Understanding Chassis and Body of Automobile

1.
1 Introduction of Chassis Frame

Chassis frame is the basic frame work of the automobile. It supports all
the parts of the automobile attached to it. It is made of drop forged steel. All the
parts related to automobiles are attached to it only. All the systems related to
automobile like powerplant,transmission, steering, suspension, braking system
etc are attached to and supported by it only.
1.2 Layout of Chassis and its main components
UNIT 1 “Chassis” a French term which means the complete Automobiles without
Body and it includes all the systems like power plant, transmission, steering,
suspension , wheels tyres , auto electric system etc. without body. If Body is
also attached to it them it is known as the particular vehicle as per the shape and
Chassis Frame and Body design of the body.
Structure
1.1 Introduction of chassis frame
1.2 Layout of chassis and its main components
1.3 Functions of the chassis frame
Front Shackle Frame Shackel
1.4 Types of chassis frame Rear
D u m b spring Spring
1.5 Various loads acting on the chassis frame Iron Engine Gear box
Prope l le r Rear Axle
Radiator Clutch
1.6 Different bodies used in Automobiles Shaft
1.7 Requirement of bodies for various types of vehicles.
Learning Objectives
After studying this unit the student will able to learn about
• Requirement of chassis frame
• Types of Chassis frame Side members Horizontal Pet rol
Member Tank
• Loads acting on chassis frame
• Layout of chassis and its parts
Fig 1.1 Chassis
• Different types of automobile bodies
90 Automobile Engineering Technician Paper - II Auto Chassis and Body Engineering 91
1.3 The Functions of the Chassis frame 1.6 Different Bodies used in Automobiles
1. To carryall the stationary loads attached to it and loads of passenger The automobiles bodies are designed according to the requirement of
and cargo carried in it . the vehicle. According to design and requirement of the vehicle , there are
different types of Automobiles bodies. Some of them are listed as below :
2. To withstand torsional vibration caused by the movement of the vehicle
(i) Car
3. To withstand the centrifugal force caused by cornering of the vehicle
(ii) Straight truck or Punjab truck body
4. To control the vibration caused by the running of the vehicle
(iii) Truck with half body
5. To withstand bending stresses due to rise and fall of the front and rear
axles. (iv) Platform type truck
1.4 Types of Chassis frame (v) Tractor
There are different types of chassis frame sections (vi) Tractor with articulated trailer
1. Channel section (vii) Tanker
2. Box section (viii) Bus
3. Tubular section (ix) Dumper truck
The conventional frame is also known as Non-load carrying frame. In (x) Delivery van
this types of frame , the loads on the vehicle are transferred to the suspension by
(x) Station wagon
the frame which is the main skeleton of the vehicle.
(xi) Pick up van
The channel section is used in long members and box section in short
members. Tubular section is used now-a-days is three wheelers, scooters, (xii) Jeep
matadors and pickup vans.
(xiv) Long wheel base truck etc
The frames should be strong enough to bear load while sudden brakes
and accidents.
1.7 Requirement of Bodies for various types of vehicle
According to requirement , automobile bodies are classified mainly into
1.5 Various loads acting on the Chassis frame
different types namely private vehicle, commercial vehicle, fleet transport vehicle,
The loads acting on the chassis frame are as follow passenger transport vehicle, Ambulances vehicle used for transport of Army
personal, Ammunition etc., different types of tanker vehicle etc. If it is a private
1. Stationary loads namely the loads of permanent attachment like all
vehicle, the vehicle is used for luxury personal travelling , private cargo transport
the parts of the chassis, body etc.
etc, namely car , mini van , Omni bus, matador etc.
2. Short duration loads while turning , braking etc.
If it is commercial vehicle the vehicle is used for transportation of goods
3. Momentary loads while quick acceleration , sudden braking etc. some other vehicles, freezer boxes etc. If it is tanker, it is used to transport milk
, water, edible oils, petroleum products , gases , acids etc. The tanker bodies
4. Loads applied while crossing roads of irregular and uneven surfaces
are designed according to the relevant requirement .
5. Loads caused by sudden accidents, head on collusions etc.
6. Loads caused by irregular and overloading of vehicle.
If it is an army vehicles, the vehicle are separately designed namely Arm 3. What is the purpose of chassis frame?
truck, heavy long wheel base cargo trucks , long platform trucks etc. These are
4. Mention any eight types of automobile bodies.
exclusively used to carry the army personal, arms and ammunitions etc.
Some automobiles manufacturing companies are using long wheel base
Long Answer Type Questions
trucks with closed body structure for transporting of the vehicle produced in 1. List out the functions of chassis frame.
their factories to different market outlets.
2. Mention various loads acting on chassis frame.
The private vehicles used in different fields namely Buses of different
3. Discuss about the requirements of different automobile bodies.
types, air conditioned Buses, station Wagons etc, Usually Road Transport
organization of a state is a fleet organized jointly by the state Government an
exclusive body which is to operate buses for travelling of passenger to various
places within the state as well as Inter-State travelling also the Road transport
corporation organization is having differently designed buses namely ordinary
body buses, Deluxe buses , semi luxury buses, Air conditioned buses and also
buses with sleeper coach etc.
Summary
• Chassis is the basic framework of the automobile. It supports all the
parts of the automobile.
• It has to withstand centrifugal force while cornering and bending
stresses due to rise and fall of front and rear axles.
• Different types of chassis frames are i. Channel section ii. Box
section iii. Tubular section.
• The loads acting on chassis frame are
i. Stationary loads of permanent attachments.
ii. Short duration loads while turning, braking etc.
iii. Loads applied while crossing irregular and uneven surfaces.
iv. Loads caused by irregular and overloading of the vehicle.
v. Loads caused by sudden accidents.
vi. Momentary loads while quick acceleration, sudden braking
etc.
Short Answer Type Questions
1. Define chassis.
2. Mention the types of chassis frame.
(iv) Different measurement and angles in steering gears measurement
and angles in steering geometry namely castor angle, camber angle,
king inclination Toe-etc.
(v) Different defects in steering namely wheel wobble , hard steering
etc.
2.1 Requirements of Vehicle Steering System
The steering system of a vehicle is having the following requirements
UNIT 2 (1) It should be able to turn the vehicle with more mechanical advantage
and less efforts.
(2) It should turn the wheel within shortest possible time
Steering System (3) There should be self-centering action in the steering geometry
(4) It should be certain degree irreversible so that the shocks of the
roads surface are not transmitted to the hands of the driver.
2.2 Types of Steering Gear Xoxes
Structure
1. Worm and wheel steering gear
2.1 Requirement of vehicle steering system
2. Worm and roller steering gear
2.2 Types of steering Gear boxes
3. Worm and sector steering gear
2.3 Types of Steering systems and power steering.
4. Can and lever steering gear
2.4 Steering linkages
5. Rack and pinion steering gear
2.5 Under Steering, Over steering and Turning Radius.
6. Re circulating ball steering gear
2.6 Steering gear mechanisms.
2.2.1 Worm and wheel steering gear
2.7 Steering geometry - Caster, Camber, Kingpin inclination, toe-in and
In this type of steering gear box there will be worm at the bottom end
toe-out.
of steering inner column. This worm meshes with a wheel in steering gear box
2.8 Steering defects - wheel wobble and shimmy. housing. When steering wheel turned, the steering column revolves and the wheel
is rotated along with it . This causes the drop arm to move and thereby move
2.9 List out the types of steering systems used in various vehicles.
drag link and other steering linkages like Tie-rod king pin etc.
Learning Objectives
2.2.2 Worm and Roller
After studying this unit ,the student should be able to learn the
In this steering gear, there will be a worm at the bottom end of inner
(i) Requirement of vehicle steering column and a roller is there in the steering gear box. When the worm rotates, the
roller which is attached to it also rotates causing the Roller to rotate and there by
(ii) Types of steering system
moving drop arm.
(iii) Types of steering gears and their application in various vehicles
In this type of steering gear, there will be a worm at the bottom end of
steering inner column and a part of sector shape is there in the steering gear
housing. The worm meshes with sector and it moves by the rotation of worm
and there by moving drop arm which is attached to it.
Cam and Lever steering gear
In this type of steering gear, a special worm called cam is located at the
end of inner column which it attached to column in the steering gear. When the
worm is rotated, the lever is also moved in the groove provided in the worm.
This causes the lever to swing through an arc.
2.2.4 Recirculating Ball Steering Gear
In this steering gear there will be some steel balls in the grooves of
steering inner column which move along with the steering worm. This enables to
control the friction among them and there by reducing noise. It increases the
mechanical advantage of the operator for easy and smooth operation of steering.
Fig 2.1 Worm and Roller steering Gear
2.2.3 Worm and Sector Steering Gear
Fig 2.3 Recirculating Ball steering Gear
Fig 2.2 Worm and Sector steering Gear
2.2.5 Rack and pinion Steering gear Electric power steering (EPS ) is more effects than the hydraulic power
steering since the electric power steering motor only needs to provide assistance
In this steering gear, a pinion is mounted at the end of the steering inner when the steering wheels turned where as the hydraulic pump must run constantly.
column. It engages the rack which has ball joints at each end to allow the raise The main components of an integral power steering system consist of a hydraulic
and fall of the wheels, the rods are connected with ball joints to the sub axles. pump assembly connected with hoses. A rotary valve power steering gear for
The rotary movement of steering wheel turn the pinion which moves the rock the integral system using recirculating ball type worm and wheel steering gear is
sideways parallel to tie rod. most commonly used one.
