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CHAPTER 3
METALS AND NON-METALS

Physical Properties of Metals:

(i) Lustre:
 Metals, in their pure state, have a shining surface. This property is called metallic lustre.
 Example: iron, copper, aluminium and magnesium
(ii) Hardness:
 Metals are generally hard.
 Example: iron, copper, aluminium, and magnesium cannot be cut with a knife
(iii) Malleability:
 Some metals can be beaten into thin sheets. This property is called malleability.
 Example: gold and silver are the most malleable metals
(iv) Ductility:
 The ability of metals to be drawn into thin wires is called ductility.
 Example: Gold is the most ductile metal. A wire of 2 km length can be drawn from one gram of gold.
(v) Conductors of heat:
 Example: The best conductors of heat are silver and copper.
 Exceptions: Lead and mercury are comparatively poor conductors of heat
(vi) Conductors of Electricity:
 Metals are good conductors of electricity.
 Electric wires are made from metals.
(vii) Melting point:
 Metals have high melting points.
(viii) Sonorous:
 Metals that produce a sound on striking a hard surface are said to be sonorous.

Exceptions in physical properties of metals and non-metals:

Elements cannot be grouped according to their physical properties alone, as there are many exceptions which are:
(i) Mercury:
 All metals except mercury exist as solids at room temperature. Mercury exists in liquid state.
(ii) Gallium and Caesium:
 Metals have high melting points but gallium and caesium have very low melting points.
 These two metals will melt if you keep them on your palm.
(iii) Iodine:
 Iodine is a non-metal but it is lustrous.
(iv) Carbon:
 Carbon is a non-metal that can exist in different forms called an allotrope.
 Diamond, an allotrope of carbon, is the hardest natural substance known and has a very high
melting and boiling point.
 Graphite, another allotrope of carbon, is a conductor of electricity.
(v) Alkali metals: (Lithium, Sodium and Potassium)
 Alkali metals are so soft that they can be cut with a knife.
 They have low densities and low melting points.
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Non-metals:
 There are very few non-metals as compared to metals.
 Examples: carbon, sulphur, iodine, oxygen, hydrogen, etc.
 The non-metals are either solids or gases except bromine which is a liquid.

Chemical Properties of Metals:

(i) Reaction of metals with air:
 Almost all metals combine with oxygen to form metal oxides.
Metal + Oxygen Metal oxide
When copper is heated in air, it combines with oxygen to form copper (II) oxide, a black oxide.
2Cu + O2 2CuO
Aluminium forms aluminium oxide, when heated in air
4Al + 3O2 2Al2O3

 Metal oxides are basic in nature.

Copper oxide reacts with acid to give salt and water.
CuO (s) + 2HCl (aq) CuCl 2 (aq) + H2O (l)

 Some metal oxides, such as aluminium oxide, zinc oxide show both acidic as well as basic behaviour.
Such metal oxides which react with both acids as well as bases to produce salts and water are known as
amphoteric oxides.
Al2O3 + 6HCl 2AlCl3 + 3H2O (reaction with acid)
Al2O3 + 2NaOH 2NaAlO 2 + H2O (reaction with base)
(Sodium aluminate)

 Most metal oxides are insoluble in water but some of them dissolve in water to form alkalis.
Sodium oxide and potassium oxide dissolve in water to produce alkalis
Na2O (s) + H2O (l) 2NaOH (aq)
K2O (s) + H2O (l) 2KOH (aq)

 Non-metals produce acidic oxides when dissolve in water.

 Different metals show different reactivities toward oxygen.

Metals Condition Reactivities towards oxygen
Potassium (K)  react vigorously and catch fire in the open
Normal temperature
Sodium (Na)  to prevent fires, they are kept immersed in kerosene oil
Magnesium (Mg)
 surfaces of metals are covered with a thin layer of oxide
Aluminium (Al)
Normal temperature  The protective oxide layer prevents the metal from
Zinc (Zn)
further oxidation
Lead (Pb
Magnesium (Mg) Heating  burns in air with a dazzling white flame
 does not burn on heating
Iron (Fe) Heating
 iron filings burn vigorously when sprinkled in the flame
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Metals Condition Reactivities towards oxygen

 does not burn
Copper (Cu) Heating  the hot metal is coated with a black coloured layer of
copper (II) oxide
Silver (Ag)
Heating  Do not react with oxygen even at high temperatures.
Gold (Au)

(ii) Reaction of metals with water:

