TOPIC 9 : METALS Chemical Properties Of Metals

 Metals are elements that have both properties of How metals react can be understood with a after a clear
forming positive ions and are able to conduct electricity. understanding of the reactivity series of metals. The
Figure 9.1 below shows the general representation of a following are some of the chemical properties of metals.
pure metal. (a) Reaction of metals with water
Some metals react with both cold water and hot water
while some metals do not react with cold water but react
only with hot water. On the other hand some metals
neither react with cold water nor hot water.
i) Reaction of metals with cold water
Depending on how reactive metals are, they react with
Figure 9.1
cold water to produce a metal hydroxide and
(A) Physical Properties Of Metals
hydrogen gas.
The following are some of the physical properties of
Metal + H2O(l) Metal Hydroxide + H2(g)
metals
The reactivity of metals with cold water reduces
i. Good conductors of electricity
depending on the position of the particular metal on the
ii. Good conductors of heat
reactivity series. The table below shows the reaction of
iii. They are sonorous
some metals with cold water.
iv. Have high melting point and boiling points
vi. They are ductile Metal Observation / Equation
vii. They are malleable
viii. They are lustrous. Potassium Very violent reaction
(B) Reactivity Series Of Metals. (K) 2K(s) + 2H2O(l) 2KOH(aq) + H2(g)
 Reactivity series of metals refers to the
Sodium Violent reaction
arrangement of metals according to their increasing or
(Na) 2Na(s) + 2H2O(l) 2NaOH(aq) + H2(g)
decreasing order of their chemical reactivity.The
diagram below shows the reactivity series of metals. Calcium Steady reaction
Most Reactive (Ca) Ca(s) + 2H2O(l) Ca(OH)2(aq) + H2(g)
Potassium Magnesium Reaction is very slow with cold
Sodium (Mg) water.
Calcium Mg(s) + 2H2O(l) Mg(OH)2(aq) + H2(g)
Magnesium Zinc, Iron, Do not react with cold water
Aluminium Copper
Zinc Silver
Iron
Tin ii) Reaction of metals with steam
Lead Metals react with hot water to produce a metal oxide
(Hydrogen) and hydrogen gas. The table below shows the reaction
Copper of metals with hot water.
Mercury
Silver Metal Observation / Equation
Gold
Least Reactive Magnesium Reacts vigorously with steam
(Mg) Mg(s) + H2O(g) MgO(s) +H2(g)
Zinc (Zn) The reaction is slow with steam
Zn(s) + H2O(g) ZnO(s) +H2(g)
Note: Hydrogen is a non-metal but is included Iron The reaction is very slow with steam
in the reactivity series to serve as a reference Fe(s) + H2O(g) FeO(s) +H2(g)
point
Page when
1 of 14 placing metals according to their
chemical reactivity.
 Lead, Copper, The position of Aluminium in the reactivity series
Silver, Gold Do not react with steam should entail that it is very reactive. However, this is not
the case because during reaction Aluminium forms a
very stable oxide layer which does not easily react with
(b) Reaction of metals with dilute acids. water or acid. The stable Aluminium Oxide (Al 2O3)
Metals react with dilute acids to produce a salt and forms prevents the Aluminium beneath its surface from
hydrogen gas. e.g. reacting.
Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq) MgCl2(aq) + H2(g) The effects of heat on hydroxides, carbonates, nitrates
of metals and ammonium compounds.
Note : Only metals that are above hydrogen in Depending on the chemical reactivity of the metal, their
the reactivity series react with dilute acids to compounds can be stable or can breakdown when
produce a salt and hydrogen gas. heated. The table below shows the effect of heat on
some of the compounds of metals.
(c) Reaction of metals with oxygen
Metals react with oxygen to produce a metal oxide. Compound Example Effect of heat on
Metal + Oxygen Metal Oxide compound
The table below shows the reaction of some metals with Hydroxide KOH No effect
oxygen.
.NaOH No effects
Metal Observation / Equation
Potassium Burns very vigorously with a Mg(OH)2 Breaks down to form
lilac/purple flame. MgO(s) and H2O(g)
4K(s) + O2(g) 2K2O(s)
Sodium Reacts fast and burns with a bright Zn(OH)2 Breaks down to form
yellow flame. ZnO(s) and H2O(g)
4Na(s) + O2(g) 2Na2O(s)
Cu(OH)2 Breaks down to form
Magnesium React with oxygen to produce
CuO(s) and H2O(g)
, Calcium, respective metals.
Zinc, Iron Carbonate K2CO3 No effect
Copper React with oxygen when the metal is
strongly heated. Hot copper metal Na2CO3 No effect
reacts with oxygen to produce a black
MgCO3 Breaks down to form
layer of copper (II) oxide.
MgO(s) and CO2(g)
Lead reacts with oxygen when heated to
produce lead (II) oxide.. ZnCO3 Breaks down to form
ZnO(s) and CO2(g)
(d) Metal displacement reactions
A more reactive metal can displace a less reactive metal CuCO3 Breaks down to form
from a solution of its salt. In most cases, colour changes CuO(s) and CO2(g)
are observed in displacement reactions. e.g.
Zn(s) + CuSO4(aq) ZnSO4(aq) + Cu(s) Nitrates KNO3 Partially breaks down to
blue colourless red-brown form KNO(s) and O2(g)
In the example above, Zinc is more reactive than
NaNO3 Partially breaks down to
Copper. Therefore copper will be displaced from its
form NaNO(s) and O2(g)
compound forming Zinc Sulphate.
The Apparent Non Reactivity Of Aluminium. Mg(NO3)2 Breaks down to form