Hydraulic pump
assembly
Return Line
Hose assembly
Pressume Hose
Assembly
Steering Gear
Fig 2.4 Rack and Pinion steering gear Assembly
2.3 Types of Steering system
The steering system is said to be of different types according to its
position along with the vibration of front wheels.
Fig 2.5 Power steering Gear
When deflection of the steered wheels due to road surface is transmitted
through the steering linkage and steering gear box to the steering wheel, the 2.4 Steering linkages
system is said to be “Reversible steering” The steering linkage is a connection of various links between the steering
If every small imperfection of the road surface cause the steering to gear box and the front wheels. The motion of pitman arm of steering gearbox is
rotate it is known as Reversible steering . But it is not advisable. Some degree of transferred to the steering knuckles of the front wheels through the steering
reversibility is needed so that the wheels will find to strength up after negotiating linkage.
a bending. This effect is called semi reversible . When steered wheels do not
cause any deflects due to road irregularities it is known as irreversible steering.
The semi reversible steering is always desired.
Power Steering
The power steering system provides additional assistance to the turning
effort applied to the manual steering system.
The power steering is of two types – Hydraulic and electric/ electronic
. A hydraulic –electric hybrid system is also possible.
A hydraulic power steering (HPS) used hydraulic pressure applied by
on engine driven pump to assist the motion of turning the steering wheel.
Fig 2.6 Power steering Gear
When the steering wheel is turned to the left or right , the pitman arm When the slip angle is smaller at the rear than at the front, the vehicle tends to
swings from one side to the other. This movement of the pitman arm gives angular “under steer” .
movement to the front wheels through the steering linkage.
The under steer is most commonly preferred because correction by the
The most commonly use steering linkage is conventional steering linkage. driver involves rotating the steering wheel a little more in the direction of the
The pitman Arm (drop arm) is connected directly by a connecting link namely turn.
drag link to a steering knuckle arm attached to the left hand steering knuckle.
It can be noted that the slip angle is affected by the road camber side
The motion is carried across from this arm to a steering arm on the right side
winds, tyre inflation and variations in the load on either the front or rear axle.
steering knuckle by means of the rod. The drag link and drop arm (Pitman
Arm) are mounted on the left side of the frame. Turing Radius : Turning radius is the radius of the circle on which the
outside front wheel moves when the front wheels are turned to their extreme
In some designs the drag link is connected between the drop arm and
outer position.
right steering knuckle arm by locating drop arm beneath the steering gear.
This radius is 5 to 7m for buses and trucks. The turning radius is usually
In direct cross type steering linage, the pitman arm (Drop Arm) is
proportioned to the wheel base of the vehicle , because the maximum rotation
connected directly to one and of the rod which its turn is connected to another.
of the steering knuckle is seldom more than 35 degrees.
The other ends of the rods are connected to the steering arms.
2.6 Steering Gear Mechanism
There are two types of steering gear mechanism.
1. Davis steering gear
2. Ackerman steering gear
The Davis steering gear has sliding pairs, whereas the Ackerman steering
gear has only turning pairs. The sliding pair has more friction than the turning
pair. Therefore the Davis steering gear will wear out earlier and become inaccurate
after certain time.
Although, the Ackerman steering gear is not mathematically accurate
except in their position, contrary to the Davis steering gear which is mathematically
correct in a position
However, Ackerman steering gear is preferred to Davis steering gear
Davis steering Gear : The Davis steering gear mechanism consist of a
cross link “KL” sliding parallel to another link “AB” and its connecting to the
Fig 2.7 Conventionaal steering linkage
stub axles of the two front wheels by means of two similar bell crane levers
2.5 Under Steering, Over steering and Turning Radius “ACK” and “DBL” pivoted at “A” on the “B” respectively. The cords link
“KL” slides on the bearing and carries pins at its ends “K” and “L”. The slide
While taking a turn, the wheels are not always pointing in direction in blocks are pivoted on these pins and move with the turning of bell crane levers
which the vehicle is moving, due to distortion of tyretread. The angle between as the steering wheel is operated. When the vehicle is running straight, the gear
the wheel inclination and the path taken by the wheel is known as “Slip angle” . is said to be in mid position. The short Arms “AK” and “BL” are inclined at an
When the slip angle is greater at the rear than of the front, the vehicle tends to angle of “90 + 0C” to their stub axles “AC” and “BD” respectively
“over steer” the vehicle is to turn into the curve more than the driver intended.
b
Tan =
2l
Where b = AB = distance between the points of front axles.
l = wheel base
The range of b/l is 0.4 to 0.5
Hence the angle “” lies between 11.3o and 14.1 o
Fig 2.9 Ackerman steering gear
2.7 Steering geometry - Caster, Camber, Kingpin inclination,
toe-in and toe-out.
Steering Geometry : It refers to the positioning of the front wheels
and steering mechanism that gives the vehicle directional stability , promotes
ease of steering and reduces tyre wear to a minimum. It also refers to the angular
relationship between the front wheels and parts attached to the front wheel,
Fig 2.8 Davis steering gear mechanism frame of the vehicle. It depends upon the following terms. Caster angle, camber
angle, King Pin inclination , Toe-in Toe-Out on turn.
Ackerman steering gear : The Ackerman steering gear mechanism
consist of cross link “KL” connected to the short axels “AC” and “BD” of the Caster angle: It is the angle of tilting the king pin axis either forward or
two front wheel through the sort arms “AK” and “BL” forming bell crane levers backward from the vertical line. This tilting is known as Caster. The angle between
CAKL and BDKL respectively . the vertical line and the king pin centre line in the plane of the wheel (When
viewed from the side) is called the Caster angle.
When the vehicle is taking a turn, the inside wheel must follow a tight
curve than the outside wheel .
When the vehicle is running straight the cross link “KL” is parallel to
“AB” the short arms “AK” and “BL” both make angle  to the horizontal axis
of chassis.
The angles 0 and are shown in figure. The value of b/L is between 0.4
to 0.5.
For correct steering
Cot  – cot = b/l.
In Ackerman steering gear, there are three positions to be observed
Center of contact is di- Swivel line(steering axis) con-
infact. The value of will be different as the vehicle is running straight, vehicle is rectly under spindle tacts ground plane ahead of
contact patch
taking a left turn and vehicle is taking a right turn.
Fig 2.10 Caster angle
When the top of the king pin is backward, the caster angle is positive, King Pin Inclination or steering Axis Inclination
and when it is forward, the caster angle is negative. Usually the caster angle in
It is the angle between the vertical line and the center of the King pin the
modern vehicles ranges from 2 to 8 degrees.
steering axis when viewed from the front. The Kingpin inclination, in combination
The main purpose of caster angle is to create self centering effect in the with caster angle, is used to provide directional stability . It also reduces steering
steering. It provides the directional stability. It positive caster increase the efforts effort particularly when the vehicle is stationary. It reduces tyre wear also. The
required to steer and tries to keep the wheels straight ahead. In heavy duty kingpin inclination in modern vehicle ranges from 4o to 8o. It is also known as
trucks negative caster is preferred. This makes the steering easier. steering Axis inclination.
Camber Angle : It is the angle between the centre line of the tyre and
the vertical. When viewed from the front of the vehicle when the angle is outward,
so that the wheels are farther apart at the top the camber is “Positive” when the
angle is inward, so that the wheels are closer together at the top, the camber is
“Negative”. The usual value of camber angle should not exceed 2o.
When the camber angle is positive, it causes slip out prevention lightens
the perpendicular load and lessen the required steering effort. If it is a Zero
camber, it prevents uneven wear of tyres. When the camber angle is negative,
the camber thrust increase with increase in tyre inclination relative to the road
surface.
- Negative + Positive
Fig 2.12 King pin inclination
Toe-In : It is the inward tilting of front wheels at the front so that the
CAMBER distance between the front wheels at the front is less than the distance between
at the front wheels at the rear when viewed from the top. The Amount of the
Toe-in is usually 3 to 5 mm .
Fig 2.11 Camber angle
Fig 2.13Toe-in
The toe-in is provided to ensure parallel rolling of the front wheels to
stabilize steering and prevent side slipping of front wheels and thereby prevent
2.9 List out the types of steering systems used in various
excessive tyre wear.
vehicles
Toe-Out : Toe-out is the differenence in angles between the two front
wheels and the car frame during turns. The steering system is designed to the
turn the inside wheel through a larger angle than the outside wheel when making
a turn. The toe-out is secured by providing the proper relationship between
steering knuckle arms, tie rods and pitman arm (drop arm).
Fig 2.14 Toe-out
2.8 Steering defects - Wheel Wobble and Shimmy
(i) Wheel wobble and shimmy : when the vehicle go through an uneven
or rough road, the front wheel will get shaken for a while. This problem can also
be seen when the vehicle is slowing down. This problem may caused by the
following reason.
Reason Remedy
1. Unbalanced wheels 1. The wheels should be balanced at
wheel balance
2. Unevenly worn out tyres 2 . Rotate the tyres or Replace with
new ones if necessary
3. Inoperative shock absorbers 3. Replace them
4. Incorrect Toe-in 4. Adjust the Toe-in
5. Loose spring U-Bolts 5. Tighten
6. Loose steering linkages 6. Tighten
7. Worn out kingpin steering , 7. Tighten or Replace as per
linkages the necessity wheel bearings,
steering gear
8. Inoperative stabilizer 8. Replace
Summary is outward it is known as ‘positive’ and when the angle is inward it is
known as ‘negative’. The usual value of camber should not exceed 2o.
