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If we measure the time it takes for an object to move from one point to another we can
determine how quickly it is moving. In everyday language, speed and velocity are often used
From the last section we learnt about distance and displacement and their definitions lead to two
The velocity of an object is defined as the change in displacement with the change in time. v
= Δs/Δt. Since displacement is a vector quantity the velocity is also a vector with both
The speed of an object is defined as the distance travelled Δs divided by the time period Δt
v = Δs/Δt
Quite often, you will see graphs plotted of displacement plotted against time like the one below:
Displacement-Time Graphs
The graph in Figure 1. shows an idealized graph of displacement plotted against time for some
imaginary object moving in 1-dimension. It starts off at a point x0, at time t0 at travels to a point
x1 at t1. It then stops moving for a while until at t2 it starts moving again and returns back to its
displacement divided by the time taken. To put some numbers in, suppose that the time taken to
travel from from t0 to t1 was 5 seconds and in that time, the object travelled 10 meters. The
Let us say that the time interval from t1 to t2 is 5 seconds. In this time, the object was stationary
so the velocity was zero [(x1 - x2)/5 s = 0 m/s]. Finally, in going back to its starting position, it
moved -10 m and if it did it in 3 seconds, its velocity would be -10 m / 3 s = -3.33 m/s. (Notice
that we were talking about velocity so we use the displacement which is negative in this time
It so happens that because this is a simple displacement-time graph, the object is moving with
constant velocity and so the velocity measured in each time interval did not change within each
period of time but in general this is not usually the case. More realistically, the object will change
its velocity the time interval, especially if measuring the displacemeny over a large time interval.
What we are measuring in this case is the average velocity or average speed if measuring the
distance travelled.
The line over the v indicates an average or a mean and the delta symbols indicate a difference or
a change. If we want to get a more representitive value of the velocity at a specific time we need
to measure the change in displacement over smaller time intervals. The measured velocity
Mathematically, this idea is encapsulated as the limiting case of taking a time interval, over
which the change in position is being measured, which tends to zero. We call this the rate of
change of position with respect to time or the derivative of position with respect to time. It is a
average
instantaneous
average
instantaneous
Speed and velocity are related in much the same way that distance and displacement are
related. Displacement is measured along the shortest path between two points and thus its
magnitude is always less than or equal to the distance. The magnitude of the displacement
approaches the distance as distance approaches zero. That is, distance and displacement are
effectively the same (have the same magnitude) when the interval examined is "small". Since
speed is based on distance and velocity is based on displacement, these two quantities are
effectively the same (have the same magnitude) when the time interval examined is "small" or,
in the language of calculus the magnitude of an object's average velocity approaches its average
Δt → 0 ⇒ v → |v|
Thus, the instantaneous speed of an object is the magnitude of its instantaneous velocity. v = |
v|
The fastest speed that anything can move is the speed of light, c. A photon of light, in a vacuum
and is the result is a combination of two physical constants that have to do with electric and
magnetic properties.
PARTICLE ACCELERATORS
Particle accelerators can accelerate sub-atomic particles to a fraction of the speed of light but as
they get closer to the speed of light, the mass of the particle increases and so more and more
HELIOS 2
The fast extended manmade object is space-probe called Helios 2. It was designed to measure
processes on the Sun The maximum speed of Helios 2, which achieved its perihelion distance of
0.29 AU on 17 April 1976, is quoted as about 150,000 mph (241,350 km/h). This is still only
Hydrogen gas guns are used for studying high-velocity impacts. A conventional gun uses an
explosive charge to create the region of high pressure gas that accelerates a projectile down the
barrel. The limiting factor in the projectile's speed is the speed in which a pressure wave can
Hydrogen gas has a speed of sound that is around 3.8 times that of the speed of sound in air.
The speed of sound also increases with temperature. In the Hydrogen gas gun, a convention
explosive charge sends a piston down the barrel filled with hydrogen gas. This compresses
hydrogen gas in a pressure chamber and heats it. The hydrogen is prevented from escaping by a
burst disc which is calibrated to break at a specific pressure. When the hydrogen is compressed
beyond this limit, the disc bursts and the projectile is accelerated down the barrel. A hydrogen-
gas gun can shoot a projectile at about 7km/s while the fastest conventional guns can shoot a
SECOND-CLASS POST
Among the slowest objects in the universe are sent by second-class post. You might think I am
being flipant but there is some truth in it. There are quite a few instances of post being delayed
for decades. One instance is of a postcard, sent in 1916 by a soilder in the First World War, who
wrote to his sister before being sent off to fight in the trenches. It took 94 years to travel from
Newhaven, East Sussex to reach its recepient in Norwich, Norfolk, a distance of around 150
miles, meaning its average speed was (1600 x 150)/(3600 x 24 x 365.25 x 94) = 8 x 10 -5 m/s.
By the time the postcard arrived the sister had died and the house was occupied by a new
owner.
FINGER NAILS
10-9m/s =1 nm/s. Of course this is the average speed. In fact the rate at which fingernails grow
among other things, it showed that i) finger nail growth rate slows as you age and male fingers
nail grow more than more than females until about 60 years old, then female nails grow more
than males.
ref: http://www.nature.com/jid/journal/v73/n1/pdf/5616254a.pdf
CONTINENTAL DRIFT
The plates of the Eurasian plate is moving away from the North American plate at a velocity of