Chapter II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

This chapter discusses the related literature and studies, which the researcher

considered to be valuable references in accomplishing the current experimentation.

The

researchers gathered these references from previous papers, studies, journals, and

articles

that contain ideas, evidence, and theories that might be innovated and modified in the

present work.

2.1 Fuel

Any substance that, when burned, produces valuable energy is referred to as "fuel."

These resources can be further divided into non-renewable sources, which are

exhaustible

like fossil fuels, and renewable sources, which are inexhaustible like solar energy.

Usually

referred to as “solid fuels," these are fuels that exist in their solid state at room

temperature

and were the first fuels that man was aware of, essentially being wood used to start

fires.

Another of the most significant energies known to man, coal enabled the industrial

revolution

by allowing the operation of steam engines and firing furnaces. The majority of liquid

fuels,
on the other hand, are made from the remains of extinct plants and animals that were

heated

and compressed in the earth’s crust. Along with being created from solid and liquid

fuels,

gaseous fuels are those that occur naturally. It was primarily composed of

hydrocarbons,

carbon monoxide, hydrogen, or a combination of the three (Gokulnath, 2021).

2.1.1 Industrial Impact of Fuel in the Philippines

The Philippines, which produces coal, oil, and natural gas, is seen as an

energy importer despite having low levels of consumption compared to its

surrounding Southeast Asian countries. In 2019, the country used 1.9 quadrillion

British thermal units (Btu) of primary energy in total. The majority of the primary

energy used (45%) came from petroleum and other liquids, followed by coal (36%),

natural gas (7%), non-hydropower renewables (7%), and hydroelectricity (4%). In the

same year, the country produced 37,000 barrels per day (b/d) of total petroleum and

other liquids, whereas 474,000 b/d were utilized. Although imports play a significant

role in the production of energy, the country also imports coal for ceramics, cooking,

and other industries (U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA), 2020).

2.1.2 Harms Caused by Fuel Production in the Philippines

According to Greenpeace Philippines (2020), results from a survey show that

exposure to PM2.5 pollution from fossil fuels, which is most prevalent in low-income

nations, is responsible for an estimated 40,00 children dying before turning five. The

byproducts of fossil fuel combustion in factories, power plants, and vehicles, in

particular Nitrogen Oxide (NO2), are one of the main contributors to the 4 million new

cases of childhood asthma that occur each year and the 16 million children living with

asthma worldwide due to the exposure to NO2 pollution. In new research by

Greenpeace Southeast Asia, air pollution from fossil fuels, principally coal, oil, and

gas, is responsible for an estimated 27,000 premature deaths yearly in the

Philippines and can cost the country up to 1.9% of its GDP in economic losses

annually.

2.2 Biomass

Renewable biological materials, including trees, plants, grasses, vegetables, algae,

food scraps, animal dung, and other organic wastes, are all considered to be biomass.

Each

type of biomass has a unique composition, such as ash, moisture, calorific value, and

sugar

content. For ages, biomass has been used as a fuel, and burning it is the simplest

method of

converting it to bioenergy (firewood). Burning generates heat that can be used to warm

homes and cook meals. Rural villagers continue to use biomass in their daily lives in

many

emerging third-world nations (Tong et al., 2018).

2.3 Biomass as Fuel Briquettes

Biomass-based briquettes are a biofuel substitute for coal and charcoal. It was
mostly used in underdeveloped nations that have limited access to cooking fuel. They

are

made from a variety of organic materials, such as grass, leaves, sawdust, rice husks,

corn

cobs, banana peels, and various kinds of paper. To compress these components, a

briquette

press is utilized. Biomass briquettes are superior to losing biomass because they are

compressed, allowing them to burn for a longer time (Dike Chijindu et al., 2022).