• The steering system of a vehicle should be able to turn the vehicle with
less effort and more mechanical advantage. • King pin inclination is the angle between the vertical line and the
centre line of the king pin when viewed from the front. It’s usual value
• Types of steering gears ranges from 4 to 8 degrees.
i. Worm and Wheel • Toe-in : It is the inward tilting of front wheels at the top. It’s amount is
ii. Worm and Roller usually 3 to 5mm.
iii. Worm and sector • Toe-out: It is the difference in angles between the two front wheels
and the car frame during turning.
iv. Cam and lever
v. Rack and pinion
1. What is the purpose of steering system?
vi. Recirculating Ball
2. Mention the types steering gears.
• When deflection of steered wheels due to road surface is transmitted
through steering linkage and steering gear to the steering wheel, the 3. What is ship angle?
system is reversible steering. 4. Define ‘Under steer’ and ‘Over steer’.
• The steering linkages are the connections of various links between 5. What is meant by Turning Radius?
steering gear box and the front wheels.
6. Define castor angle. What is its usual value?
• The angle between the ‘wheel inclination’ and the ‘path taken’ by the
wheel is known as ‘Slip angle’. 7. Define camber angle. Mention its usual value
• When the slip angle is greater at rear than at front, it is known as 8. What is king pin inclination?
‘Over steer’. 9. Define Toe-in and write its usual value.
• When the slip angle is smaller at rear than at front, it is known as Long Answer Type Questions
‘Under steer’.
1. Briefly explain recirculating ball steering gear with neat sketch?
• Turning radius: It is the radius of the circle on wheel the outside front
wheel moves when the front wheels are turned to their extreme outer 2. Briefly explain Rack and Pinion steering gear with neat sketch.
position. 3. Briefly explain power steering with diagram.
• Caster angle is the angle of tilting of king pin axis either forward or 4. Briefly explain Ackerman steering principle with neat sketch.
backward from the vertical line. When the top of the king pin is
backward, the castor angle is ‘positive’ and when it is forward, the 5. Discuss about the steering defect - ‘Wheel Wobble’.
caster angle is ‘negative’. Usually caster angle varies from 2 to 8
degrees.
• Camber angle is the angle between the centre line of the tyre and the
vertical line when viewed from the front of the vehicle. when the angle
110 Automobile Engineering Technician Paper - II Automobile Chassis and Body Engineering 111
3.0 Introduction
In Automobiles brakes play important role in slowing down and stopping
of the vehicle as and when required by the driver. Fundamentally the brakes are
of two types (i) Internal expanding (ii) External contracting type . Different
types of brakes are used in different vehicles as per the requirement . According
to application, the brakes are of different types-mechanical , hydraulic air,
vacuum , Air assisted Hydraulic.
3.1 Functions of Brakes
UNIT 3 (i) To slow down or to stop the vehicle as and when required.
(ii) To control the vehicle when the vehicle is rolling down on a slope
road down ward.
Braking System (iii) To travel smoothly and safely even in heavy flow of traffic by
controlling the movement of the vehicle.
3.2 Requirement of Automobile Brakes
Structure
(i) The brakes must stop the vehicle within shortest possible distance.
3.0 Introduction
(ii) These must be released suddenly after releasing them
3.1 Functions of Brakes
(iii) Total control of the vehicle should be there
3.2 Requirement of automobile Brakes
3.3 Stopping time and Stopping Distance
3.3 Stopping time and stopping distance The stopping time and stopping distance shows the efficiency of brakes.
3.4 Types of Braking system - Disc and Drum Braking system The maximum retarding force applied by the brake at the wheels, F,
depends upon the coefficient of friction between the road and tyre surface 
3.5 Construction and working of Mechanical, Hydraulic and Air brakes.
and the component of the weight of the vehicle on the wheel, w.
3.6 Bleeding of brakes in Hydraulic brakes. F = w
3.7 List out types of Brakes used in various vehicles. In actual practice 100% of brakes efficiency is not used. The stopping
Learning Objectives time and distance depend upon
(i) Vehicle speed
After learning this unit, the student should be able to learn about .
(ii) Condition of road surface
• Purpose of brake, fundamental types of brakes in different vehicles
(iii) Condition of tyre tread.
• Stopping time and stopping distance.
(iv) Coefficient of friction between the tyre tread and road surface.
• Application of different types of brakes in various types of vehicle
(v) Coefficient of friction between brake drum and brake lining (in
• Commonly occured troubles in brakes with their rectification case of Drum brakes).
(vi) Coefficient of friction between the disc and the friction pad (in Fluid from Lines
case of Disc brakes).
(vii) Brake force applied by the driver.
However, during emergency braking, the reaction of the driver and Caliper
response time of the brakes also play an important role. The total stopping
distance in case of emergency braking may be divided into three parts :
(i) Distance travelled during the reaction time of the driver.
(ii) Distance travelled between the time elapsed between driver
pressing the brake pedal and actual application of brakes at
wheels. Actuating piston
with friction pad
(iii) Net stopping distance, depending upon the deceleration. Revolving Disc
Keeping all the factors in view, the assumed brake efficiencies for
some of the vehicle may be like the valves given in the table approximately.
Efficiency % Approximate stopping distance (in metres) for the speeds
30 Km/H 50 Km/H 80 Km/H 100 Km/H
100 3.5 9.8 25.2 39.3
Fig 3.1 Disc Brake
80 4.4 12.2 31.5 49.1
When the brakes are applied, hydrautically actuated piston move the
60 6.0 16.3 42.0 65.5 friction pads into contact with the disc, applying equal and opposite forces on
30 12.0 32.6 84.0 131.0 the later. On releasing brakes, the rubber sealing rings act as return springs
and retract the pistons and the friction pads away from the disc.
These values depend upon the distance travelled during the reaction Drum Brakes
time of the driver and distance travelled between applying pedal and actual
Retracting spring
application of brakes at wheels.
Brake Drum Brake Lining
3.4 Types of Braking system - Disc and Drum Braking Toe of Shoe
system
Brake Shoe Back Plate
Disc Brakes
The disc brake consists a cast iron disc bolted to the wheel hub and a
stationary housing called calliper. The Calliper is connected to some stationary
part of vehicle, like axle casing or the stab axle and is cast in two parts, each Heel of shoe
part containing a piston. In between each piston and the disc, there is a
friction pad held in position by retaining pins, spring plates etc. Adjuster Anchor
Fig 3.2 Drum Brake
In this type of brakes, a brake drum is attached concentric to the axle wheel cylinder will try to go back to the master cylinder. As there is no pressure
hub whereas on the axle casing is mounted a back plate. In case of front axle, on the position of the master cylinder, the brake fluid push the check valve of
the brake plates are bolted to the steering knuckle. The back plate is made of master cylinder and the enter into the reservoir through barrel and by pass valve
pressed steel and is ribbed to increase rigidity and to provide support for the of master cylinder.
expanding brake shoes. These brakes are also known as internal expanding
brakes.
3.5 Construction and working of Mechanical, Hydraulic
and Air brakes.
3.5.1 Construction and working of Mechanical Brakes
These brakes are operated completely through mechanical links and
lever. These are applied in two wheelers and these wheeler. These are also
applied in four wheeler as parking or Emergency brakes . In the wheel drum
there are two brake shoes which are linked closely by a retracting spring. There
will be a can between the two shoes. When brake pedal is applied, the can will
rotate causing the brake shoes expand against the force of the returning spring.
This causes the shoes to rub against rotating wheel drum and thereby stopping
it. When brake pedal is released, the can inside wheel drum will come back to
its position causing the brake shoes to come back with the presence of returning
position and thus releasing brakes.
3.5.2 Construction and working of hydraulic brakes
The hydraulic brakes are being operated in the Pascal’s law which states Fig 3.3 Hydraulic Brake System
that “The pressure applied on any liquid is equally transmitted to all the direction Master cylinder
at the same time”. In the same manner the pressure of brake pedal which is
applied on the brake fluid in the master cylinder is transmitted to all the four It is the most important part of hydraulic braking system . It contains
wheel cylinder with equal pressure and at the same time. In this way the brake two main chambers .
shoes which are attached to the wheel cylinder (s) are expanded and thus the (i) Fluid reservoir – which stores the brake fluid in it
brakes are applied.
(ii) Barrel-which is compressor and develops pressure in brake fluid
The parts of hydraulic braking system one (i) Brake pedal (ii) Pull and
push rod (iii)- Master cylinder (iv) Brake pipe lines (v) wheel cylinder (vi) brake (i) Reservoir : The reservoir also contains two parts . The larger part is
shoes . called filler or intake port and the smaller port is called by pas through which the
returned fluid from the system will enter into reservoir from barrel.
