How To Fly IFR

HOW TO FLY
HOW TO
FLY
A COMPLETE GUIDE FOR IFR FLIGHTS
Ales Aranburu Juaristi

Copyright Ó 2020 by Ales Aranburu
Original title: How To Fly: Una completa guía para vuelos IFR.
Author: Ales Aranburu Juaristi.
In colaboration with:
Andrés del Val
Second edition (October 2020)

www.howtoflyifr.com
info@howtoflyifr.com
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Printed in Spain
Book design: Ales Aranburu

Illustrations: Ales Aranburu
ISBN: 978-84-09-24469-0
LEGAL DEPÓSIT: D 01137-2020
All rights reserved.

Any form of reproduction, distribution, public communication or transformation
of this work is strictly prohibited without the author's written authorization, which
will be subject to the sanctions established by law.
To my parents, I will forever be grateful
for the life you have given me.
I love you both and I owe you everything.
And to everyone that have made

these last years
unforgettable, thank you all.
"The human being will never be able to fly,
for the flight is reserved
for birds and angels. "
Milton Wright.
The 17th of December 1903,

his sons Orville and Wilbur Wright completed,
aboard the Flyer I,
the first controlled flight in history.
INDEX
INDEX ......................................................................................................... ix
FOREWORD ...............................................................................................xiii
PREFACE .................................................................................................... xv
DISCLAIMER .............................................................................................. xvii
1. INTRODUCTION........................................................................................ 1
2. INSTRUMENTS ......................................................................................... 9
NON-DIRECTIONAL BEACON (NDB) ............................................................. 12
VERY HIGH FRECUENCY OMNIDIRECTIONAL RADIO (VOR).......................... 17
LONG RANGE NAVIGATION (LORAN) ........................................................... 24
DISTANCE MEASURING EQUIPMENT (DME) ................................................ 25
GLIDE SLOPE................................................................................................. 27
3. FLIGHT PLANNING .................................................................................. 33
OPERABILITY ................................................................................................ 33
PLANNING MINIMAS.................................................................................... 37
AIP ................................................................................................................ 45
ROUTE AND CHARTS .................................................................................... 47
DESCENT CALCULATION............................................................................... 63
FUEL CALCULATION ..................................................................................... 64
PERFORMANCE ............................................................................................ 72
MASS AND BALANCE .................................................................................... 75
OPERATIONAL FLIGHT PLAN ........................................................................ 76
FLIGHT PLAN ................................................................................................ 78
SUMMARY.................................................................................................. 102
4. GROUND OPERATION .......................................................................... 105
COCKPIT INSPECTION ................................................................................. 106
EXTERIOR WALKAROUND .......................................................................... 107
COCKPIT PREPARATION ............................................................................. 108
ix
TAKEOFF BRIEFING..................................................................................... 108
ATC CLEARANCE ......................................................................................... 112
CONTROLLED AIRPORT .............................................................................. 113
UNCONTROLLED AERDROME .................................................................... 117
BEFORE START OR PUSHBACK ................................................................... 119
ENGINE START + AFTER START................................................................... 120
TAXI ............................................................................................................ 121
5. DEPARTURE ......................................................................................... 127
AIRPLANE CONFIGURATION....................................................................... 128
TAKEOFF AND INSTRUMENTAL DEPARTURE ............................................. 133
DEPARTURE ROUTE.................................................................................... 135
INITIAL CLIMB ............................................................................................ 136
ALTIMETER CHECK ..................................................................................... 137
FL100.......................................................................................................... 138
PBN DEPARTURE ........................................................................................ 138
OMNIDIRECTIONAL DEPARTURE ............................................................... 140
IFR JOINING ................................................................................................ 141
DEPARTURE REGULATIONS ........................................................................ 142
6. AIRWAY ............................................................................................... 145
CRUISE POWER SETTING ............................................................................ 146
AIRSPACES.................................................................................................. 148
COMMUNICATIONS ................................................................................... 157
CHANGE OF RADIO AIDS IN THE AIR .......................................................... 159
FILLING IN THE OPERATIONAL FLIGHT PLAN ............................................. 161
MINIMUM ALTITUDES ............................................................................... 163
7. PERFORMANCE-BASED NAVIGATION .................................................. 169
RNAV .......................................................................................................... 169
RNP ............................................................................................................ 170
PBN ............................................................................................................ 170
NAVIGATION METHODS............................................................................. 171
REQUIRED PRECISION ................................................................................ 172
FLIGHT PHASE ............................................................................................ 173