2.3.1 Usages of Biomass Briquettes

Historically, briquettes have been used as fuel for about 100 years,

particularly coal and coke briquettes. Briquetting technology was traditionally

developed in developing countries to create briquettes from local waste for use in

cooking stoves and restaurants. It was later applied in industrial boilers to produce

heat, steam, and power for industry and power plants as the machines’ capabilities

rose. Briquettes have seen an increase in use recently as the emphasis on

renewable energy has increased, along with other new technologies and applications

(Speight, 2020).

2.3.2 Threats of Utilizing Biomass Briquettes

In a report by McFarland (2019), it was stated that although biomass energy

is considered a cheaper alternative and valuable source of traditional energy, there

are still downsides to its production. Burning wood and other biomass materials

contributes to pollution which can be as combusting coal that is harmful for the

environment and the living things that composes it. Furthermore, vast amounts of
wood, the most commonly used source of biomass energy, and other waste products

have to be burned to produce the desired amount of powder, risking deforestation in

the future. Raw materials also need a large amount of space, especially in urban

areas that utilize onsite hardware and companies that can create biomass energy.

2.4 Renewable Source of Fuel Briquettes

In rural places, using wood and charcoal as alternative fuels is inevitable. Due to their

accessibility, charcoal and wood were casually used as a source of fire. However,

some

factors, such as the rising cost of charcoal and health issues caused by wood, affect its

utilization. The use of paper in urban areas contributes greatly to pollution. Paper

burns and

ignites quickly, similar to how charcoal and wood do. Although paper briquettes require

more

work than charcoal, they are more profitable and have longer burn times (Comedis et

al.,

2017).

2.5 Charcoal

A black, brittle, porous substance known as charcoal is made by burning wood in the

absence of oxygen. It has a high ignition rate, is odorless, and is a low-density

compound.

Due to its high surface area-to-volume ratio, it is an effective adsorbent and chemical

reaction catalyst. Combustion, pyrolysis, and carbonization are a few of the labor-

intensive
processes required in the manufacture of charcoal. For consistent efficiency, charcoal

will be

identified by its density, weight, and moisture content (Chaitanya, 2022).

2.5.1 Charcoal Applications

There have been many uses for charcoal throughout history. The most

common applications are in cooking and metallurgy. It can burn both plant and

animal debris with a small amount of air due to its high combustion rate. It is also

used to generate activated carbon, which works well as an odor absorber. In demand

for many industrial applications, it is also widely used as a domestic and recreational

fuel (Schwarcz, 2017).

2.5.2 Environmental Impact of Charcoal

Charcoal is considered one of the most widely accessible resources. Its broad

utility and useful properties make it possible to be used in many different ways. In

contrast, the regular use of charcoal negatively impacts our environment. Particulate

matter and a significant amount of carbon dioxide are emitted into the atmosphere as

coal is burned. Because charcoal is made of highly concentrated carbon dioxide and

stored subsurface energy, combusting it can have potentially fatal consequences.

Due to the discharge of coal ash when charcoal is used, it may emit radiation. With

the mining procedures, charcoal also has an impact on the habitat of forest animals

(Gaille, 2018).

2.6 Organic Waste from Wood Timbers and Corns

Wood, or "timber," is known for its usage in construction. Wood has a high
strength-to-weight ratio and is used efficiently in structures where it is carrying a lot of

its

own weight. However, the daily supply of wood and timber affects our environment,

and it

does contribute to deforestation. It is generally due to clearing land for agriculture

rather than

logging for timber (Ramagea et al., 2017). On the other side, Corn. Corn production

produces byproducts that can be fed to livestock. Still, after the corn is consumed, the

residues are left in the field. Farmers usually dispose of these wastes by open burning.

This

work proposes turning corn residues into fertilizer and biomass fuel as a more

environmentally-friendly waste elimination method, yet it still affects our environment

(Tiammee & Likasiri, 2020).