When the brake pedal is applied the piston inside the master cylinder in
pushed forward and it caused the pressurized brake fluid moves forward to all (ii) Barrel : In the barrel of master cylinder the parts are – (a) Primary
the four wheel cylinder at the same time with same pressure. There at the wheel cup (b) Position (c) Secondary cup (d) Return spring (d) Return spring (e)
cylinder the brakes shoes will be expanded with the developed pressure in Check value .
the wheel cylinder. All the wheel cylinder will be operated at the same time When the brake pedal is applied the push rod will push the piston of
according to Pascal’s law. This is how the brakes are applied. While releasing master cylinder and there by the pressure is applied on the Hydraulic Brake
brakes with contracting of brake shoes with spring force the brake fluid in the fluid. The pressurized brake fluid will enter into system through check valve
which does not allow the fluid to return back. This causes the pressure on the Wheel cylinder or slave cylinder assist the main master cylinder in
system and applying brakes at the wheel cylinder. covering the pressure to the piston inside it and push the brake shoes attached
to it . Some of the wheel cylinder having one piston and some having two pistons.
The wheel cylinder having one piston will operate only one brake shoe and the
two wheel cylinder are require to operate two brake shoes. In some wheel
cylinder, both brake shoes are operated as they are having two piston in them.
When brakes are applied the brake fluid enter into the cylinder through
a brake pipe line. It cause to force out the piston. This motion is transmitted to
brake shoes causing them to expand against the running wheel drum to hold it
tightly and stop it. .
3.6 Bleeding of brakes in Hydraulic brakes.
In Hydraulic Brakes, the removal of air from the entire Hydraulic system
starting from master cylinder to different wheel cylinders is known as Brake
Bleeding
Fig 3.4 Master Cylinder
Wheel cylinder
Fig 3.6 Wheel Cylinder
It includes the following process :
(i) At first check all the pipe lines and junction boxes from master cylinder
to wheel cylinder. Whether there is any leak among them.
(ii) Ask one person to pump the brake pedal and keep it in pressing
position
(iii) The second person should loosen the bleeding nipple at the back
plate of the wheel cylinder position.
Fig 3.5 Wheel Cylinder
(iv) Keep the bleeding nipple in open until the air bubbles disappear and The compressor sends compressed air to the-reservoirs which are
the brake fluid comes out with a force . Collect the brake fluid in a connected to the brake. valve. The lines of tubing from the brake valve extend
glass tumbler. to the front and rear brake chambers. When the drive depresses the pedal, it
operates the brake valve thus admitting compressed air to all the brake chambers.
(v) Then tighten the bleeding nipple
The compressed air operates the diaphragm of the brake chambers thereby
(vi) Repeat this process in all the wheel cylinders starting from the applying the brakes.
farthest wheel to the master cylinder and ending with the nearest
wheel. 3.7 List out types of Brakes used in various vehicles.
(vii) Make sure that the level of brake fluid in master cylinder is ¼ less
than the top covers while filling it.
Air Brakes
The manufacturers of braking systems offer a variety of air brake equip-
ment. However, the simplest system consists of an air compressor, a brake
valve, series of brake chambers, unloader valve, a pressure gauge and a safety
valve. These are all connected by lines of tubing. The other braking systems
may have additional components such as stop-light switch, a low pressure
indicator, an air supply valve to supply air for tyre inflation, a quick release
valve to release air quickly from the front brake chambers when pedal is re-
leased, a limiting valve for limiting the maximum pressure in the front brake
chambers and a relay valve to help in quick admission and release of air
from rear brake chambers.
B r a k e Governor
Chamber
Slack Slack Adjuster
Hose Brake
Adjuster Quick Chamber
re lease Guage Tubing
valve Tee
Hose
Safety Valve
Hose Reservoir
Stop light switch
S.No
3
4
5
8
9
Fig 3.7 Air Brake
iv. Wheel cylinder
Summary
v. Brake drum
• Brakes are used to slow down or to stop the vehicle as and when
required by the driver. • Air brakes are operated with the assistance of compressed air.
• Brakes are of two types Short Answer Type Questions
i. Internal Expanding brakes. 1. What is the purpose of Brakes?
ii. External contracting brakes. 2. Define stopping distance?
• According to usage, the brakes are classified as 3. Mention the main parts of hydraulic brakes.
i. Mechanical brakes 4. On which law the hydraulic brakes work?
ii. Hydraulic brakes 5. What is meant by ‘Brake bleeding’?
iii. Air brakes Long Answer Type Questions
iv. Vacuum brakes 1. Briefly explain the construction and working of mechanical brakes.
v. Air assisted hydraulic brakes 2. Explain the hydraulic brakes with neat sketch.
vi. Hydrovac brakes etc. 3. Explain the master cylinder with neat diagram.
• Requirements of Brakes 4. Explain the brake bleeding process with sketch.
i. The brakes must stop the vehicle within shortest possible 5. Explain the air braking system with sketch.
distance.
ii. These must be released suddenly immediately after releasing
them.
iii. Total control of the vehicle should be ther.
• Mechanical brakes are operated through mechanical links and levers.
• These are used in two wheelers and in case of 4 wheeler. These are
used as ‘Parking Brakes’ or ‘Emergency Brakes’.
• Hydraulic brakes are operated according to pascal’s law which states
that “the pressure applied on any liquid is equally transmitted to all
the directions at the same time.”
• Main parts of hydraulic brakes system are
i. Brake pedal
ii. Master cylinder
iii. Brake pipe line
(ii) To have minimum wheel hop.
(iii) To safe guard the occupants and cargo against road shocks
(iv) To minimize the effects of stresses due to road shocks on the
mechanism of the vehicle.
(v) To keep the body perfect in level while travelling over rough and
uneven roads.
(vi) To keep the body of the vehicle safe from road shocks.
UNIT 4 4.2 Types of suspension system - conventional and
Independent
There are different types of suspension system provided in different
Suspension System vehicles. Those are
(i) Conventional suspension system
(ii) Independent suspension system
Structure
4.1 Requirements of Automobiles Suspension system
4.2.1 Conventional suspension system
In this suspension system. The wheels are fitted on beam type which
4.2 Types of suspension system - conventional and Independent
are attached to the chassis frame through road springs. In this type of suspension,
4.3 Types of Springs - Laminated Spring, coil spring, helical spring. the effect on one wheel is directly transmitted to the other side wheel through the
axle.
4.4 Need of Shock absorber
4.5 Stabilizers bar and torsion bar.
4.6 List out the type of suspension system used in various vehicles.
Learning Objectives
After studying this unit the student should be able to learn the
• Requirement of suspension system in automobiles
• Types of suspension system, types of springs
• Need of shock absorber, stabilizer bar, torsion bar.
• Types of suspension system used in different vehicles.
4.1 Requirement of automobiles suspension system
The automobile suspension system is having the following requirement
(i) To have minimum deflection to the vehicles with required stability
Fig 4.1 Conventional Suspension System
4.2.2 Independent suspension system 4.3 Types of Springs - Laminated Spring, coil spring, helical
spring
In this system the suspension for each wheel in an independent unit and
in free from the effect of one another. There will be no effect of road shocks on The springs support the chassis frame. The entire weight of the vehicle
the vehicle directly. live engine, power train, body, passengers, cargo etc, falls on the chassis frame.
The spring damp the road shocks transmitted to the wheels as they travel over
4.2.3 Types of independent suspension system
the road thereby protecting the units supported directly by the frame. The springs
(i) Wishbone arm system are placed between the chassis frame and the axle.
(ii) Trailing ling system Types of springs
(iii) Sliding pillar system (i) Leaf springs
Wishbone arm system (ii) Coil springs
Wishbone arm type independent suspension system is most popular (iii) Helical Springs
type of all independent suspension system. In this system transverse springs (i) Leaf springs : The leaf springs are of different types namely-full
along with coil, springs are mostly used. In European cars, torsion bars instead elliptic three quarter elliptic, semi elliptic, quarter elliptic transverse. In almost all
of coil springs are used. In this system there are two suspension or control arms automobiles which are having conventional suspension system the semi elliptic
are used in each side of the vehicle. There arm are like two legs of chicken leaf springs are most commonly used.
wishbone or better ‘V’, . These wishbone arms are connected with chassis
frame on the open end. The closed end spread out of the chassis frame. One
arm is below whereas the other is above the frame. The closed ends of both
upper and lower suspension arms are connected with steering knuckle support
to which the steering knuckle is attached by means of kingpin. A coil spring is
placed between the frame and the lower wishbone arm. Mostly the open end of
upper control arm is connected with the sock absorber shaft which is fitted at
the frame when there is a bump, the wheel tends to go up, the control since the
shock absorber is fitted with the upper control arm, ti damps the vibrations set
up in the coil spring due to road irregularities.
Trailing link system
Fig 4.2 Leaf Springs
The trailing link independent suspension use parallelogram linkages lying
beside the frame side members usually a horizontal coil springs is used in this The leaf springs are made of long flat strip steel. Several strips are placed
type of suspension system. During compression and rebound, the spring winds one on the other and held together by means of centre bolt and champs. Each
and unwinds . In some vehicles the torsion bar may also be fitted instead of strip is called is leaf. There is one main leaf which is extended to full length.
horizontal coil spring.
Each succeeding leaf is shorter than the preceeding one. The main leaf
Sliding pillar system contains eyes are both ends for making connections with the frame. The entire
In this system the pillar or elongated king pin is attached to the wheel set is fitted from the chassis frame by hanging with a shackle at one side and the
and slides up and down in the axle type beam a fixed rigidly to the vehicle frame. other side is fixed to frame. During jerks, the leaf spring bounces and each strip
flexes and rebounces again and again.