Page 2 of 14
 MgO(s), NO2(g) and O2(g) reduction of another substance is known as a reducing
agent
Zn(NO3)2 Breaks down to form Extraction Of Metals
ZnO(s), NO2(g) and O2(g) Metals that are so unreactive can be obtained from the
ground in an uncombined (i.e. native) state e.g. gold,
silver etc.
Note : Generally compounds of very reactive However most metals are too reactive to exist on their
metals form stable compounds and do not easily own in the ground, they exist combined with other
decompose compared to compounds of less elements forming compounds known as ores.
Note : Copper occurs both in native as well as in form
reactive metals .
of ores.
The table below shows examples of metals and their
Thermal Decomposition Of Ammonium Salts
respective ores.
Though they do not contain any metal elements,
Ammonium salts undergo thermal decomposition when Metal Chemical Name Common
heated. The equations below show some of the And Formula Of Name
ammonium salts that break down when heated. Ore
When heated, ammonium chloride breaks down to
produce ammonia gas and hydrogen chloride gas as Iron Iron (III) Oxide Haematite
shown below. Fe2O3
NH4Cl(s) NH3(g) + HCl(g)
(NH4)2SO4(s) 2NH3(g) + H2SO4(g) Tri iron tetra Oxide Magnetite
NH4NO3(s) N2O(g) + 2H2O(g) Fe3O4

Copper Copper Iron Copper pyrite

Oxidation and Reduction
Sulphide
Oxidation and reduction can be defined differently i.e.
CuFeS2
electrons loss or gain, loss or gain of hydrogen and loss
or gain of oxygen. Zinc Zinc (II) Sulphide Zinc blende
In this course outline oxidation and reduction will be ZnS
defined with reference to oxygen and hydrogen.
Oxidation Zinc Carbonate Calamine
 Oxidation can be defined as the addition of ZnCO3
oxygen to a chemical substance.
e.g. Mg(s) + O2(g) MgO(s) Aluminium Aluminium Oxide Bauxite
In the example above, magnesium has been oxidized to Al2O3
magnesium oxide. Metals that are too reactive e.g. potassium, sodium,
 Oxidation can also be defined as the removal of calcium, magnesium, aluminium etc are extracted by
hydrogen from a chemical substance. electrolysis of molten ores.
 A substance that brings about oxidation of Moderately reactive metals e.g. zinc, iron, lead are
another substance is known as an oxidizing agent. extracted by chemical reduction.
N.B. Copper is extracted from its ore by thermal
Reduction decomposition.
 Reduction can be defined as the removal of (a) Extraction of Iron
oxygen from a chemical substance.  Iron is extracted mostly from its chief ore
 Reduction can also be defined as the addition of haematite using a method called chemical reduction.
hydrogen to a chemical substance.  The extraction of iron is done in the structure
 A chemical substance that brings about the