2.7 Corn Cob

A corn cob is distinguished as the central core of an ear of corn. The remaining part

of the ear after stripping the corn kernels is responsible for 75–85% of the 75–85%

weight of

the ear of the cone (Guo & Lü, 2021). Young ears of corn, also called baby corn, can

be

eaten raw, but as the plant matures, the cobs become stiff and only the kernels are

edible.

Corn cobs are compact and proportionally uniform, and they have a high heat value. It

has a
high combustion rate, which is similar to charcoal. Due to the corn's rough texture, the

corn

cob will ignite exceedingly quickly. Drying corn cobs is an optimal way to increase their

combustibility when ignited. Additionally, corn cobs have a high rate of moisture

absorption

and a compliant surface (Corn Cob Dryer: The Ideal Solution for You Corn, 2021).

2.7.2 Usages of Corn Cob

A corn cob was usually left after corn was consumed, either stored for other

household purposes or decomposing. There are complex varieties and ways to reuse

corn cobs as an alternative fuel, bedding for animals, fire starters due to their high

combustion rate, grilling, and poaching (Vinton, 2019). It can also be made into

fertilizer by drying it and undergoing some processes to provide the right nutrients for

plants.

2.8 Coconut Lumber Sawdust

One of the most typical wastes seen in various nations is coconut wood

sawdust. By sawing, one can obtain this tiny piece of wood waste. Its size is

determined by the types of wood and the saw's teeth. Sawdust makes up roughly

10–13% of the overall volume of the wood log. However, it can be used in different

ways, so it won't be wasted (Sulaiman et al., 2018). Sawdust has a moisture content

of 10.8%, an apparent specific gravity of 0.14, 84% porosity, and a 50% water

retention rate. Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen make up the majority of

sawdust's chemical components (60.8%, 5.2%, 33.8%, and 0.9%, respectively).

Cellulose, lignin, hemicelluloses, and trace amounts (5–10%) of foreign substances

make up the majority of the chemical makeup of dry wood. To comprehend and

utilize the many things around us, it is crucial to ascertain the physical and chemical

characteristics of sawdust (Phonphuak & Chindaprasirt, 2015).

2.8.2 Sawdust Applications

There are numerous applications for sawdust. Its combustibility makes it

suitable for use as a fire starter. Due to its accessibility, charcoal is also employed as

briquettes in several nations. Some researchers made a study to determine how

effectively the briquettes may be used; they combined sawdust with various

substances. They did it to produce bio-briquettes (Powers, 2020).

2.9 Briquette Binder

According to Okey Francis Obi and colleagues' study (2022), binders are frequently

added during the densification process to increase the cohesive strength of the

briquette

material. The collection, transportation, storage, processing, and compaction of loose

biomass that has particular quality characteristics are frequently necessary steps in the

creation of biomass briquettes. Binders are frequently added during the densification

process to increase the cohesive strength of the briquette material. The

aforementioned

study examines current metrics for judging the quality of biomass briquettes and

focuses on

the usage of binders in briquette production. The mechanical and handling

characteristics of
biomass briquettes are also covered.

2.9.1 Types of Briquette Binder

There are three types of binder used in the briquetting process: inorganic,

organic, and compound. The abundance of materials, affordability, outstanding

thermostability, and good hydrophilicity are just a few of the many great benefits of

inorganic binders. However, the large increase in ash that results from the use of

inorganic binders poses a significant issue. Organic binders provide several great

benefits, including strong bonding, efficient combustion, and little ash. However,

because the organic binder is easily broken down and burns when heated, its

mechanical strength and thermal stability are low, and its cost is considerable.

Composite binders are made up of at least two binders, each of which has a distinct

function. The compound binder can fully utilize the benefits of all types of binder,

including the ability to decrease the supply of inorganic binder, lower the cost of

organic binder, enhance briquette quality, and increase briquette performance (Zhang

et al., 2018).

2.10 Cornstarch

A carbohydrate obtained from the corn endosperm is known as cornstarch or

cornflour. This powdery white material has numerous industrial, domestic, and culinary

uses.