(ii) Coil springs : Coil spring is made of a length of special spring There shock absorber are of two types
steel, usually round in section which is wound in the shape of coil The ends of
(i) Mechanical type
coil spring are kept flat so that could seat properly . They can store twice energy
per unit volume in comparison to leaf spring. To seat the coil springs pan shaped (ii) Hydraulic type
brackets or spring seats are attached to the axles. This suspension is also used
Hydraulic Shock Absorber
in combination with torque tube or torque rod.
The shock absorber develop resistance to the spring by forcing a fluid
through check valves and small holes. ‘Double” acting shock absorber offer
resistance both during compression and rebound of the spring. The ‘Double
acting Hydraulic telescopic shock absorber ‘ are the commonly used shock
absorber which are described as shown in the figure below
Fig 4.3 Coil Springs
(iii) Helical Springs : The helical springs are preferably used in
combination with independent suspension system. The length and diameter of
the spring wire greatly affect the stiffness of the spring. But the length is controlled
by the diameter of the coil and the number of active coils.
4.4 Need of Shock absorber
Fig 4.4 Hydraulic shock absorber
Shock absorber compresses with the road shock and rebalances while
Its upper eye is connected to the axle and the lower eye to the chassis
travelling on uneven roads due to usage of this, the effect of road shock in
frame. A two way valve ‘A’ is attached to as rod ‘G’ . Another two way valve B
required by the shock absorber suddenly and releases slowly whole travelling
is attached to the lower and of the cylinder C . The fluid is in the space above
on uneven roads.
and below the cylinder C and tube D, which is connected to the space below 4.5 Stabilizers bar and torsion bar
the valve B. The J has glad H . Any fluid scrapped off the rod G is brought
down into the annuler space through the inclined passage. 4.5.1 Stabilizer
A stabilizer or a sway bar, is necessarily used in all independent front
suspension units. It reduces the tending the vehicle to roll or tip and either side
when taking a turn. This tendency has been increased due to the use of softer
springs and independent front end suspension.
Fig 4.6 Stabilizer
A stabilizer is simply a bar of as long steel with arms at each and
connected to the lower wishbone arm of independent suspension or to the axle.
It is supported i bush bearing fixed to the frame and is parallel to the cross
member. When both the wheels deflect up or down by the same amount the
stabilizer bar simply turns in the bearings. When only one wheel deflects then
only one end of stabilizers moves, thus twisting the stabilizer has which acts as
Fig 4.5 Hydraulic shock absorber(detailed construction)
a springs between two sides of independent suspension system. In this way, the
stabilizer reduces healing or tipping of the vehicle on curves.
When the vehicle comes across a bump the lower eye E moves up.
Therefore the fluid passes from the lower side of the vehicle A to its types side 4.5.2 Torsion bar
.But since the volume of the space above valve A is less than the volume B. This
In independent suspension system, the torsion bar is attached to the
pressure of the fluid through the valve opening provides the damping force.
Similarly when the lower eye E moves down., the fluid passes from the upper axle with the king pin of the front axle. The torsion bar axles the shock by
side of the valve A to the lower side and also from the lower of the valve B to the moving in certain angle with the axle. It is almost being used along with any kind
upper side. of independent suspension system. It is used along with rubber torsion units.
Summary
Upper Control Arm
• Suspension system is provided to safeguard the occupants and cargo
Pivot pin Upper Ball Joint in the vehicle against road shocks and to give a smooth and comfortable
Steering Knickel drive.
• Types of Suspension drive
Frame i. Conventional suspension system.
ii. Independent suspension system.
• Types of Springs
Lower Ball
Lowe r Point i. Leaf springs
Control
Bearing ii. Coil springs
Torison Bar Support Arm
Anchor iii. Helical springs
• Types of Independeng suspension system
Fig. 4.7
i. Wishbone arm system.
4.6 List out the type of suspension system used in various
vehicles ii. Trailing link system
iii. Sliding pillar system.
Front Suspension Rear Suspension
Sl. No. Make Type Type Shock Absorbers • Shock absorber compresses with the road shock and rebounces
while travelling on uneven roads
1 Hindustan Independent Semi-ellipse Hydraulic tele-
Ambassador torsion bar leaf scopic double • A stabilizer is used in independent front suspension units. It reduces
Mark II acting the tendency of the vehicle to roll or tip on either side while taking a
turn.
2 Fiat 1100 Independent Semi-elliptic Hydraulic tele-
coil springs leaf scopic double • In independent suspension system, the torsion bar is attached to the
acting angle with king pin.
3 Jeep (J-3B) Semi-ellipse Semi-ellipse Hydraulic tele- • The torsion bar absorbs shock by moving in certain angle with the
leaf leaf scopic double axle.
acting
4 Ashok Semi-elliptic Semi-elliptic Hydraulic tele- Short Answer Type Questions
Leyland leaf leaf scopic double 1. What is the purpose of suspension system?
Comet acting
passenger 2. Mention the types of suspension system.
5 Dodge / Semi-elliptic Semi-elliptic Hydraulic tele- 3. What is the purpse of stailbilzer?
Fargo model leaf leaf scopic double
89 M4 acting 4. What is meant by independent suspension system?
132 Automobile Engineering Technician
5. What is the purpose of shock absorber?
6. What is the purpose of Torsion bar?
1. Briefly explain leaf spring with neat sketch?
2. Explain about a hydraulic shock absorber with neat sketch.
3. Explain the wishbone arm independent suspension system with a neat
sketch.
UNIT 5
Seat, Door and Window
mechanism
Structure
5.1 Construction and working of door lock mechanism
5.2 Construction and working of Manual window regulating mechanism
5.3 Construction and working of Power window regulating mechanism
5.4 Construction and working of Seat Adjustment mechanism.
Learning Objectives
After studying this unit the student will be able to understand
• Construction or working, door, door locking mechanism
• Construction of working on window regulating mechanism (manual
and power)
• Construction and working of seat adjustment
5.1 Construction and working of door lock mechanism
In automobiles the doors play an important role of closing of the vehicle
for protecting of passengers and cargo as the case may be. In cargo transport
vehicles, the doors are closed as plain doors by using simple plain tower locking
mechanism.
In cars and luxury vehicles, the door locking provision is almost all Method of door locking mechanism
vehicles separately. In some door locking mechanism locks are provided outwards
Almost in all kinds of automobiles, the door locking mechanism is just
and in some other vehicles inward direction .In some recent models they are
closing the door and the lock will be automatically operated For unlocking any
operated with remote control.
of the following methods may be applied.
(a) With a key
(b) By pressing the unlock button inside the vehicle
Door
Weatherstrip (c) By using a combination lock outside the door
Door (d) By pulling up the knob inside the door panel
O u ts id e
M oul (e) With a keyless entry remote control
(f) By a signal from control centre
Some of the vehicles, are having different methods of self check for
door locking. It will warn you if is not properly locked by lighting the body light
or beeping a horn etc. In power lock mechanism, body controller monitors are
Front door
Door Upper glass runn the possible sources of locking and unlocking signals. There will be an actuator
hinge Front door in the door and a latch will be connected to the locking handle. When the
tr im
Door outside scrape actuator moves, it connects the handle to lock the door. To unlock it the body
controller supplies power to the door lock actuated for timed interval.
Door Lower Hinge Front door
g la ss A key less remote entry device consists of a fob in the key ring and a
Front door Panel
radio receiver controller inside the car, which opens and closes the car doors on
Font door indide scrape the receipt of a signal form the fob.
Glass Bottom channel Rubber
Glass Bottom channel 5.2 Construction and working of Manual window regulating
Front door rear mechanism
sash
In cars and in some luxury vehicles, the window glasses can be operated
for opening and closing to some extent as per the necessity. This can be done of
manually or by using a single button of at each window or by using a panel of
buttons at the control of the driver.
Window regulator
In olden days only manually operated window regulating mechanism were being
Regulator handle escution used. There will be handle inside the door to regulate it. This can be operated
Window regulator Handle manually by rotating the handle to the extent required . There will be a wheel
inside of door panel which is connected to this handle.
Water Proof Film
5.3 Construction and working of Power window regulating
mechanism
Fig 5.1 Doorregulating mechanism In modern days the window regulating mechanisms are being operated
with power. By using the switches the height of closing and opening of window
glasses can be regulated. It is operated with electricity from the battery. In some
cars, these can be operated with remote control.
1. What is the purpose of window regulating?
5.4 Construction and working of Seat Adjustment
mechanism 2. Howmany types of door locking mechanism are there.
In automobiles the seat adjustment plays an important role in almost all 3. What is the necessity of seat adjustment?
kinds of vehicles. The seat should be in proper manner for comfort sitting as per Long Answer Type Questions
the requirement of the operator. The space between the seat and operation
1. Briefly explain manual and power of operated window regulating
pedals like accelerator, clutch, brake etc. Should be in a proper manner that the
mechanism.
operater can reach them and it should be as long as possible if the operator is
tall. The seat can be moved to and from the front dash board. Its height also can
be increased or decreased as the case may be .
In buses of high comfort, the passenger seats can be adjusted according
to the requirements . These can be adjusted like an easy chair for a comfort
sitting or even for sleeping.
The seats used in cars are of various types such as rigid, folding back
and bucket type . The front seats may be single type or full bench type with seat
cushion and back rest . In case of two doors cars, the seat back rest in folding
type, so that it swings forwards to allow access into back seat. Front seats are
provided with adjustment that allows the seat to move back and forth or up and
down as per the requirements. These adjustment are done manually or by using
electric motor also.