Page 3 of 14
known as a blast furnace which is made of steel and
lined with heat resistant bricks. The hot air is used as a
source of heat during the extraction.
 The diagram below shows the structure of a
blast furnace.
 Three raw materials (i.e. iron ore, coke and
limestone) are mixed and put in the combustion
chamber of the blast furnace.
 The following are the reactions that take place
in the reaction chamber.
1. At a temperature of about 1500oC and 1900oC, the
coke reacts with oxygen to produce carbon dioxide as
shown by the equation below;
C(s) + O2(g) CO2(g)
At a temperature of between 1300oC and 1000oC, the
carbon dioxide produced reacts further with the coke to
produce carbon monoxide as shown in the equation
below;as shown in the equation below;
CO2(g) + C(s) 2CO(g)
2. At a temperature of between 600oC and 800oC, the
Carbon monoxide produced react with the iron ore e.g.
Haematite to produce molten (liquid) iron and Carbon
dioxide as shown by the equation below:
Fe2O3(s) + 3CO(g) 2Fe(l) + 3CO2(g)
In the reaction above, Carbon monoxide is the reducing
agent. The molten iron is collected at the bottom of the
furnace. The iron collected as this point is referred to as
pig iron, it is impure and further is processed to remove
impurities.
3. In the extraction of iron, limestone is used as a
purifier to remove the impurities i.e. sand (silica, SiO 2)
which is mainly found mixed with the iron ore.
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To achieve this, the limestone (CaCO 3) first undergoes
thermal decomposition to produce Calcium oxide and
carbon dioxide as shown in the equation below;
CaCO3(s) CaO(s) + CO2(g)
The calcium oxide produced reacts with the sand (SiO2)
to form calcium silicate commonly known as slag as
shown in the equation below;
CaO(s) + SiO2(s) CaSiO3(l)
The slag collected is in liquid form and is collected at
the bottom of the furnace forming a layers on top of the
molten iron. The layer of slag on top of iron helps to
prevent the oxidation of molten iron.
The slag collected is used in the making of cement,
making of roads. e.t.c
Uses of Iron
 Pure iron is used in making nails, chains iron rods
etc
 Used in making alloys
(b) Extraction of Zinc
Zinc is mainly extracted from the main ore Zinc blende.
Chemical reduction method is used in the extraction of
Zinc.
1. Froth Flotation
Froth floatation is done so as to concentrate the ore and
also to remove some impurities.
2. Roasting
After froth floatation, the concentrated zinc blende is
heated in air to form zinc oxide and sulphur dioxide as
shown in the reaction equation below;
2ZnS(s) + 3O2(g) 2ZnO(s) + 2SO2(g)
The sulphur dioxide produced during this stage is not
allowed to escape in the atmosphere to prevent
formation of acid rain.
3. Chemical Reduction
The zinc oxide produced during roasting of Zinc blende
is heated with coke in the blast furnace to produce Zinc
metal as shown in the chemical equations below.
ZnO(s) + C(s) Zn(s) + CO(g)
ZnO(s) + CO(g) Zn(s) + CO2(g)
Uses of Zinc
The following are some of the uses of Zinc
 Making alloys
 Making dry cells/batteries

(c) Extraction of Copper

Copper is extracted from its common ore Copper pyrite
(CuFeS2) using thermal decomposition method. The
following are the stages in the extraction of copper.
1. Froth floatation
Froth floatation is done so as to concentrate the copper
ore.
2. Roasting
The concentrated copper or is roasted/burnt in air as
shown in the equation below;
2CuFeS2(s) + 4O2(g) Cu2S(s)+ 3SO2(g) + 2FeO(s)
During purification, the impure Copper is used as the
Iron (II) oxide is removed from its mixture with Copper
anode and the pure copper is collected at the cathode.
(I) oxide by reacting the mixture with Silicon dioxide.
Iron (II) Oxide reacts with Silicon dioxide forming Iron
Reaction at the anode.
Silicate (Slag)as shown in the equation below;
The equation below shows the reaction that takes place
FeO(s) + SiO2(s) FeSiO3(l)
at the anode;
The impure Copper (I) sulphide is then heated in limited
Cu(s) - 2e- Cu2+(aq)
supply of oxygen to partially change Cu2S to Copper (I)
At the anode, the impure Copper metal breaks down and
Oxide as shown in the equation below;
forms copper ions (Cu2+) which move to the cathode.
2Cu2S + 3O2(g) 2Cu2O(g) + 2SO2(g)
This leads to the decrease in size of the impure copper at
The supply of oxygen is/ air is then removed and the
the anode.
heat increased to change the Copper (I) oxide and
Copper (I) sulphide into copper as shown by the
Reaction at the cathode
equation below;
The equation below shows the reaction that takes place
2Cu2O(s) + 2Cu2S(s) 6Cu(l) + 2SO2(g)
at the cathode.
The copper collected at this stage is not pure as it still
Cu2+(aq) + 2e- Cu(s)
contains impurities like gold, silver, cobalt, sulphur etc.
At the cathode, the Copper ions (Cu 2+) gain two
once the liquid copper is solidified (i.e. blister copper),
electrons forming copper metals and get attached to the
it is then purified using the process known as
cathode. This leads to an increase in mass of pure
electrolysis.
Copper at the cathode.
Purification of Copper
Uses of Copper
The solidified Copper is purified using the process
The following are some of the uses of Copper
known as electrolysis.
 Making electric cables
The diagram below shows the arrangement of the
apparatus used during the purification of Copper.  Making alloys
 Making ornaments

(d) Aluminium
Non- reactivity of Aluminium
During reactions, Aluminium tends to form a very stable
oxide (Aluminium oxide, Al3O2) layer over its surface.
The stable oxide layer formed makes Aluminium to be
non-reactive as it prevents it from reacting.