It was created in New Jersey in 1844, and today it is manufactured there as well as in

China,

Brazil, India, and other nations that grow maize. The majority of the time, cornstarch is

used
in the kitchen to thicken marinades, sauces, gravies, glazes, soups, casseroles, pies,

and

other desserts. It is used in food across the globe, with North America and Asia

dominating

both production and consumption (Moncel, 2022). When the cornstarch is mixed with

water,

you are causing a physical change, even though it may not be obvious. Heating

cornstarch

and water increases the size and viscosity of the starch granules, eventually forming a

paste

or gel (Yue & Moon, 2021). Mixed cornstarch and water have the properties of both

liquids

and solids.

2.10.2 Corn Starch Applications

Cornstarch is primarily used as a thickening agent. It's made up of a long

chain of starch molecules that will unravel and swell when heated in the presence of

moisture. Cornstarch is mainly used for binding and serves as a thickening agent

(Fincher, 2020). A study conducted by Aransiola and Ogunjimi (2019) used corn

starch, together with cassava starch and gelatin, as a binder in the production of the

briquettes at the predetermined compacting pressure levels of 50, 100, and 150 kPa

using a hydraulic press. The findings indicated that increased binder concentrations

and compacting pressure result in better briquettes, which are better for storage and

transportation. In conclusion, a mixture of carbonized corn cobs, cassava starch,

corn starch, and gelatin can be used to create high-quality and storable briquettes.

This is due to the fact that the manufactured briquettes' relaxed density and

compressive strength are sufficient, and their storage period or service life

demonstrated acceptable stability after a few months.

2.11 Briquette Production

Briquetting, also called densification, is the process of compacting wastes into a

product with a higher density than the initial raw materials (Dike Chijindu et al., 2022).

Briquettes can be made from a variety of materials, including rice straws, wheat

straws,

cotton stalks, rice husks, corn cobs, sugar cane waste (bagasse), fruit branches, and

other

raw materials. The kind of feedstock, level of moisture, and mold affect its appearance,

burning properties, and compactness. In keeping with Kpalo et al. (2020), with the

application of pressure, heat, and a binding agent to the residues, densification occurs

and

briquettes are produced. Briquettes come in a variety of qualities and dimensions

depending

on the raw materials, mold, and technologies used.

2.11.1 Size Reduction

Before briquetting, raw materials are broken down into tiny particles, a

process known as size reduction. It is considered a very important process prior to

biomass briquette production. Reduced biomass could result in an increase in bulk

density, which enhances the flow of biomass during densification. Several size
reduction methods include chopping, chipping, hammering, milling, crushing,

shredding, and grinding. The different classifications of size-reduced biomass were

chopped (50–250 mm), chipped (8–50 mm), or ground (<8 mm) (Kpalo et al., 2020).

As part of a study by Wang et al. (2017), the effects of mixing different sizes

of materials were tested using rice straw. It was milled and chopped and mixed in

different proportions. It was found that particle size had similar effects on the

compressive strength and density of the briquettes. Those milled materials had

higher compressive strength and density than those that were chopped.

2.11.2 Ratio of Mixtures

In research from Senchi and Kofa (2020), rice husk and corn cob ratios vary

between 50:50, 60:40, 70:30, 80:20, and 100:0 with a constant amount of 25 g of

starch. A proximate analysis of the results showed that due to the low contents of

moisture and ash and the high volatile matter percentage, corn cob briquettes have

significantly better qualities as fuel briquettes than those produced from rice husks. In

the other study, Rajaseenivasan et al. (2016) included in their second test the

developed briquettes made from blending sawdust and neem powder at different

ratios (100:0, 75:25, 50:50, 25:75, and 0:100). By increasing the amount of neem

powder, the performance of sawdust briquettes was enhanced in terms of their

strength, handling, water resistance properties, and specific fuel consumption.