Summary
• There are two types of Door locking mechanism.
i. Manual
ii. Automatic
• Sophisticated sensor operated door and window locking system are
there.
• Window regulating mechanism is also either manually or battery
operated can also be used. These are operated with remote control.
• The seat also can be adjusted according to the height of the person
and also giving sufficient space for legs.
producing cooling effect an evaporator coil is placed inside the chamber of
automobile . The air to be circulated inside the passenger compartment is cooled
by the evaporator coil. The dust particles are entrapped by the wet surfaces of
the evaporator core and are drained off with the condensed moisture. This
provides clean and pure air for breathing.
6.2 Construction and working of passenger car air
UNIT 6 conditioning
The automobile air conditioning system includes compressor magnetic
clutch condenser, receiver-drier -strainer , expansion valve, evaporator, blower
and the air distributor system.
Air Conditioning of Motor Compressor : It is driven by a belt from the crankshaft pulley. A magnetic
Vehicles clutch engages the compressor shaft. The applied voltage to compressor clutch
coil, the clutch plate is locked by the magnetic force and the compressor shaft is
turned with the pulley. When the voltage is interrupted the springs in the clutch
Structure plate and hub assembly automatically moves the plate away from the pulley
which causes the compressor to stop. The compressor compresses the refrigerant
6.1 Neccesity of automobiles air conditioning
to a maximum of about 20 kgf/cm2 at 1000C.
6.2 Construction and working of passenger car air conditioning. Magnetic clutch : It is essentially controlled and is housed in pulley
Leaning Objectives assembly. It’s controlling switch is provided in the controlling panel. In the off or
vent position the compressor and its clutch are off. In other four positions of the
After studying this unit, the student will be able to understand selector switch, the clutch is engaged or disengaged depending upon the
temperature of air.
• The neccesity of automobile air conditioning
Condenser : Condenser is basically a fin and tube radiator .It is usually
• Constructional details and working of it placed in front of radiator .It receives heated and compressed refrigerant vapour
6.1 Neccesity of Automobiles Air Conditioning from the compressor and is cooled by the air passing across the condensers.
Receiver - driver (or Dehydrator )
The air conditioning of automobiles is very essential to maintain human
comfort and improve internal atmosphere of an automobile in an enclosed space. The refrigerant is stored under pressure in the receiver-driver. The
It is required for proper control of freshness, temperature, humidity and cleanliness pressure in the receiver lies in between 5 kg/cm2 to 20kg f/cm2 depending upon
the compressor speed and surrounding air temperature. The drier removes any
of air which is done by automobile air conditioning.
traces of moisture present in the system to avoid freezing of moisture at low
Working Principle temperature. Drier is usually a silica gel filter that absorbs any water.
In an automobile air conditioning system, three main processes of heating, Expansion valve : The refrigerant goes from dehydrator to expansion
cooling and dehumidification are involved. valve where a sudden expansion to a much lower pressure occurs. The refrigerant
changes back to vapour state and this causes cooling effect. It is operated by
The heat required to warm the automobile is derived form the engine opposing pressures on either side of the diaphragm.
coolant or circulating warm water after passing through a heating coil. For
Evaporator : It is located inside the passenger compartment. It gives Short Answer Type Questions
cooling effect . A high capacity blower circulates the air in the interior part of the
vehicle across the evaporator coils and this drops the temperature. The heat 1. What is the necessity of Automobile air conditioning?
picked up by the refrigerant goes back to the compressor in the form of vapour 2. What is the working principle of automobile air conditioning?
where the refrigerant is again compressed to a high pressure.
Suction throttling valve : It ensures that the refrigerant in the evaporator
stays at such a pressure that the evaporator core surface temperature does not 1. Briefly explain the construction and working of Automobile air
fall below the freezing point of water (00C), thus preventing ice formation in the conditioning with neat sketch.
evaporator.
Fig 6.1 Automobile air-conditioning system
Summary
The air conditioning of automobiles is very essential to maintain comfort
and improve internal atmosphere of an automobile in an enclosed space.
In automobile air conditioning, there main processes of heating, cooling
and dehumidification are involved.
Main parts of Automobile air conditioning are compressor, magnetic
clutch, condensor, receiver - drier, strainer, expansion valves, evaporation, blower
and air distributor system.
Vehicle
It is the main constituent of paint in solid form. It is the actual colour
ingredient of the paint which forms the film. It is also known as binder. The most
commonly used binders are synthetic or natural resins such as acrylics vinyl-
acrylics, Vinyl-acetate/ethylenes; polyurethanes polyester, melamine resins, epoxy
or oils.
Pigment
UNIT 7 Pigments are granular solids incorporated in the paint to contribute colour.
The pigments impart toughness, texture to give the paint special properties. It
does not allow the main vehicle to loosen the paint particles. Titanium dioxide is
used as pigment inmost paints Silica, Alumina ,Zirconium are also used as
pigments .These materials give better exterior durability or better hiding
Painting of Automobiles performance.
Enamel
Structure The enamel portion of paint is mixed with vehicle and pigment to give it
7.1 Constitutents of paints glazing appearance.
7.2 Methods of painting Drier
7.3 Painting Procedure The drier in the paint allows the paint to dry as fast as possible so that
the paint may not slip down from the body of the automobile to give it a uniform
7.4 Reasons for failure of paint. appearance at all parts of the body. Driers are oxygen carrying catalysts. They
Leaning Objectives accelerate the drying of the oil film by oxidation , polymerization and
condensation. Most effective driers used are resinates, linoleates , tungstates
After studying this unit the student will able to understand the and naphthalenes of copper, manganese, lead and zinc.
• Constituents of automobile paint Thinners
• Painting methods and processes The thinner in the paint is used to make it thin while mixing the vehicle,
• Reasons for failure of paints in automobiles. pigments and drier . It enables the paint to spread easily and also to be sprayed
as the case may be. It is a volatile substance. Therefore evaporates after the
7.1 Constituents of Paints paint has been applied. Popularly used thinners are turpentines , mineral, spirits,
Usually a paint consist of the following ingredients benzene, dipentene, napthalene, xylot, kerosene, methylated naphthalene etc.
1. Vehicle 7.2 Methods of Painting
2. Pigment Different types of painting methods are being applied for painting of
automobiles
3. Enamel
(i) Brushing
4. Drier
(ii) Dipping
5. Thinner
(iii) Roller coating Step 1: Electrocoating
(iv) Spraying To keep the paint from peeling off or forming unsightly “bubbles” of rust
(v) Tumbling underneath, the entire exterior must be protected from corrosion. Getting into
each and every crevice with aerosol-sprayed paint can be difficult and expensive,
Brushing
even with a completely automated system. Instead, chains are attached to the
In automobiles some of the inner parts which can not be in reach of chassis and the body is lowered by machine into a solution of ionically charged
spray gun, can be painted by brushing with automobiles paints using paint brush. paint particles. The chain is electrically conductive and linked to a larger circuit.
Dipping Meanwhile, the vat containing the paint solution is equipped with electrodes
linked to the same circuit. When the body gets submerged, the circuit is
The parts of irregular shape and small in size can either be sprayed nor
completed, causing the current to flow from the vat electrodes, into the metal
brushed. Such parts can be removed from the vehicle and dipped in a drum
exterior and up the chain. In the process, this electrical field pulls the ionic paint
filled with paint.
particles toward the metal exterior, completely coating it.
Roller Coating
After about 15 minutes of electrocoating, the body is hoisted out of the
In automobiles the parts which are in sheet shaped can be painted by vat and carried (via a ceiling-mounted track) to a “drying chamber” where heat
roller coating . The sheet shaped articles are passed though the rollers which are lamps dry the excess paint.
dipped in paint. By rotating the rollers on the sheets, the paint will be applied
uniformly. Step 2: Primer
Spraying Once the anti-corrosive layer has been electroplated on, primer is applied
to add smoothness and allow a top paint layer to stick to the body. First, the
The entire outer surface of the vehicle body is painted by means by
spraying the paint with spray gun. In this method the paint is atomized by the body is lowered off the chains to rest on a floor apparatus attached to a track.
force of compressed air or by the action of high pressure compression of paint To apply the primer, the body moves down the track into a special sealed room
and turning of paint into small particles which travel to the article to be painted. called a “flow chamber” (Figure 1). The flow chamber features a constant flow
of air that takes vaporized primer particles from openings in the ceiling where
Tumbling
they gently deposit on the exterior for a uniform thickness. Meanwhile, the bottom
Small sized articles are painted by this method. They are put in a rotating of the chamber has several outlet openings attached to a vacuum, removing
barrel containing properly mixed paint . The barrel is closed and rotated for a excess primer to be collected and reused. After about 10 minutes, the body is
suitable amount of time. Articles get coated with paint and after taking out, they moved down the track to another drying room.
will be finally dried.
Step 3: Base Coat
7.3 Painting Procedure
Once the primer has dried, the body moves into another flow chamber
As anyone who’s ever detailed by hand can tell you, painting a car is for the application of the base coat. The base coat constitutes the actual “color”
anything but simple. However, automotive manufacturers have developed several of the car, including textural details like aluminum flakes for a sparkle effect.
different techniques for body painting that yield effective, reliable results. The
Like the primer, the base coat’s application involves the continual flow of
process is completely automated and works mainly through sealed chambers
vaporized paint across the body for about 10 minutes, followed by a trip to a
built onto the assembly line.
drying room.