FLY-BY, FLY-OVER ....................................................................................... 175
OFFSET ....................................................................................................... 175
8. INSTRUMENTAL MANEUVERS .............................................................. 177
FLIGHT TECHNIQUES .................................................................................. 177
x
FIX-TO-FIX .................................................................................................. 178
DME ARC .................................................................................................... 182
ARC ANTICIPATION .................................................................................... 186
RADIAL INTERCEPTION............................................................................... 187
INBOUND INTERCEPTIONS ..................................................................... 189
OUTBOUND INTERCEPTIONS ................................................................. 192
CDI PUSH .................................................................................................... 194
CLEARANCES .............................................................................................. 196
VECTORING ................................................................................................ 197
9. DESCENT .............................................................................................. 199
BEFORE DESCENT ....................................................................................... 200
METEOROLOGY .......................................................................................... 200
APPROACH BRIEFING ................................................................................. 201
DESCENT COMMUNICATIONS ................................................................... 208
IFR CANCELATION ...................................................................................... 210
MINIMUM VFR CONDITIONS ................................................................. 211
SPECIAL VFR (SVFR) ................................................................................ 211
HOLDING .................................................................................................... 212
ENTRY IN HOLDING ................................................................................ 215
HOLD ENTRIES ........................................................................................ 216
OFFSET ENTRY, SECTOR 1 ...................................................................... 218
OFFSET ENTRY TIPS ................................................................................ 221
TEARDROP ENTRY, SECTOR 2 ................................................................. 223
DIRECT ENTRY, SECTOR 3 ....................................................................... 225
DIRECT ENTRY TIPS ................................................................................ 226
WIND CORRECTION ............................................................................... 228
ABEAM ................................................................................................... 229
INBOUND TURN ..................................................................................... 230
OUTBOUND CORRECTION...................................................................... 233
TIPS FOR CROSSWIND CORRECTION ...................................................... 235
TIME CORRECTION ................................................................................. 238
REFERENCE TIME ................................................................................... 240
ADJUSTING THE WIND CORRECTION IN OUTBOUND ............................ 241
10. APPROACH ......................................................................................... 243
AIRCRAFT CATEGORIZATION .................................................................. 248
TURNS .................................................................................................... 248
SPEEDS ................................................................................................... 248
xi
DEAD RECKONING (DR) SEGMENT ......................................................... 249
RADAR GUIDANCE TO IAF ...................................................................... 250
REVERSAL PROCEDURES ........................................................................ 250
RNAV T/Y ARRIVAL ................................................................................. 252
+/- 30º ........................................................................................................ 253
MINIMUM CONDITIONS TO START AND CONTINUE THE APPROACH ....... 254
APPROACH SEGMENTS .............................................................................. 255
INITIAL APPROACH SEGMENT ................................................................ 255
INTERMEDIATE APPROACH SEGMENT ................................................... 258
FINAL APPROACH SEGMENT .................................................................. 260
VISUAL REFERENCES TO LAND ................................................................... 265
CONFIGURATION ....................................................................................... 266
STABILIZED APPROACH .............................................................................. 268
DESCENT CALCULATIONS ........................................................................... 269
WIND CORRECTION ON APPROACHES ....................................................... 273
MISSED APPROACH PROFILE...................................................................... 279
EXAMPLES OF APPROACHES ...................................................................... 280
CONVENTIONAL 3D ................................................................................ 281
CONVENTIONAL 2D ................................................................................ 287
PBN APPROACHES .................................................................................. 292
MISSED APPROACH .................................................................................... 300
11. FINAL TAXI ......................................................................................... 304
BIBLIOGRAPHY ........................................................................................ 309
xii
FOREWORD
I had the pleasure of giving flight instruction to Ales a while ago,
when he hadn’t yet obtained the license. I was able to accompany him
in the final phase of his training, during the instrumental twin-engine
flight. Already then, he was busy collecting all the information about the
IFR world, organizing his notes and pointing out any questions that
arose in flight. It was a job he had already started previously and he
wanted to continue with the idea of offering his companions an
instrumental flight guide. The idea took shape and what were going to
be some notes, became End of Degree Work, and later, in this book that
we have here. I am very proud to be able to present the final result of
one of my most beloved students.
As pilots, we often face having to study from numerous sources,