Uses of Aluminium
Page 5 of 14
The following are some of the uses of Aluminium they are of the same size. This makes metals to easily
 Making aircraft parts change shape.
 Making kitchen utensils e.g. pans pots etc
Advantages of using alloys metals over metals
Importance Of Recycling Metals 1. Alloys have high resistance to corrosion
The following are some of the reasons for recycling compared to pure metals
metals. 2. Alloys are flexible to use than metals
1. Helps in the preservation of metals as they are non - 3. Alloys are usually stronger and harder than
renewable resources. pure metals.
2. Employment creation The table below shows some examples of alloys and
3. Its cheaper to recycle some metals than to extract their uses.
from ores.
4. Helps to reduce environmental pollution.
Alloy Composition Properties Use
Harmful Effects Of Metals. Bronze Copper Stronger Making
The following are some of the harmful effects of metals Tin than pure trophies ,
1. High concentration of sodium metal in the body may copper Making
lead to an increase in blood pressure. medals
2. High levels of aluminium in the body cause a disease
known as Alzehemia which damages the brain cells. Brass Copper, Zinc Stronger Making
3. High levels of lead in human beings result in lead than musical
poisoning and results into damage to kidneys, central copper, instrument
nervous system and may also lead to seizures. resistant s
to
Alloys corrosion.
 An alloy is a mixture of two or more metals or
a metal and a non metal. The properties of an alloy are Mild Iron , Carbon Stronger Used in
different from the elements used to make the alloys. steel and harder bridge
 The diagrams below show the structure of an than iron constructi
on ,
alloy as compared to that of a pure metal.
making
household
appliance

Stainless Iron, Strong, Making

steel chromium, shiny and cutlery,
nickel corrosion car part,
resistant making
hospital
apparatus

Aluminiu - Light and Making

 Particles in alloys can not easily slide over each m alloys very aircraft
other as they are of not of the sae size. This is the reason strong, parts e.g.
why most alloys are strong and do not easily change resistant wings, tail
shape. to etc
 Particles in pure metals easily slde on each other as corrosion

Page 6 of 14
Corrosion of Metals
 Corrosion is the chemical wearing out of metals in
the presence of oxygen and moisture. The more reactive
metals corrode faster than less reactive metals.
 The wearing out of iron in the presence of
oxygen and moisture is known as rusting. An
experiment was set up as shown below to investigate the
conditions required for rusting.
Observations
 A lot of rust was observed on the iron nail.
 No rust was observed on the iron nail in test
tube B.
 No rust was observed on the iron nail in test
tube C.
Conclusion
Corrosion of iron (i.e. rusting) can only occur in the
presence of both oxygen (air) and moisture.
Methods Of Preventing Corrosion.
The following methods can be used in preventing
corrosion of metals.
1. Painting
Iron can be painted to prevent the metal from being in
contact with oxygen and moisture.
2. Oiling/ Greasing
Oiling or greasing of iron can be done to prevent rusting
of iron as the metal will not be exposed to oxygen and
moisture.
3. Galvanising
The coating of a metal with a more reactive metal is
known as galvanizing. Iron can be coated with a layer of
a more reactive metal e.g. Zinc.
4. Sacrificial Protection
This is the method of rust prevention in which blocks of
a more reactive metal e.g. magnesium are attached to
iron and the reactive metal will corrode instead of iron.
TOPIC 10 : NON - METALS
Page 7 of 14
Physical Properties Of Non Metals
 They are dull in appearance.
 They can be solid, liquid or gases at room
temperature and pressure.
 Are brittle i.e. easily break.
 Low melting and boiling points
 Have low densities
 They are generally bad conductors of heat and
electricity.However, carbon in form of graphite can
conduct electricity.
Chemical Properties Of Non Metals
 Form negative ions (i.e. electronegative)
 Form acidic oxides (e.g. CO2, SO2 etc) and
neutral oxides (e.g. CO, H2O etc ) when reacted with
oxygen.
 They are powerful oxidizing agents.
COLLECTION OF GASES
Density of the gas and the solubility of the gas in water
are the two factors used to determine the method used to
collect a gas:
The following are the three methods used to collect
gases in the laboratory;
1. Displacement Of Water
This method is used to collect gases that are insoluble
in water e.g. hydrogen and oxygen
2. Upward Delivery
Upward delivery is also known as downward
displacement of air. This method is used to collect
gases that are less dense than air or lighter than air
e.g. hydrogen and ammonia
3. Down Ward Delivery
Downward delivery is also known as upward
displacement of air. This method is used to collect
gases that are denser than air / heavier than air e.g.
hydrogen chloride and carbon dioxide.

