, yield and yield components including water use efficiency were
obtained due to plastic mulch than no mulch and straw mulch for maize

Another research conducted by Kedir J.and Getachewu A.(2020) on Integrated effect of Furrow
Irrigation Methods and Types of Mulches on Yield and Water Productivity of Maize (Zea mays
L.) in Hawassa, Ethiopia and investigated that, the highest maize grain yield of 9003.8 kg ha-1
was achieved from conventional furrow irrigation water management method.

However, higher water productivity (2.06 kg/m3) was obtained from alternate furrow irrigation
method. Likewise, higher yield and yield components including water use efficiency were
obtained from plastic mulch than no mulch and straw mulch. The maximum grain yield of
8088.9 kg ha-1 and water productivity (2.06 kg/m3) were obtained from plastic mulch, but the
partial budget analysis revealed that straw mulch was more economically feasible for farmers
than plastic mulch for maize production

Table 3.Effect of furrow irrigation method and mulching on onion bulb yield and water
productivity for on- farm water management

irrigation and mulch onion bulb yield(ton/ha) Wp(kg/m3)

type
CFI-no mulch 34.65 5.01
CFI-Straw mulch 41.81 6.04
CFI-Plastic mulch 42.04 6.06
AFI-no mulch 29.51 8.45
AFI-Straw mulch 37.47 10.91
AFI-Plastic mulch 35.81 10.2
FFI -no mulch 24.38 7.07
FFI - straw mulch 32 9.15
FFI-Plastic mulch 30.24 8.71

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2.4. Soil moisture depletion level effect on crop yield
A few studies have been conducted in Ethiopia to determine the optimal soil moisture depletion
level for different crops. Among those Gadissa M. et al,. (2017) conducted an experiment on
Optimal Soil Moisture Depletion Levels (Seven soil moisture depletion levels (30, 40, 50, 60, 70,
80 and 100% of the total available water of the soil were used) for the Production of Vernonia
and its Effect on Growth, Yield and Yield Components at Wondogenet Agricultural Research
Center for consecutive two years.

They reported that highest oil yield 711.8 kg ha-1 was obtained at 60% soil moisture depletion
level. However, the highest water use efficiency based on oil yield 0.15 kg/m3 was obtained at
100% SMDL irrigation is set when soil moisture content touches PWP. From there result they
conclude that 60% soil moisture depletion level leads to achieve optimal seed yield, oil yield
and water use efficiency of Vernonia oil production around Wondogent area.

Table 4.Effect of different Soil moisture depletion level on yield and Wp of Vernonia crop

soil moisture depletion levels OIL Yield (kg/ha) WP(kg/m3)

30%SMDL 541.6 0.096
40%SMDL 602.4 0.104
50%SMDL 703.7 0.132
60%SMDL 711.8 0.144
70%SMDL 613.6 0.139
80%SMDL 484.2 0.121
100%SMDL 448.1 0.152

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 3. Synthesis of result in tables and graphs
Table 5.Compiled results of yield and water productivity

different types of Yield (kg/ha) WP(kg/m3)

irrigation levels
AFI 85%ETc 7477.3 1.92
CFI 100%ETc 8412.9 0.912
Matured stage 3213.2 1.35
Mid stage 3872.7 1.22
CFI-Plastic mulch 42.04 6.06
AFI-Straw mulch 37.47 10.91
60%SMDL 711.8 0.144
100%SMDL 448.1 0.152
Graph 3.Compiled yield of different levels of irrigation

Yield (kg/ha)
8412.9
9000 7477.3
8000
7000
6000 ton/ha
5000 3872.7
3213.2
4000
3000
2000 711.8 448.1
42.04 37.47
1000
0