Step 4: Clear Coat • Pigments are granual solids to contribute colour.
Just as the electrocoating protects metal from corrosion, the clear coat • Enamel is used in painting for glazing appearance.
protects the base coat against light scratches, organic solvents, water and UV
sun damage. As the name suggests, it is transparent, showcasing the base coat • Drier allows the paint to drug as fast as possible.
like glass does a picture. Typically, a flow chamber applies the clear coat as
• Methods of painting - Brushing, Dipping, Roller coating, Spraying,
well.
Tumbling.
7.4 Reasons for Failure of Paint • Reason for failure of paint - Chalking, Flaking, Cracking, Colour
Chalking change.
It is the progressive powdering of paint film on the painted surface. This Short Answer Type Questions
occurs because of improper dispersion of pigment and vehicle.
1. What are the constituents of Paint?
Flaking
2. Mention the methods of vehicle painting.
Peeling out of paint film from the painted surface is known as flaking. 3. What is chalking in painting of automobile?
This is due to the presence of dust or greasy matter in the paint. Improper
surface preparation may also cause this. 4. What is flaking of Automobile painting?
Cracking Long Answer Type Questions
Cracking of paint occurs because of 1. Explain the ingredients of painting.
(i) Unequal expansion and contraction of coats 2. Briefly explain the painting methods.
(ii) Variation of temperature of exposed film. 3. Explain step by step process of Automobile painting.
This can be prevented by applying a primary hard coat.
Colour Change
This happens because of chemical effects of atmospheric gases in the
environment.
Summary
• A paint consists of the following ingredients :
i. Vehicle
ii. Pigment
iii. Enamel
iv. Drier
v. Thinner
• A vehicle is the actual color ingredient and is also known as binder.
with Hydrocarbons react in the presence of sunlight and form petrochemical
smog. Its bad effects include crop damage.
8.2 Types of automobile emissions
(i) Exhaust emissions
(ii) Evaporative emissions
(iii) Crank case blowy
UNIT 8 Exhaust emissions
The exhaust emissions contain the specific substances- Hydrocarbons
(HC) Carbon Monoxide (CO) and Oxides of nitrogen (NO). Hydrocarbons
are the unburned fuel vapours coming out with the exhaust due to incomplete
combustion.Hydrocarbons also occur in crank case blowy and fuel evaporation.
Automobile Pollution Carbon monoxide occurs only in engine exhaust . It is the exhaust of incomplete
combustion due to insufficient amount of air fuel mixture or insufficient time for
complete combustion. ‘Oxides of nitrogen ‘ are the combination of nitric oxide
Structure
(NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2) which occurs only in exhaust . At high
8.1 Effects of automobile pollution on environment and human beings temperatures nitrogen and oxygen heat with each other causing creation of NO.
8.2 Types of automobile emissions Evaporative emissions
8.3 Treatment of exhaust gases by using catalytic convertors These emissions take place from the fuel supply system. About 30% of
the total Hydrocarbon emission occur from fuel tank, pipe lines, carburettor etc.
8.4 Exhaust gas Analyzer
Crank case Blow by
Learning Objectives
Crank case blow by means the leakage of fresh charge past the piston
After studying this unit the student will able to understand the
and piston rings form the cylinder to crank case. It is almost 20% of the total
• The effects of automobile pollution on environment and human beings. HC emissions form the engine and about 30 % if piston rings are worn. In these
gases about 85% raw hydrocarbons and 15% of burnt gases will be leaked.
• Types of automobiles emissions
These gases can be controlled by crank case ventilation.
• Treatment of exhaust gases by using catalytic convertors
From the alone process, the major pollutants are released .Those are
• Measuring of percentage of pollutants form petrol and Diesel vehicles
(i) Carbon monoxide
by using ‘Exhaust gas analyzers’
(ii) Unburnt Hydrocarbons
8.1 Effects of automobile pollution on environment and
human beings (iii) Oxides of nitrogen
The major sources of automobile air pollution are the exhaust gases of (iv) Lead oxides
the automobiles . The exhaust gases of automobiles contains severe pollutants in
(v) Sulphur dioxide
the form of nitrogen oxides which are toxic. The oxides of nitrogen together
(vi) Smoke
Of the above pollutants, carbon monoxide (CO) is most undesirable.
The effect of CO inhalation are headaches, sickness or loss of mental alertness.
Carbon monoxide reacts with haemoglobin (HB) in the blood to give Ve h i c l e Wa t e r
Sample
Exhaust Probe Line trap Pump Filter
carboxyhemoglobin (COHB) and this causes decrease of HB for oxygen Vent
transport. Sample
Cell
A combination of strong sunshine and stagnant air allows unburnt
hydrocarbons and oxides to nitrogen to combine chemically to produce ‘ Processing
Photochemical smog’. This causes damage to rubber, clothing , paint, and e le c tr o ni c
exposed surfaces. unit
Lead present in lead oxides in exhaust gases can be harmful particularly
Fig 8.1 Operation of Exhaust gas Analyzer
for children in the age group of 1 to 5 years.
Sulphur dioxide causes visibility attennation, bronchitis and even lung Specifications of a typical modern gas analyzers
cancer also. CO Ranges : 0-9.9%
8.3 Treatment of exhaust gases by using catalytic converters Accuracy : + 0.21%
The exhaust gases from the engine are passed through ‘Catalytic Repeatability + 2% fs.
convertor’ which is a cylindrical unit about the size of a small silencer and is HC Ranges 0-5000 ppm
installed into the exhaust system of a vehicle between exhaust manifold and
Accuracy + 40 ppm at 0-2000 RPM
silencer. Inside the converter there is a honeycomb structure of a ceramic or
metal, which is coated with alumina base materials and thereafter a second Repeatability + 150 ppm at 2000-5000 RPM
coatings of precious metal like platinum, palladium or rhodium. This second O2 Ranges 0-20.9%
coating serves as catalyst . A catalyst is a substance which causes a chemical
Accuracy + 0.4% at 0-5%
reaction . As a result of this reaction when the exhaust gases pass over the
convertor substance, toxic gases such as CO, HC and NO are converted into + 1.0 % at 5 - 20.9%
harmless CO2, H2 and N2. Repeatability + 2 % fs.
8.4 Exhaust gas Analyzer CO2 Ranges 0-20.0%
The analysis of exhaust gases can be done with the help of infrared Accuracy + 0.9% at 0-0%
analyzer. The analyzer is capable of measuring the hydrocarbons and carbon + 0.48% at 10-16%
monoxide. The probe is inserted into the tail pipe of vehicle and the analyzer is
+ 1.44% at 16-20 %
switched on. The exhaust sample is moved by an internal pump, through the
sample line and filter. Then it is vented to atmosphere. In the sample cell, a beam Repeatability + 2% fs
of infrared light is made to pass through the exhaust sample. The analyzer then Warm up time : 10 minutes at 200C
determines the quantities of Hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide with the helps
of processing electronics and indicates the same by moving the respective Response time : 14 seconds for 90% for final reading (10 m pipe)
indicators. The quantities indicated are in parts per million (PPM). Operating temperature : 20C to 430C
Dimension : 315 mm (w) x 282 mm (H) x 270 mm (D)
Weight : 14.3 kg.
1. Mention the types of automobile emission.
Power : 200-24, v, 50-60 HZ, 100W.
2. Mention the pollutant released while crank case blow by.
Options : (i) Printer
3. What is the purpose of exhaust gas analyzer.
(ii) RPM/ Oil temperature display
For Diesel engines it is also required to measure the smoke capacity
1. Briefly explain the working of catalytic converter.
and K-value for which a smoke meter is used. Main specification of a typical
smoke meter (Manatec - DSM 2000) are as follows 2. Explain the operation of Exhaust gas analyzer.
Measurement Range Resolution 3. Explain the effects of automobile pollution on environment and human
beings.
parameters
Opacity 0-99.9% 0.10%
K- Value 0.99.9% 0.10%
Other specification +
Linearity + 0.1 m-1
Repeatability 0.1 m-1
Response time physical < 0.4 sec
Response time - electrical < 1 ms
Warm up time < 3 minutes
Smoke measuring call length 430 mm.
Summary
• The major sources of automobile air pollution are the exhaust gases
of automobiles.
• The exhaust gases of automobile contain severe pllutants in the form
of nitrogen oxides.
• Types of Automobile emmission.
i. Exhaust emission
ii. Evaporative emissions
iii. Crank case blow by
a. Mandatory Signs
UNIT 9
Legal aspects of MotorVehicles
Structure
9.1 Traffic signs and signals
9.2 Requirements regarding registration of vehicle
9.3 Necessity of permits for commercial vehicles.
9.4 Insurance coverage
Fig 9.1 Mandatory speed limit
9.5 Procedure for obtaining Driving license
Learning Objectives
After studying this unit, the student can be able to understand
• Traffic signs and signals
• Requirements regarding registration
• Necessity of permits for commercial vehicles with insurance coverage
• Procedure for obtaining driving license.