[A] HYDROGEN GAS

Zn(s) + H2SO4(aq) ZnSO4(aq) + H2(g)
 Hydrogen is a non metal with formula H2.
 Note: Only metals that are more reactive than
 It is the lightest element and at room temperature
hydrogen in the reactivity series can react with dilute
and pressure, it exists as a diatomic molecule i.e. H2.
acids.
b) reaction of a reactive metal with water i.e. cold
Physical Properties Of Hydrogen
water or steam.
 It is lighter than air
 Metal + Water Metal hydroxide + Hydrogen
 It is colourless
e.g. 2Na(s) + 2H2O(l) 2NaOH(aq) + H2(g)
 It is odourless (no smell)  Metal + Steam Metal oxide + Hydrogen
 It is insoluble in water e.g. Mg(s) + H2O(g) MgO(s) + H2(g)
 It has a low boiling point. The diagram below shows the apparatus for the above
reaction.
Chemical Properties Of Hydrogen
 It is flammable
 It burns in oxygen with blue flame to form water.
H2(g) + O2(g) H2O(l)
 It is neutral and hence has no effect to both moist red
or blue litmus paper
 It acts as a reducing agent. e.g. hydrogen gas reduces
black copper (II) oxide to form pink copper metal as
shown below.
CuO(s) + H2(g) Cu(s) + H2O(l) Industrial Preparation Of Hydrogen
The following methods are used to prepare hydrogen in
Laboratory Preparation Of Hydrogen Gas industries.
In the laboratory, hydrogen gas can be prepared by; 1. Cracking.
a) Reaction of a reactive metal with a dilute acid. Hydrogen gas is produced during the process of known
The diagram below shows the reaction between zinc as cracking. Cracking is the process of breaking down
metal and dilute sulphuric acid. complex (very big) molecules e.g. C4H10 into simpler
molecules.

2. Steam Reforming Of Natural Gas

In this method, hydrogen is prepared by reacting steam
(H2O(g)) with a natural gas e.g. methane (CH 4). There are
two steps in this method;