wp(kg/m3) 10.91
12
10
8 6.06
6
4 1.92
0.912 1.35 1.22
2 0.144 0.152
0

Graph 4.Water productivity of compiled activities

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 4. Conclusion
In conclusion, a number of researchers investigated a lot of principles of on-farm water
management practices using for agricultural productivity information as well as
technologies. These improved yield and water productivity on the farm for different
crops.
Deficit irrigation with furrow types used as water saving irrigation strategy, which is
good when deficit level is less than 20% without significant yield reduction.
Interestingly, both 100% ETc alternate furrow with 85% ETC save extra water with little
yield reduction and conventional furrow 75% ETc is better than 100 %ETc in terms of
water saving.
Appling irrigation water throughout the whole season reduced the water productivity and
may save water even yield reduction during mid and matured season. Similar to deficit
irrigation, imposing moisture stress across different crop growth stages provided huge
advantage. Withholding irrigation during development and mid-season stage had greatly
reduced the yield and dry. However, imposing moisture stress during initial and late
season stage had less impact on yield.
The soil moisture depletion level factor (P) adopted from FAO is more general and not
site specific, require adjustments, though the research conducted at Wondogenet
Agricultural research center reported that the FAO p factor (60% ASMDL) provided
medium with water saving .
Finally, the future research direction should focus on on-farm water management and
water saving principles with upstream of scheme limited water management principles.

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 5. References

1. Ashebir H, Solomon G.and Gebeyehu T.(2021) Effect of Furrow Method and Mulch on
Bulb Yieldand Water Productivity of Irrigated Onion under Central Highland Vertisol of
Ethiopia
2. Asnake T., Bayan A.and Fikadu G, (2021)Evaluation of Alternative, Fixed, Conventional
Furrow Irrigation Systems and Irrigation Water Levels on Potato (Solanum Tuberosum
L.) Yield at Oda Sirba Scheme, Asela ,Ethiopia
3. Bekabil, U.T. (2014). Review of Challenges and Prospects of Agricultural Production
and Productivity in Ethiopia
4. Derib, S.D. Haileslassie, A., Amede, T.,( 2011). Irrigation water productivity as affected
by water management in a small-scale irrigation scheme in the Blue Nile basin, Ethiopia.
5. Desale K, Pieter J., Mekete S. ,Enyew A. ,and Derbew F(2021). Soil and Irrigation
Water Management: Farmer’s Practice, Insight, and Major Constraints in Upper Blue
Nile Basin, Ethiopia
6. Efriem T.and GebreKiros G. (2019)Performance Evaluation of Furrow Irrigation System
on Pepper (Melka-Shote)Production at Tanqua Abergelle District, Tigray, Ethiopia
7. Etissa, E., Dechassa, N., Alamirew, T., Alemayehu, Y., Desalegne, L., (2014). Irrigation
water management practices in smallholder vegetable crops production: the
case of the Central Rift Valley of Ethiopia
8. Gobena D., Tilahun H., Ketema T., Abera T, Tatek W.(2021) Response of Onion (Allium
Cepa L.) to SoilMoisture Stress Conditions at Different Growth Stages under Semi-Arid
Area of Ethiopia.
9. Haileslassie, Zeleke A., Teklu E. Dirk H. Petra S. and Simon L.(2016) On-farm
smallholder irrigation performance in Ethiopia: From water use efficiency to equity and
sustainability.
10. Kedir J. and Getachewu A. (2020).Integrated effect of Furrow Irrigation Methods and
Types of Mulches on Yield and Water Productivity of Maize (Zea mays L.) in Hawassa,
Ethiopia
11. Mulugeta M.and Narayana K. (2015).Effect of Deficit Irrigation on Maize under
Conventional, Fixed and Alternate Furrow Irrigation Systems at Melkassa, Ethiopia
12. Robel A., Minda T. Tesfaye S.(2017) Effect of Growth Stage Moisture Stress on Maize
(Zea Mays L.)Yield and Water Use Efficiency at West Wellaga, Ethiopia
13. Tamirneh K., Demeke M., Temesgen G. (2022) Participatory Evaluation and
Demonstration of Alternative, Fixed and Conventional Furrow Irrigation on Onion Yield
and Water Use Efficiency at Mirab Badawacho Woreda
14. Yenesew Mengiste Yihun (2015)Agricultural Water Productivity Optimization For Irrigated Teff
(Eragrostic Tef) In A Water Scarce Semi-Arid Region Of Ethiopia
15. Zinabu Akele(2019).Evaluation of Alternate, Fixed and Conventional FurrowIrrigation
Systems with Different Water Application Level onOnion Yield in Dubti, Afar, Ethiopia

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