documents and manuals, the regulations being dispersed in different
organizations and being complex to handle. And to have to do it in a
self-taught way in most cases. Combining all this information and not
getting lost in it can be a very difficult task for the student pilot. This book
aims to answer the need for a guide that brings together and serves as
a basic reference manual for those pilots who are starting out in the
world of instrumental flight for the first time, especially in the twin-engine
phase. In addition, it gathers some very useful data, sometimes difficult
to find or that are not in the bibliography.
For all these reasons, I hope that this book will serve many
students, who, as Ales did, face instrumental flight with work and
passion. And to thank him for the praiseworthy task of writing it and for
having made me a participant. Something that I will always remember
with pride and affection.
Agustín Reche,
Chief Flight Instructor
Adventia, European College of Aeronautics.
xiii
xiv
PREFACE
The main reason that drives me to write this manual has been
my experience as a student pilot, I have noticed a great need for a
manual like this to exist, where the theory of official documents meets
the tips and tricks that are learned through pilots, instructors, examiners
and experience.
I have had the opportunity to receive a very complete and

demanding instruction, during which I have been a student of a large
number of professionals who have helped me solving the doubts that
arose along the way. Being aware that I was going to create this manual,
I have left no doubt unresolved and the notes of the explanations
received have been kept safely. At the same time, I have completed my
instruction with documents written by official sources such as ICAO and
EASA. All this study and information are condensed in the following
pages, where I try to explain the instrumental flight in the most complete
and simple way possible.
As a brief introduction to instrumental flight rules, the aircraft

receives indications from radio stations located on the ground, the
position of which is indicated to the pilot through cockpit instruments.
With these indications, the pilot must be able to determine his position
on the surface to carry out a safe flight. The indications received
eliminate the need for visual contact with the terrestrial elements and
allow higher altitude flights and flights with reduced visibility.
But not everything is navigation, in fact, it is only a small part of

everything that needs to be done up there, therefore, I wanted to explain
step by step the different phases of flight and how to carry them out. In
this way, the future pilot will have clear what he has to do at all times,
from the beginning of flight planning to the final landing and taxi to the
platform.
xv
xvi
DISCLAIMER
This manual is not intended to be used as a substitute for
professional instruction, but rather to complement it. All references used
are examples for illustrative and educational purposes, without
operational validity. There is a possibility that there may be errors
throughout this manual, so it is important to consult what is described
on these pages with a professional before carrying it out, especially if
the reader is in the learning period.
Aviation is a form of transport that carries a very high risk, neither

the author nor the company will be responsible for death or bodily injury,
property damage or any other direct, indirect or incidental damage or
other loss suffered by third parties that may arise as a result of the use
of the book by the client, nor for the damages inflicted with respect to
any property of the client or any other loss suffered by said client.
Neither the author nor the company will be responsible for the accuracy
or validity of the data entered in the book. The client will be responsible
for the validation and verification of the actions carried out, in order to
guarantee compliance with the appropriate norms and standards.
Please consider this as a disclaimer.
This manual is intended for pilots who are capable of flying safe
visual flights, who understand METAR, TAFOR and NOTAM, who are
familiar with piston and/or turbine engine indicators and flight
instruments, including the Air Speed Indicator, the Attitude Indicator,
Altimeter, Turn Coordinator, Heading Indicator and Vertical Speed
Indicator. Conventional instruments such as RMI, HSI or DME will be
used to explain the different sections.
Operations with engine failure and operations at isolated

aerodromes are omitted.
xvii
xviii
INTRODUCTION
1. INTRODUCTION
In the early days of aviation, pilots only flew during the day in
good weather conditions. They had to use what we today call visual
flight, navigating by following visual references on the ground, such as
roads, rivers, towns, coastlines, or other landmarks.
Figure 1.1.1. Representation of a visual flight.
A line drawn on the map showed the pilot the route to follow;
taking into account the speed, distance, and wind, the pilot calculated
the time and course between sections.
During the flight, the pilot checked the plane’s position with the
references. This type of navigation was accurate for short distances, but
as airplanes evolved to fly faster, higher, and for longer, the need to
navigate through clouds or during the night, in situations where
maintaining a visual reference with the terrain was impossible, required
a new way of navigating.
1
Radio stations (also known as radio aids) replaced visual
landmarks. The pilot receives the location of these stations through
systems in the aircraft which allows the pilot to orient themselves in much
the same way as landmarks.
Figure 1.1.2. Radio Station.
In this way, instrumental flight was born, and from that moment
on, pilots flew directly from one radio aid to the next. As it was no longer
necessary to have visual references, flights during the night and/or in
bad weather conditions became possible.
Figure 1.1.3. Representation of an instrumental flight.
2
INTRODUCTION
Conventional navigation systems such as LORAN, ADF, VOR,