Page 8 of 14
Step I: Methane (CH4) is reacted with steam to produce
carbon monoxide and hydrogen gas using nickel metal
as catalyst at 900oC and pressure of 50 atm.
CH4(g) + H2O(g) CO(g) + 3H2(g)
Step II: The carbon monoxide produced is reacted
further with the excess steam to produce more hydrogen
gas as shown below.
CO(g) + H2O(g) ⇌ CO2(g) + H2(g)
 The above reaction occurs at a temperature of about
450oC and Iron (III) oxide is used as a catalyst.
2. Electrolysis Of Brine (Salt Water)
 In this method, a concentrated salt solution is
broken down using an electric current to produce
hydrogen gas, chlorine gas and sodium hydroxide as
shown by the equation below.
2NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) H2(g) + Cl2(g) + NaOH(aq)
The diagram below shows the electrolysis of brine (salt
solution).
Reaction At Anode
Chlorine gas is given off at the anode as shown by the
equation below;
2Cl- - 2e- Cl2(g)
Reaction At Cathode
Hydrogen gas is given off at the cathode as shown by
the equation below;
2H+ + 2e- H2(g)
 During electrolysis hydrogen gas is given off at
the cathode and chlorine gas is given off at the anode.
Identity Test For Hydrogen Gas
 Hydrogen gas burns with a pop sound when a
burning splint is introduced.
Page 9 of 14
Uses Of Hydrogen
 Used as fuel in rockets because it burns to
release energy and it is a non pollutant.
 Used in hardening of oils to form fats, in a
process called hydrogenation.
 Used in the manufacture of ammonia (NH3) by
the Haber process.
 Used in the manufacture of hydrochloric acid
[B] OXYGEN
 Oxygen is a non metal and its formula is O2.
 At room temperature and pressure, it exists as a
diatomic molecule i.e. O2. It makes up about 21% of the
earth’s atmosphere
Physical Properties Of Oxygen
 It is colourless gas
 It is tasteless
 It is odourless (no smell)
 It is slightly soluble in water
 It is lighter than air.
Chemical Properties Of Oxygen
 It relights a glowing splint
 Reacts with non metals to form acidic or neutral
oxides.
 It has no effect on the dump litmus paper.
 Reacts with metals to form basic oxides e.g.
MgO, CaO e.t.c
Identity Test For Oxygen
It relights a glowing splint (i.e. a glowing splint relights
to form a flame)
Uses Of Oxygen
1. It is used in the manufacture of steel in the blast
furnace.
2. It is used in oxygen tents in hospitals for patients in
the intensive care unit.
3. It used for welding in the oxy-acetylene flame
4. It used by deep sea divers and mountain climbers 5.
Liquid oxygen s used in rockets when in outer space to
support burning of hydrogen.
Laboratory Preparation Of Oxygen
In the laboratory, oxygen gas can be prepared using the
following chemicals reactions:
(1) Thermal Catalytic Decomposition Of Potassium
Chlorate, KClO3.
Potassium chlorate is mixed with a catalyst manganese
(IV) oxide (MnO2). Upon heating it decomposes into
potassium chloride and oxygen gas as shown below.
2KClO3(s) 2KCl(s) + 3O2(g)
(2) Catalytic Decomposition Of Hydrogen Peroxide
(H2O2)
 The equation for the reaction is as shown below;
2H2O2(aq) 2H2O (l) + O2(g)
Manganese (IV) oxide i.e. MnO2 is used as a catalyst in
this reaction.
Industrial Preparation Of Oxygen
In industries, oxygen is prepared by the process known
as fractional distillation of liquid air. The steps in this
method are as follows;
Step I : Air is filtered to remove dust particles and then
cooled to -80oC remove water vapour and carbon
dioxide.
Step II : The remaining gases in air are compressed and
further cooled to -200 oC. At this temperature, all gases
in air are in liquid form (liquefied air) except for neon
and helium which are then separated from liquid air.
Step III: The liquid air (liquefied air) is then heated in
the fractionating column were gases are separated
according to their boiling points as shown below.
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 Nitrogen is collected first because it boils off first at -
196oC as it has the lowest boiling point, followed by
Argon at -186oC and then Oxygen at -183oC.
Uses Of Oxygen In Natural Processes
 In living organisms including man oxygen is
used for respiration.
Uses Of Oxygen In Industries
 In hospitals, oxygen is used to help patients with
breathing problems.
 Used in the extraction of iron the blast furnace.
 Oxygen is used in the purification of molten steel
 Astronauts and deep sea divers carry cylinders of
oxygen for breathing.
 Used in cutting and welding metals e.g. when
oxygen is mixed acetylene to form oxy-acetelyne oxy-
acetylene burns strongly and the flame gets so hot that it
is able to cut through metals by melting them. The flame
can also be used to join metals to each other.
OZONE LAYER
Ozone is made up of three oxygen atoms i.e. O 3 and
forms a layer in the upper atmosphere known as the
ozone layer.
Importance Of The Ozone Layer
 It protects the earth from the sun’s harmful ultra
violet radiation that would destroy most forms of life.
Dangers Of Ozone Layer Depletion
Depletion of ozone layer can cause the harmful ultra
violet rays to reach the earth’s surface and can result in;
 Skin cancer and respiratory diseases in humans
 Destruction of forms of life.
[C] WATER
Water (H2O) is chemically known as hydrogen oxide.
Tests For Water
 Water turns white copper (II) sulphate from white to
blue.
 This is because anhydrous (dry) copper (II)
sulphate is able to incorporate some water molecules
into its crystal structure to form blue hydrated copper
(II) sulphate. The equation is as shown below:
CuSO4(s) + H2O(l) CuSO4.5H2O
Uses Of Water Chemical Properties Of Ammonia
Domestic uses of water include:  Reacts as a reducing agent. e.g. in the equation
 Drinking below copper (II) oxide is reduced to pure copper by
 Cooking ammonia.
 Washing and bathing 3CuO(s) + 2NH3(g) 3Cu(s) + H2O (l) + N2(g)
 Water sports.  Aqueous ammonia (NH4OH) reacts with an acid to
form salt and water only.
Industrial Uses Of Water Include:  It burns in oxygen to form nitrogen gas and
 Irrigation water.
 Manufacture of chemicals
 Hydroelectric power generation Laboratory Preparation Of Ammonia Gas
 Transportation  In the laboratory, ammonia can be prepared by
 Processing of food and drinks reacting an ammonium salt with an alkali. e.g.
2NH4Cl(aq) + Ca(OH)2(aq) CaCl2 + 2H2O(l) +2NH(g)
[D] NITROGEN
 At room temperature and pressure nitrogen Collection Of Ammonia Gas
exists as a diatomic gas i.e N 2. It occupies about 79% of  Ammonia gas is collected by upward delivery
the air in the atmosphere. (downward displacement of air) as it is lighter than air.
Characteristics Of Nitrogen Industrial Preparation Of Ammonia Gas
 It’s colourless  The method used to make ammonia in industries is
 Slightly soluble in water known as Haber process. In this method, hydrogen gas
 It is odourless (formed using steam reforming of a natural gas) and
nitrogen gas (obtained from air by fractional distillation
Industrial Preparation Of Nitrogen of liquid air) are reacted to form ammonia as shown by
the equation below;
 Nitrogen is obtained from air by fractional
N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g)
distillation of liquid air.
The double headed arrows in the equation shows that
the reaction is reversible, meaning that it can either go
Uses Of Nitrogen
forward or backwards depending on the conditions.
 It’s used in food packaging to keep the food
fresh.
Steps In The Haber Process
 Used to quick freeze foods and liquids.
Step I: The mixture of gasses is purified and then
 It’s used to prevent fires since it’s unreactive.
compressed at pressure of about 250 atm.
 Used in the manufacture of ammonia Step II: The compressed gas is pumped into a converter
chamber where it flows over beds of iron pellets, iron
[E] AMMONIA acts as catalysts in the reaction. This is done at a
Ammonia is a gas and it contains one nitrogen atom temperature of about 400oC to 500oC.
covalently bonded to three hydrogen atoms i.e. NH3 The diagram below shows a summary of the haber
process.
Physical Properties Of Ammonia Gas
 It has a pungent choking smell
 It’s poisonous
 It’s colourless
 It is soluble in water and forms ammonia
solution.
 It is less dense than air and can easily be