2.11.3 Binder Addition

The addition of binder usually occurs after thoroughly blending the mixtures of

materials before densification. In an investigation of a corncob and rice husk blend

from Dike Chijindu et al. (2022), an amount of 180 ml of distilled water and 130 ml of
starch were mixed and gelatinized to formulate starch gel, the utilized binder, by a

270 ml addition of boiling water. It was reported that the different blending ratios

affect the intermolecular bond between the briquettes. While the Khlifi et al. (2020)

study used mixtures of olive pomace and cornstarch at ratios of 70%:30%, 85%:15%,

90%:10%, and 100%:0%. Test results showed that 85%-5% was the optimal mixture

of materials, which improved the briquettes' moisture content, ash content, and

compressive strength.

2.11.4 Densification

In accordance with research by Dike Chijindu et al. (2022), briquettes made

from rice husks and corn cobs were densified using a hydraulic machine (40 MPa)

with a 120-second duration each. Briquettes are created at 5 MPa pressure, with a

maximum compressed density of 2.1 g/cm3 and a relaxed density of 0.82 g/cm3.

Akpenpuun et al. (2020) employed a briquetting screw press (BSP) in producing

briquettes at 18 MPa pressure for 60 seconds. It has dimensions of 60 mm by 60 mm

and is square in shape. Its compaction pressure ranges from 3.55 to 4.36 for SRP

and 3.75 to 4.70 for GSP briquettes, while its relaxed density was 2.61 to 3.32 and

2.60 for 2.97.

2.11.5 Oven Drying

The oven drying approach is a thermogravimetric method (loss on drying

method) that dries the pattern at a regular temperature for an exact duration of time.

The moisture content of the material is determined by weighing the pattern before

and after drying to differentiate the results. Samples have the same temperature as
the drying oven and are heated by a process called convection (Mettler-Toledo

International Inc., 2022). This method is commonly used for moisture content

determination to represent the moisture content of the sample (Thomas, 2019). In a

study by Ku Ahmad et al. (2018), the characterization of banana tree waste as fuel

briquettes was investigated. Briquettes were fabricated, and to ensure their internal

strength and combustion capacity, they were dried for 48 hours in an oven at 60 °C.

2.12 Briquetting Instruments and Machinery

There are several types of briquetting machines available for the densification and

compaction of biomass. Their mode of operation varies from one principle to another.

Several studies have identified these machines to include the screw press extruder,

roller

press, piston press (which can either be mechanical or hydraulic), and manual press

(Kpalo

et al., 2020). Moreover, equipment such as a digital weighing balance (NBL-2602e;

0.01 g

sensitivity), bunsen burner, stopwatch, meter rule, grinding machine, sieve, Petri dish,

bomb

calorimeter (IKA C2000/Kv600), and plastic basin is needed (Akpenpuun et al., 2020).

2.12.1 Manual Hydraulic Press

Traditionally, hydraulic presses were small, with capacities from 50 kg/h up to

200 kg/h. At present, hydraulic presses are made mainly in rectangular forms with a

capacity up to 1.5 tons per hour. It was round in shape, with measurements of 50 mm

to 75 mm and a usual size of 150 mm by 60 mm, where larger amounts of briquettes

can be made. Utilizing this press enhances the production of briquettes from mixed

materials with large particles that are very compact. It was typically applied as

consumer briquettes for fireplaces and wood-burning stoves (Knudsen, 2017).

2.13 Economic Value

Briquettes, compared to charcoal, are cheaper and can be used to cook for a family of

five to six. The availability of wood charcoal and fuel briquettes has increased as a

result of

the current fuels' rising pricing. Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) now costs Php 3.50

more per

kilogram. An 11-kg LPG household ranged from Php 797 to Php 1,000 (Mercurio,

2022).