ILS, and associated procedures are based on direct signals from
ground-based navaids. The biggest disadvantage of this type of radio
station is that all routes depend on the location of the navaid itself. Pilots
have to navigate to or from the station, which results in longer than
optimal routes and often the inability to navigate areas with high ground.
Figure 1.1.4. Route of a conventional instrument flight.
This type of navigation is impractical and limits resources to

maintain an adequate level of safety. Because the obstacle protection
areas are also relatively large, the possibility of navigation errors
increases with the distance of a station.
To solve this problem, area navigation, or random navigation

(RNAV) was introduced.
Figure 1.1.5. Route of a RNAV flight.
3
Random navigation (RNAV), commonly called area navigation,
allows for more direct flying routes, thus saving time and fuel. To fly
RNAV routes, airplanes must be equipped with more precise
navigational systems, which also allow them to fly closer to each other,
increasing airspace capacity.
Area navigation was first launched using sensors such as the

inertial reference system (IRS) and distance measuring equipment
(DME) / DME coupled to a flight management system (FMS) under
specific design criteria.
Figure 1.1.6. Satellite.
The biggest advance in area navigation came with the creation

of fixes defined by name and coordinates, instead of radio aids on the
ground, along with position updating via satellite.
This allowed for a new area navigation system and the creation
of routes that were independent of the location of the navigators.
In modern aircrafts, all conventional procedures such as very

high frequency omnidirectional radio (VOR) or instrumental landing
system (ILS), as well as unconventional procedures such as RNAV/RNP,
are encoded in the flight management and guidance system (FMGS)
on-board navigation database and flown with the autopilot or manually.
Flying a conventional procedure does not require an on-board

database, but unconventional procedures do because the aircraft
4
INTRODUCTION
follows the waypoints programmed into the FMS. The FMS must be able
to follow the path indicated by the designer of the procedure.
Required navigation performance (RNP) is a series of

precision, functionality, integrity, and continuity parameters that the
aircraft's navigation equipment must meet to fly in RNAV zones. You can
think of it as a series of parameters that define a cube around the aircraft
from which it cannot escape, and a series of virtual windows along its
route that the plane must cross. In RNAV navigation, these “windows”
do not appear on any screen. They are only points and parameters that
the system handles internally for self-diagnosis and error checking.
Future developments will likely include 4D navigation, which will

include adding time as a parameter: the on-board navigation computer
will guide the aircraft laterally and vertically, allowing it to reach certain
time constraints with high precision along the route, including approach.
If done well in advance, this will minimize the need for additional
holdings and separation, saving time and fuel.
Figure 1.1.7. Flight management system.
Instrumental flights are divided into phases: departure, airway,

arrival, and approach. During departure, we will complete the published
instrumental departure that will take us from the airport to the entry point
on the airway. In the same way, we will have an exit point to leave the
5
airway. We will then follow the published instrumental arrivals to where
the approach begins and complete the approach to the arrival airport
until the final landing.
Figure 1.1.8. shows the planning of a flight from Madrid to Paris,

which is the example flight we will use throughout this book.
Figure 1.1.8. Flight from Madrid to Paris.
6
INTRODUCTION
7
8
INSTRUMENTS
2. INSTRUMENTS
There are several types of radio stations. Each one has its own
characteristics and is linked to a specific instrument in the cockpit. This
section explains the instruments and stations we will use in flight.
The cockpit of a conventional instrument aircraft will look like

Figure 2.1.1. You can see the instruments on the left side and the
equipment on the right side, where you can select the radio aid
frequencies.
Figure 2.1.1. Cockpit of a conventional instrumental aircraft.
Figure 2.1.2 illustrates a cockpit with electronic flight instrument

display (EFIS) instruments, where conventional instruments have been
9
HOW TO FLY
replaced by two screens: the screen on the left is the primary flight
display (PFD). Here we will find the parameters regarding the flight. The
most important elements are the airspeed indicator (left), altimeter
(right), vertical speed indicator (extreme right), heading indicator
(down), artificial horizon (center), and selected modes (above).
The screen on the right is the electronic horizontal situation