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Thermal Decomposition Of Ammonium Salts
Ammonium salts decompose (breakdown) when heated
as shown below;
a) When heated, ammonium chloride sublimes to
ammonia gas and hydrogen chloride gas.
NH4Cl(s) NH3(g) + HCl(g)
b) When heated, ammonium nitrate decomposes to
produce dinitrogen oxide and gas (N2O) and water.
NH4NO3(s) N2O(g) +2H2O(l)
c) When heated, ammonium carbonate decomposes to
form carbon dioxide, water and ammonia gas.
(NH4)2CO3(s) CO2(g) + H2O(l) +2NH3(g)
Uses Of Ammonia Gas
 Used in production of nitrogenous fertilizer
 Used in making explosives and gun powder.
 Used in making optic fibres e.g. nylon
 Used in making nitric acid
[F] NITRIC ACID
In industries, the method used to make nitric acid is
known as Ostwald process. The nitric acid is made
using ammonia from haber process and air. Steps in the
Ostwald process include;
Step I: oxidation of ammonia in the presence of
platinum-rhodium (i.e. a catalyst) at a temperature of
900oC
4NH3(g) + 5O2(g) 4NO(g) + 6H2O(l)
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Step II: the nitrogen monoxide produced is cooled and
reacted with excess air to form nitrogen dioxide gas
2NO(g) + O2(g) 2NO2(g)
Step III: the nitrogen dioxide is dissolved in water to
produce nitric acid and more nitrogen monoxide.
3NO2(g) + H2O(l) 2HNO3(aq) + NO(g)
The nitrogen monoxide is reused to produce more nitric
acid.
Nitrogenous Fertilizers
 All fertilizers that contain nitrogen are known
as nitrogenous fertilizers and are made from ammonia.
 Nitrogenous fertilizer are made of soluble salts
that contain nutrients for plant growth. Examples of
nitrogenous fertilizers include: potassium nitrate,
ammonium nitrate, ammonium sulphate, urea e.t.c.
 The three macro nutrients needed for plant
growth are nitrogen, phosphorous (promotes root
growth etc) and potassium (required for seed formation
etc).
Importance Of Nitrogenous Fertilizers
Nitrogen in plants is important because;
 Encourages vegetative growth
 Improves quality of leaf crops
 It forms part of chlorophyll.
Effects Of Nitrogenous Fertilizers On The
Environment
 Eutrophication – this is when excess fertilizer is
washed into the rivers and lakes causing the overgrowth
of green matter which results into plants and other living
organisms e.g. fish to compete for nutrients.
 Excess use of fertilizer results into acidic soils.
 Excess fertilizer washed into river and lakes
results into water pollution.
[G] CARBON
Allotropes Of Carbon
 Allotropes are different forms of the same element
existing in the same physical state.
 Allotropes of carbon are graphite and diamond.
A) Graphite
 Each carbon atom in graphite is bonded to three other
carbon atoms forming hexagons which are joined
together forming large flat sheets.
 The flat sheets are joined together by weak forces of  It does not conduct electricity
attraction. As a result these sheets are able to slide over  It is colourless and sparkles in light
one another.
 The diagram below shows the structure of Uses Of Diamond
graphite.  Used to make drill bits and drilling machines
 Making diamond saw blades
 Used to make glass cutters
 Used to make jewellery