 Metals react with water and produce a metal oxide and hydrogen gas. Metal oxides that are soluble in
water dissolve in it to further form metal hydroxide.
Metal + Water Metal oxide + Hydrogen
Metal oxide + Water Metal hydroxide
 Different metals react differently with water.
Metals Condition Reactivities towards water
 the reaction is so violent and exothermic that the evolved
Potassium (K) hydrogen immediately catches fire
Cold water
Sodium (Na) 2K(s) + 2H2O(l) 2KOH(aq) + H2(g) + heat energy
2Na(s) + 2H2O(l) 2NaOH(aq) + H2(g) + heat energy
 The reaction is less violent and the heat evolved is not
sufficient for the hydrogen to catch fire.
Calcium (Ca) Cold water  Calcium starts floating because the bubbles of hydrogen gas
formed stick to the surface of the metal.
Ca(s) + 2H2O(l) Ca(OH)2(aq) + H2(g)
Cold water  Does not react
 reacts to form magnesium hydroxide and hydrogen.
Magnesium (Mg)  It also starts floating due to the bubbles of hydrogen gas
Hot water
sticking to its surface
Mg(s) + 2H2O(l) Mg(OH)2(aq) + H2(g)
Cold water  Do not react
Aluminium (Al) Hot water  Do not react
Iron (Fe)  react with steam to form the metal oxide and hydrogen
Zinc (Zn) Steam 2Al(s) + 3H2O(g) Al2O3(s) + 3H2(g)
3Fe(s) + 4H2O(g) Fe3O4(s) + 4H2(g)
Lead (Pb) Cold water
Copper (Cu)
Hot water  Does not react with water at all
Silver (Ag)
Gold (Au) Steam
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(iii) Reaction of metals with acids:

 Metals react with acids to give a salt and hydrogen gas
Metal + Dilute acid Salt + Hydrogen
Acid Metal Reactivities towards oxygen
 Rate of formation of hydrogen was the fastest and the
most exothermic in the case of magnesium.
Magnesium (Mg)  The reactivity decreases in the order Mg > Al > Zn > Fe
Aluminium (Al) 2HCl (l) + Mg (s) MgCl2 (s) + H2 (g)
Dilute hydrochloric acid
Zinc (Zn)
(HCl) 6HCl (l) + 2Al (s) 2AlCl 3 (s) + 3H2 (g)
Iron (Fe)
2HCl (l) + Zn (s) ZnCl2 (s) + H2 (g)
2HCl (l) + Fe (s) FeCl2 (s) + H2 (g)
Copper (Cu)  Copper does not react with dilute HCl
Magnesium (Mg)  react with very dilute HNO3 to evolve H2 gas
Manganese (Mn) 2HNO3 (l) + Mg (s) Mg(NO 3)2 (s) + H2 (g)
 Hydrogen gas is not evolved when a metal reacts with
Dilute nitric acid
Metals other than nitric acid.
(HNO3)
magnesium and  It is because HNO3 is a strong oxidising agent.
magnesium  It oxidises the H2 produced to water and itself gets
reduced to any of the nitrogen oxides (N 2O, NO, NO2).

(iv) Reaction of metals with solutions of other metal salts:

 Reactive metals can displace less reactive metals from their compounds in solution or molten form.
 Displacement reactions give better evidence about the reactivity of metals.
 If metal A displaces metal B from its solution, it is more reactive than B.
Metal A + Salt solution of B Salt solution of A + Metal B
 After performing displacement experiments, the following series, known as the reactivity or activity
series has been developed.
 A list of common metals arranged in order of their decreasing reactivity is known as an activity series.
 Metals above hydrogen in the Activity series can displace hydrogen from dilute acids.
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Reaction between metals and non-metals:

 Metals and non-metals react to form ionic compounds.

Formation of ionic compounds:

 The reactivity of elements is a tendency to attain a completely filled valence shell.