indicator (EHSI), also known as the navigation display (ND). On this
screen we will have the information regarding navigation, such as the
flight plan, wind, the projection of the meteorological radar or the terrain
(if equipped), and the position of the radio aids. Many aircraft models
integrate the information from both screens into one.
Figure 2.1.2. PFD (left) and EHSI/ND (right).
As in Figure 2.1.1, we will have a space to select the

communications frequencies, ADF, NAV, and a communications box to
chose the frequencies we want to hear. You can most often find them
somewhere in the cockpit as a separate display or on an EFIS screen.
All airplanes are different, and each manufacturer organizes the

instruments differently, but they all have what is described here. We just
have to locate them.
10
INSTRUMENTS
If the aircraft we are flying is authorized to complete RNAV/RNP

procedures, it will be equipped with a flight management system. There
are many presentations of FMS. Most modern aircraft integrate it into the
EFIS screens. In other models of commercial aircraft, it will resemble
Figure 2.1.3.
Figure 2.1.3. Flight management system.
Here we will insert the route we are going to fly, entering the
points already defined or inserting new points with the coordinate
information. The selected route will then appear in the navigation
display, and we will be able to tell the autopilot to follow the route. Inside
the FMS, we can insert many parameters that we will use later during
the flight, such as takeoff speeds, secondary flight plans, weight of the
plane, and so on.
The main characteristics of the navigation display are that it can

show the flight path, the weather, the wind, our ground speed, the
position of radio aids in the form of a horizontal situation indicator (HSI),
and the needles as if it were a relative magnetic indicator (RMI). It can
also warn us of the position of other traffic (TCAS) and airports.
11
HOW TO FLY
NON-DIRECTIONAL BEACON
(NDB)
An NDB radio station sends radio signals in all directions. The
antenna of the automatic direction finding (ADF) equipment receives
these signals and transmits them to the instruments, which indicate the
position of the station. To do this, we will tune the radio aid frequency to
the ADF equipment, illustrated in Figure 2.2.1.
Figure 2.2.1. ADF.
The charts illustrate an NDB station, as in Figure 2.2.2. Radio

signals from NDB equipment operate between the 190 and 1750 kHz
12
INSTRUMENTS
frequencies ICAO. Annex 10. p. 3-34 (3.4.4.1). Normally, the NDBs used operate
between the frequencies 190 and 535 kHz.
Figure 2.2.2. Illustration of a NDB on the charts.
When selecting a frequency, you must identify it by listening to

the Morse code. To do this, we press the ADF pad in the
communications box and increase the ADF equipment’s volume.
When the frequency is active and identified, we will see the

information in the RMI or the relative bearing indicator (RBI) instruments,
illustrated in Figure 2.2.3.
Figure 2.2.3. RBI (left) and RMI (right).
13
HOW TO FLY
For practical purposes, this manual will illustrate the RMI with
one needle. In Figure 2.2.4, you can see the operation of the RMI on the
map compared to the indication in the cabin.
Figure 2.2.4. Operation of a RMI.
As we can see in the first image, the aircraft is on heading 150º

and has the station to the northeast of its position, to be more precise,
on the course 038º.
The image on the right will be the only thing we see in the
cockpit. Here, the 150º course is at the top of the RMI. That is our
heading. The arrow indicates that the station is on the left and behind
our position, exactly on the course 038º.
The RMI indications are relatively easy to decipher. If we only

look at the arrow, we will know the relative position of the station. That is,
if it is in front, behind, to the right, or to the left of us. If we look at the
heading chart, we will know in what direction, referenced to the north,
the station is located. Although it seems simple, analyze this image in
depth. Understanding the operation of the equipment on a map will save
you a lot of confusion.
14
INSTRUMENTS
In Figure 2.2.5, the five upper representations express how the

situation will look on a map, with the instrument referenced to the north.
The five lower representations show what we will see in the cockpit, with
the instrument referenced to our heading.
Figure 2.2.5. Operation of a RMI on a map.
In the vertical direction to the NDB there is the so-called “cone

of silence”. When we pass through here, the antenna will lose the signal,
and we will have no indication. The diameter of the cone increases with
our altitude.
15
HOW TO FLY
Figure 2.2.6. Cone of silence.
When we lose the signal, the only warning will be the course
indicators going to 90º. For this reason, when we navigate following an
NDB, we should listen to the Morse code at all times; if the callsign stops
ringing, we have lost the signal.
The ADF mode is used to monitor conventional NDBs. Stations

that require the use of BFO mode transmit a signal that does not contain
audio. To identify it, the receiver must add an audio component to the
received signal. Finally, the ANT mode improves the clarity of the audio
reception. You cannot use this mode for navigation because it eliminates
the indication on the instruments.
The range of route NDBs, which are the most powerful NDBs, is
from 25 NM to 150 NM or higher ICAO. Annex 10. p. 3-34 (3.4.2.2). NDB locators,
used for procedures near airports, have a range between 10 and 25 NM
ICAO. Annex 10. p. 3-33 (3.4.1)
.
16
INSTRUMENTS
VERY HIGH FRECUENCY