[H] CARBON MONOXIDE

Formation Of Carbon Monoxide
 Carbon monoxide is formed by reduction of
carbon dioxide by carbon.
CO2(g) + C(s) 2CO(g)
 Carbon monoxide is formed when carbon or carbon
compounds is burnt in inadequate supply of oxygen.
Characteristics Of Graphite 2C(s) + O2(g) 2CO(g)
 It is soft and the layers can slide over each other Physical Properties Of Carbon Monoxide
 It has a slippery feel  It’s Colourless
 Its dark grey, shiny solid  It’s odourless
 It conducts electricity, because of the free mobile  It’s slightly lighter than air
electrons that are not used in bonding.  It’s very poisonous
 It burns slowly in air.  It interferes with oxygen transport around the
body.
Uses Of Graphite Chemical Properties Of Carbon Monoxide
 Used as lubricant  It reacts as a strong reducing agent.
 Used in pencils  It burns in air or oxygen with a blue flame
 Used as brushes in electric motors producing carbon dioxide.
B) Diamond  Carbon monoxide is poisonous as it interferes
Each carbon atom is bonded to four other carbon atoms with oxygen supply in the body resulting into coma.
resulting into a tetrahedral shape.
The diagram below shows the structure of diamond [I] CARBON DIOXIDE
Carbon dioxide forms about 0.03% of the volume of air.
Laboratory Preparation Of Carbon Dioxide
The following methods can be used to prepare carbon
dioxide.
a) Reaction of dilute acids with carbonate or hydrogen
carbonate.
Na2CO3(s) + 2HCl NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
b) Thermal decomposition of metal carbonates
e.g. CaCO3(s) CaO(s) + CO2(g)
c) When carbon burns in adequate supply of oxygen.
C(s) + O2 CO2(g)
Collection Of Carbon Dioxide Gas
Characteristics Of Diamond  Carbon dioxide is denser than air, therefore it can
 It is the hardest naturally occurring substance be collected by downward delivery method
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Identity Test Of Carbon Dioxide Gas
 It turns lime water (solution of calcium hydroxide)
milky. Lime water turns milky due to the formation of
insoluble calcium carbonate. The equation for the
reaction is as shown below;
CO2(g) + Ca(OH)2(aq) CaCO3(s) + H2O(l)
 It turns off a burning splint
Physical Properties Of Carbon Dioxide Gas
 It’s colourless
 It’s odourless
 It does not support burning
 It’s slightly soluble in water
 It does not support burning
Chemical Properties Of Carbon Dioxide Gas
 Reacts with lime water to give a white precipitate
 It dissolves in water to form a weak acidic
solution of carbonic acid.
 It reacts with an alkaline solution to produce a
salt and water only.
 Quicklime is used as a drying agent in the
manufacture of ammonia
Uses Of Limestone
 Used to make glass
 Used to make cement
 Used in the extraction of iron in the blast furnace.
[K]GLOBAL WARMING AND GREENHOUSE
EFFECT
 Greenhouse effect is the absorption of the
reflected heat from the earth by greenhouse gases e.g.
carbon dioxide thereby keeping the earth warm.
 However higher levels of greenhouse gases e.g.
carbon dioxide, methane etc produced by human
activity are increasing the greenhouse effect making the
earth to become extremely hot. This is known as global
warming.

Uses Of Carbon Dioxide

 Used in fire extinguishers
 Used in making carbonated drinks
 Used as a refrigerant because it sublimes
 Used in baking
 Used by plants in photosynthesis.

[J] LIME AND LIMESTONE

 Limestone is also known as calcium carbonate. It can
be heated in a blast furnace known as lime kiln to
produce calcium oxide (quick lime). The equation
below shows the thermal decomposition of limestone
(calcium carbonate)
CaCO3(s) CaO(s) + CO2(g)
 Calcium hydroxide (slaked lime) is produced
when calcium oxide (quick lime) is dissolved in
water as shown below;
CaO(s) + H2O(l) Ca(OH)2(aq)

Uses Of Quick Lime And Slaked Lime

 Treatment of acidic soils to help crops grow
 Slaked lime is used to neutralize acids in industrial
liquid wastes.

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