According to the Meralco Spokesperson, the abrupt rise in electricity prices from Php

0.0844 per kilowatt-hour (kWh) to Php 9.9472 per kWh is mostly caused by the hike in

the

costs associated with power supply agreements (Varcas, 2022).

2.14 Data Evaluation

In identifying the qualities of the briquettes in terms of their density, moisture content,

burning time, and ash content, the researchers will select certain variables in different

ratios and measurements. Statistical analysis will be done, and the performance of

each mixture at

different tests will be recorded and analyzed systematically. Collected data will be

interpreted, favorably compared, and presented using tabulated data, a commonly

used
framework for measuring product performance (Akpenpuun et al., 2020). In the study

of

Senchi and Kofa (2020), the statistical differences were carried out using one-way

analysis

of variance (ANOVA).

2.15.1 Briquetting Quality Tests and Parameters

Briquette quality is dependent on the briquetting process and raw materials.

Some of the benefits of fuel briquettes include combustion efficiency, stability and

durability in storage and handling or transportation, and safety to the environment

when combusted. The determining factors in combustion are calorific value, ignition,

and ash content, whereas toxic emissions from combustion are used to gauge

environmental concern. The stability and longevity of briquettes are instead

determined by the briquetting procedure. Based on a record, briquettes density

varies from ≥0. 09 𝑔𝑔𝑔 and ≥ , moisture content ranges from ≤12% and

−3

1. 0 𝑔𝑔𝑔

−3

≤15%, and ash content of ≤1.0%, and ≤3.0% (Kpalo et al., 2020). Additionally, in a

study by Kabok et al. (2018), the ignition and burning times of sawdust briquettes

were tested, and the results varied between 18 and 23 and 20 and 26 minutes, which

is not significantly different from the standard burning time (17 minutes).

2.15.1.1 Density

As briquette density is highly influenced by raw material particle size

and moisture content, the higher the density of a briquette, the longer the

burning time, and the more heat is emitted (Akpenpuun et al., 2020). In

accordance with the research study by Sunardi et al. (2019), the density test

is performed by weighing the appropriate briquette weight, measuring the

height and diameter of the briquette, and then multiplying the results

expressed in volumes as follows: P=M/V, where: Ρ = density (grams per cubic

centimeter), M = briquette mass (grams), and Υ = volume (cm3).

2.15.1.2 Moisture Content

An estimate of the fuel's water content can be obtained from its

moisture content. By drying a precisely weighed sample in an oven at 105°C

until the appropriate consistency is attained in the sample's mass, the

moisture content can be ascertained. The amount of moisture in the biomass

can have an effect on how well it burns because moisture absorbs heat from

the burning fuel and uses it to create vapor, which reduces the amount of heat

it can produce during combustion. A high moisture level can make ignition

difficult. It is calculated using the equation: MC=(X1-X2/X1)100%, where: MC

= moisture content, X1 = weight of the initial sample (grams), and X2 = weight

of the sample after drying (grams) (Sunardi et al., 2019).

2.15.1.3 Burning time

According to Kabok et al. (2018), the average amount of time from the

time the briquettes are lit until the water boils is known as the “burning time."

It was determined by recording the weight of the briquettes both before and

after they were totally consumed by fire. The rate at which the briquette
samples were consumed by fire was computed using the equation: burning

rate = mass of total fuel consumed (g)/total time taken (min) (Hassan et al.

2017).

2.15.1.3 Ash Content

In research by Akpenpuun et al. (2020), the residual samples in the

crucibles were heated without a lid in an electric furnace at 700 °C for one

hour. The crucibles were then removed, chilled, and weighed. Ash content is

a measurement of the amount of different types of inorganic material in the

test specimen. This test procedure comprises determining the amount of ash

expressed as a percentage of the test subject’s residual dry oxidation results.

Ash content is calculated based on the equation: AC = (F-G/W)100%, where

AC = ash content and F = weight of crucible and ash (in grams) (Sunardi et

al., 2019).