9.1 Traffic signs and signals
9.1.1 Traffic signs
(a) Mandatory
(b) Cautionary
Fig 9.2 Weight limit
(c) Informatory
Fig 9.3 Total prohibition
Fig 9.6 Overtaking Prohibited
Arrow in white
cross and Border - Red
background - white device -
B la c k
Red disc
Fig 9.7 Use of sound signals prohibited
Fig 9.4 Direction sign
Red Border centre white
Arrow in white
Red disc
White black ground red
border and band
Fig 9.5 No Parking Fig 9.8 Main road ahead
b. Cautionary Signs
Red Border
8 cm Red Border
Centre white or hol-
low
Red Border
Fig 9.11 Cross Roads Fig 9.12 Level Crossing Fig 9.13 Level Crossing
(Guarded) (Unguarded)
Explanatory device
Red Border
All devices printe black
Red Border
Red Border
Painted in 25cm Black and Fig 9.16 School
Fig 9.14 Right turn Fig 9.15 Left turn
White Bands
Red Border
Fig 9.9 General Design Red Border
Fig 9.17 Dead end Fig 9.18 Side road Fig 9.19Side Road
cross road (right) (left)
Red Border
Red Border
Fig 9.22Hair Pin
Fig 9.20 Steep Hill Fig 9.21 Perry
Bend (right)
Fig 9.10 Rough road, Zig-zag(right) and Zig - zag (left)
Red Border
Red Border
Fig 9.23 Hair Pind Bend (Left) Fig 9.24 Narrow
bridge red borders
c. Informatory signs
Fig 9.26 Road junction approach
Blue Black Ground
60 cm Square
Fig 9.27 Road junction approach
9.1.2 Traffic Light Signals
1. Red means stop. Wait behind the stop line on the carriages way.
2. Red and Amber also means stop. Do not pass through or start until
Fig 9.25 Flood Guage Side elevation Green shows.
8. Beckoning on vehicles approaching form left
9. Beckoning on vehicles approaching form left
R R W
10. Beckoning on vehicles form front.
W W
W W G
W R
R
W W
W W
W
W
R W
W W R
Fig 9.29 Police Signals
W G W
9.2 Requirements regarding registration of vehicle
Fig 9.28 Light Signals Necessity for registration
9.1.3 Police Signals According to Rule 22 in chapter III of motor vehicles Act ‘No person shall
drive any motor vehicle and no owner of a motor vehicle shall cause or permit
1. To stop a vehicle approaching from behind
the vehicle to be driven in any public place or in any other place for the purpose
2. To stop a vehicle coming from front of carrying passengers or goods unless the vehicle is registered in accordance
with this unit and the certificates of registration of the vehicle has not been
3. To stop vehicles approaching simultaneously from front and behind
suspended or cancelled and the vehicle carries registration make displayed in
4. To stop traffic approaching from left and wanting to turn right. the prescribed manner.
5. To stop traffic approaching form the right to allow traffic from the left Registration where to be made
to turn right.
According to section ‘23’ of M.Y Act is Every Owner of a motor
6. To allow traffic coming form the right and turning right by stopping vehicle shall cause the vehicle to the registered b a registering authority in the
traffic approaching from the left. state in which he is residing or the place of business where the vehicle is normally
kept.
7. Warming signal closing all traffic
(b) To any transport vehicle owned by a local authority or by a person
9.3 Necessity of permits for commercial vehicles acting under contract with a local authority and used solely for road cleansing
According to ‘ Section 42’ in chapter IV of M.V. Act road watering conservancy purposes.
1. No owner to a transport vehicle shall use or permit the use of the (c) To any transport vehicle used solely police, fire brigade or ambulance
vehicle in any public place, whether or not such vehicle is actually purposes.
carrying any passenger of a permit granted or counter signed by a (d) To any transport vehicle used solely for conveyance purposes.
Regional or State Transport Authority or Commission authorizing the (e) To any transport vehicle used for towing a disabled vehicle or for
use of the vehicle in that place in the manner in which the vehicle is removing goods from a disabled vehicle to a place of safety.
being used. Provided that stage carriage permit shall subject to any
(f) To any transport vehicle used for any other public purpose prescribed
conditions that may be specified in the permit, authorize the use of the
in this behalf.
vehicle as a contract carriage of goods for or in connection with a
trade or business carried on by him. (g) To any transport vehicle used by a person who manufacture or deals
in manufacturer or in motor vehicles or builds body for attachment
2. In determining for the purpose this chapter whether a transport vehicle to chassis.
is or is not used for the carriages of goods for hire or reward.
(h) To any transport vehicle owned by or solely for the purpose or nay
(a) The delivery or collection by or on behalf of the owner of goods educational institution which is recognized by the State Government or whose
sold, used or left or hire or give purchase the course of any trade or business managing committee is a society registered under the societies registration act,
1860 (XXI of 1860).
carried on by him other them the trade of business or providing transport.
(i) To any goods vehicle which is light motor vehicle and does not ply
(b) The delivery or collection by or on behalf of the owner of the goods, for reward to any two wheeled, trailer which a registered weight not exceeding
which have been or which are to be subjected to a process treatment in the 800 kilogram and down by a motor car.
course of trade or business or providing transport.
(j) Subjected to such condition as the control government may
(c) The carriages of goods in a transport vehicle by a manufacturer of notification in the official gazette specify, to any transport vehicle, purchased
or agent or order in such gods whilst the vehicle is being used in one state and proceeding to a place situated in other state, without carrying
for demonstration purpose. any gods or passengers.
(k) To any transport vehicle has been temporarily registered under
Shall not be deemed to constitute a carrying of the goods for hire or
section 25, while proceeding empty of any place for the purpose of registration
rewards , but the carriage in a transport vehicle of goods by a person not being to the vehicle under section 24.
a dealer in such good who had acquired temporary ownership of good for the
purpose of transporting ownership shall be deemed to constitute a carrying of (l) To any transport vehicle used for such purposes other than plying for
hire or rewards as the central Government may, by notification in the official
the goods for hire or rewards.
Gazette, specify.
3. Sub section (1) Shall not apply (m) To any transport vehicle, which , wing, to flood earthquake or any
(a) To any transport vehicle owned by the central government and used other natural calamity is required within or outside, with a view to enabling it to
for Government purpose unconnected with any commercial reach is destination or
enterprise.
4. Subjected to provisions of subsection (3) sub section (1) shall of the 9.5 Procedure for obtaining driving license
state Government by rule made under section 68 to prescribes apply to any
motor vehicle adopted to carry more than nine person excluding the diver. Driving license is must for driving a motor vehicle. The driving license
authorities the person to drive the vehicle.
9.4 Insurance coverage
(Chapter (viii) of M.V. Act 1939) For obtaining a driving license of a two wheeler / three wheeler/ light
motor vehicle of 4 wheelers ,a person should complete the age of eighteen
(i) Authorized insurer means an insurer in whose case the requirements years and for a transport vehicle the person should complete the age of twenty
of the insurance Act 1938 (IV of 1938 ) the complied with years.
(ii) Certificate of insurance : Issued by an authorized insurer in persuade The person should apply for a learning license before applying for any
of sub section (4) section 95, and includes a cover note complying with such
type of license. It will be valued for a period of six months. The person should
requirements as may be prescribed and where more than one certificate has
been issued in connected with policy or where a copy of certificate has been apply for a permanent license before the expiry of a learning license.
issues. For learning a person should carry the learning license and the vehicle
(iii) Property includes road, bridges, culverts, cause ways, trees, pots on which he is being trained to drive should be posted with L boards at front and
and milestones. rear sides of the vehicles.
(iv) Third party includes the government. After being inspector under the regional transport authority, the person
(v) Necessity for insurance against third party risk (1) No person shall will be issued a permanent driving license (According to third schedule or M.C.
use except as a passenger or cause or allow any other person to use a motor Act)
vehicle in public place unless there is in force in relation to the use of vehicle by
that person or that other person as the case may be policy of insurance complying A medical certificates issued in form C is the first schedule of M.V. Act
with the requirements to this unit. is also should be produced by the applicant for obtaining driving license.
(2) Subsection (1) shall not apply to any vehicle owned by the central A driving license shall specify whether the holder is entitled to drive as a
Government purpose unconnected with any commercial enterprise. paid employee and whether he is entitled to drive a transport vehicle and shall
(3) The appropriate government may be order exempt form the operation further be expressed as entitling the holder to drive a motor vehicle of one or
Government sub section (1) any vehicle owned by any of the following authorities more of the following classes namely.
namely .
(a) Motor cycle
(a) The Central government or state government if the vehicle is used
for government purposes connected with any commercial enterprise. (b) Invalid carriage
(b) Any local authority. (c) Light motor vehicle
(c) Any state transport undertaking with in the meaning of section 68A, (d) Medium motor vehicle
provided that no such order shall be made in relation to any such authority
unless a final has been established and is maintained by that authority in (e) Heavy motor vehicle
accordance with the rules made in that behalf under this act for meeting any (f) Road Roller
liability arising out of the of any vehicle of that authority which that authority or
nay person in its employment may occur to third parties. (g) Motor vehicle of a specified description.
168 Automobile Engineering Technician
Summary
The vehicle should be registered at the Regional Transport Authority of
that Particular area.
Traffic signals are of three types a) Mandatory signals b) Cautionary
Signals c) Informatory Signals
For transportation, the vehicle should be permitted properly according
to section 42 of M.V. Act.
Before applying for driving license, one must apply for Learning License
for a particular vehicle.
1. Write any two mandatory traffic signals.
2. Write any four cautionary traffic signals.
3. Write any two informatory traffic signals.
1. Explain the procedure for obtaining a driving license.

Understanding Chassis and Body of Automobile

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1 Introduction of Chassis Frame

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