 Formation of cation by metals: (Example: Sodium ion)

o A sodium atom has one electron in its outermost shell. If it loses the electron from its M shell then
its L shell now becomes the outermost shell and that has a stable octet.
o The nucleus of this atom still has 11 protons but the number of electrons has become 10. So, there is
a net positive charge giving us a sodium cation (Na+).
Na Na+ + e–
(2,8,1) (2,8)
 Formation of anion by non-metals: (Example: Chloride ion)
o Chlorine has 7 electrons in its outermost shell and it needs one more electron to complete its octet.
o If sodium and chlorine were to react, the electron lost by sodium could be taken up by chlorine.
o After gaining an electron, the chlorine atom gets a unit negative charge, because its nucleus has 17
protons and there are 18 electrons in its K, L and M shells. This gives us a chloride anion (Cl–).
Cl + e– Cl–
(2,8,7) (2,8,8)
 Formation of ionic compound: (Example: Sodium chloride)
o Sodium and chloride ions, being oppositely charged, attract each other and are held by strong
electrostatic forces of attraction to exist as sodium chloride (NaCl).
o Sodium chloride does not exist as molecules but aggregates of oppositely charged ions.
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Electrovalent compounds or ionic compounds:

The compounds formed by the transfer of electrons from a metal to a non-metal are known as ionic compounds or
electrovalent compounds.
Example: Formation of magnesium chloride (MgCl2)

Properties of Ionic Compounds:

(i) Physical nature:
 Ionic compounds are solids and are hard because of the strong force of attraction between the
positive and negative ions.
 These compounds are generally brittle and break into pieces when pressure is applied.
(ii) Melting and Boiling points:
 Ionic compounds have high melting and boiling points. This is because a considerable amount of
energy is required to break the strong inter-ionic attraction.

(iii) Solubility:
 Electrovalent compounds are generally soluble in water.
 They are insoluble in solvents such as kerosene, petrol, etc.
(iv) Conduction of Electricity:
 The conduction of electricity through a solution involves the movement of charged particles.
 A solution of an ionic compound in water contains ions, which move to the opposite electrodes
when electricity is passed through the solution.
 Ionic compounds in the solid state do not conduct electricity because movement of ions in the solid
is not possible due to their rigid structure.
 But ionic compounds conduct electricity in the molten state. This is possible in the molten state since
the electrostatic forces of attraction between the oppositely charged ions are overcome due to the
heat. Thus, the ions move freely and conduct electricity.
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Occurrence of Metals:
 Earth’s Crust – major source of metals
 Sea water – soluble salts such as sodium chloride, magnesium chloride, etc
 Metals occur in nature as free elements or in the form of their compounds.

Minerals:
The elements or compounds, which occur naturally in the earth’s crust, are known as minerals.

Ores:
When metals are extracted from minerals having a very high percentage of a particular metal, these
minerals are called ores.

Classification of metals based on reactivity:

(i) Metals of low reactivity:
 Examples: gold (Au), silver (Ag), platinum (Pt) and copper (Cu) – bottom of the reactivity series.
 Unreactive. Found in the free state.
 Copper and silver are also found in the combined state as their sulphide or oxide ores.
(ii) Metals of medium reactivity:
 Examples: Zinc (Zn), Iron (Fe), Lead (Pb), etc. – middle of the reactivity series.
 Moderately reactive.
 found in the earth’s crust mainly as oxides, sulphides or carbonates.
(iii) Metals of high reactivity:
 Examples: Potassium (K), Sodium (Na), Calcium (Ca), Magnesium (Mg) and Aluminium (Al)
– Top of the reactivity series.
 Very reactive
 never found in nature as free elements.

Steps involved in extraction of metals from ore: Activity Series and related Metallurgy:
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Metallurgy:
The extraction of metals from their ores and then refining them for use is known as metallurgy.

Gangue:
 Ores mined from the earth are contaminated with impurities such as soil, sand, etc., called gangue.
 The impurities must be removed from the ore prior to the extraction of the metal.
 The processes used for removing the gangue from the ore are based on the differences between the
physical or chemical properties of the gangue and the ore.

Extracting Metals Low in the Activity Series:

Ore Extraction Method Examples
1. Cinnabar (HgS) is converted to mercuric oxide
(HgO) when heated in air

Step 1. Roasting: Mercuric oxide is then reduced to mercury

Sulphide converted to oxide on heating on further heating

Sulphide
Step 2. Reduction:
Oxide is reduced to metal on further
heating 2. Copper which is found as Cu2S in nature can be
obtained from its ore by just heating in air

Extracting Metals in the Middle of the Activity Series:

Ore Extraction Method Examples
Step 1. Roasting: Roasting of Zinc sulphide to Zinc oxide
Sulphide ores converted to oxide by
heating strongly in excess air.
Sulphide
When zinc oxide is heated with carbon, it is reduced
Step 2. Reduction:
to metallic zinc.
Metal oxides are reduced to metals using
reducing agents such as carbon
Step 1. Calcination: Calcination of Zinc carbonate to Zinc oxide
Carbonate ores converted to oxide by
heating strongly in limited air.
Carbonate
When zinc oxide is heated with carbon, it is reduced
Step 2. Reduction:
to metallic zinc.
Metal oxides are reduced to metals using
reducing agents such as carbon
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Reducing agents used to reduce metal oxides to metals:

1. Carbon (coke)
2. Displacement reactions
 Highly reactive metals such as sodium, calcium, aluminium, etc., are used as reducing agents
Reason: they can displace metals of lower reactivity from their compounds
 Example: When manganese dioxide is heated with aluminium powder

 Thermitt Reaction:
o Displacement reactions are highly exothermic.
o The amount of heat evolved is so large that the metals are produced in the molten state.
o The reaction of iron(III) oxide (Fe2O3) with aluminium is used to join railway tracks or
cracked machine parts. This reaction is known as the thermit reaction.

Oxide Ores:
1. Ores of many metals are oxides.
Reason: Oxygen is a very reactive element and is very abundant on the earth

2. Before reduction, metal sulphides and metal carbonates must be converted into metal oxides.
Reason: It is easier to obtain a metal from its oxide, as compared to its sulphides and carbonates.

Extracting Metals towards the Top of the Activity Series:

o Metals high up in the reactivity series cannot be obtained from their compounds by heating with carbon.
 Carbon cannot reduce the oxides of sodium, magnesium, calcium, aluminium to metals
 Reason: They are very reactive. These metals have more affinity for oxygen than carbon.
o These metals are obtained by electrolytic reduction.
 Examples:
o Aluminium is obtained by the electrolytic reduction of aluminium oxide
o sodium, magnesium and calcium are obtained by the electrolysis of their molten chlorides.
 The metals are deposited at the cathode (the negatively charged electrode)
 chlorine is liberated at the anode (the positively charged electrode).
 The reactions are –

Refining of Metals:
o The metals produced by various reduction processes are not pure.
o They contain impurities, which must be removed to obtain pure metals. This process is called refining.

Electrolytic Refining:
 The most widely used method for refining impure metal is electrolytic refining.
 Many metals, such as copper, zinc, tin, nickel, silver, gold, etc., are refined electrolytically.
 Apparatus:
o The impure metal is made the anode
o A thin strip of pure metal is made the cathode.
o A solution of the metal salt is used as an electrolyte.
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 Process:
o On passing the current, the pure metal from the anode dissolves into the electrolyte.
o An equivalent amount of pure metal from the electrolyte is deposited on the cathode.
o The soluble impurities go into the solution
o The insoluble impurities settle down at the bottom of the anode and are known as anode mud.
 Example: Electrolytic refining of copper.
o Electrolyte – a solution of acidified copper sulphate.
o Anode – impure copper
o Cathode – a strip of pure copper
o On passing electric current, pure copper is deposited
on the cathode.

Corrosion Reactions:
1. Silver articles become black after some time when exposed to air. This is because it reacts with sulphur in
the air to form a coating of silver sulphide.
2. Copper reacts with moist carbon dioxide in the air and slowly loses its shiny brown surface and gains a green
coat. This green substance is basic copper carbonate.
3. Iron when exposed to moist air for a long time acquires a coating of a brown flaky substance called rust.

Prevention of Corrosion:
1. Painting
2. Oiling
3. Greasing
4. Galvanisation
 A method of protecting steel and iron from rusting by coating them with a thin layer of zinc.
 The galvanised article is protected against rusting even if the zinc coating is broken.
5. Chrome plating
6. Anodising
7. Making alloys:
 An alloy is a homogeneous mixture of two or more metals, or a metal and a non-metal.
 Process of preparation:
 It is prepared by first melting the primary metal.
 Then it is dissolved with other elements in it in definite proportions.
 It is then cooled to room temperature.
 Uses: The properties of any metal can be changed if it is mixed with some other substance.
 Examples:
 Iron is never used in its pure state. It is because pure iron is very soft and stretches easily
when hot. Iron is mixed with about 0.05 % of carbon and it becomes hard and strong.
 Iron is mixed with nickel and chromium to get stainless steel. It is hard and does not rust.
 Amalgam is an alloy of mercury.
 The electrical conductivity and melting point of an alloy is less than that of pure metals.
 Example: brass, an alloy of copper and zinc (Cu and Zn), and bronze, an alloy of
copper and tin (Cu and Sn), are not good conductors of electricity whereas copper is
used for making electrical circuits.
 Solder, an alloy of lead and tin (Pb and Sn), has a low melting point and is used for welding
electrical wires together.