OMNIDIRECTIONAL RADIO
(VOR)
A VOR station sends out radio signals that aircrafts receive by
NAV equipment antenna.
Unlike an NDB station, a VOR produces 360 radials/courses

with 1° difference, aligned to magnetic north at the position of the VOR.
This information is transmitted directly to the instruments.
VOR stations operate in a frequency range between 108 to

117.975 MHz (VHF), but frequencies are normally reserved between 108
and 111.975 MHz for ILS and between 111.975 and 117.975 MHz for
VORs ICAO. Annex 10. p. 3-29 (3.3.2).
There are two pieces of NAV equipment, which will resemble

Figure 2.3.1.
Figure 2.3.1. NAV equipment.
17
HOW TO FLY
Most of the radio aids used to define airways and approaches

are based on stations of this type. Although the NDBs were elements of
great importance in the early days of instrument flight, they gave way to
VOR stations and are no longer in use today. Soon the VOR stations will
also give way to a navigation based entirely on satellite systems.
Figure 2.3.2 shows how the charts illustrate the VOR stations.
The numbers are the frequency to be tuned. The lower Morse code is
the identification, and the letters are the station identifier.
Figure 2.3.2. Illustration of a VOR station on the charts.
When the frequency is active in the NAV equipment, the

indication can be displayed in the HSI, omni-bearing indicator (OBI)
(Figure 2.3.3), and RMI equipment.
Not all aircraft are equipped with the instruments described in

this book, but most of them follow the principles of operation of the HSI
and RMI instruments.
For aircrafts equipped with an EFIS instrument system, we can

make the HSI and/or RMI indications appear by selecting them in the
EFIS control panel (ECP). Each aircraft model has a different ECP, but
all follow similar operating principles.
18
INSTRUMENTS
Figure 2.3.3. HSI (left) and OBI (right).
As with NDB stations, the frequency is identified when it is

selected, but HSI and OBI devices are equipped with flags that appear
if they lose the signal. Thanks to this, it will not be necessary to listen to
the Morse code at all times.
The HSI has a variable heading chart, which means the heading
chart will rotate so that our heading is always at the top of the instrument,
marked by the lubber line. In the HSI of Figure 2.3.3, the plane is
heading north. The fixed heading chart of an OBI means that we will
have to turn the heading chart manually to select the course.
There are three concepts used when flying following directions

from a station: radial, course, and heading. A line drawn from the VOR
to the aircraft is called a radial or outbound course. A line from the plane
to the station is called an inbound course. The radial and course are
referenced north at the station position, and heading is the direction the
aircraft is facing in reference to north. Figure 2.3.4 and Figure 2.3.5.
19
HOW TO FLY
Figure 2.3.4. Differentiation of Radial, Course and Heading.
Figure 2.3.5 represents the relationship between inbound

courses and radials of a VOR station. Each radial has an associated
inbound course. For example, the 270º radial is at the same time the
090º inbound course.
Figure 2.3.5. Relationship between inbound courses and radials.
20
INSTRUMENTS
Figure 2.3.6. HSI operation.
In Figures 2.3.6 and 2.3.7, we can see how the CDI and
TO/FROM indicators show the quadrant where the station is.
21
HOW TO FLY
Although the HSI may seem complicated to understand, it is an

extremely useful instrument. To use it, we have to select the
course/radial we want to follow with the course selection arrow. The
instrument will act as if there are two lines drawn: one parallel to the
course selection arrow and another perpendicular to it. The CDI and
TO/FROM indicators will tell us the quadrant where the station is located
in reference to these lines. In Figure 2.3.7, we have selected the 030º
course, and in Figure 2.3.8, the 070º course (250º radial).
If the station is ±10º from the course we have selected, the CDI
will move within the scale, indicating our deviation from the selected
course.
If we navigate through an airway based on the 070º approach

course with the course selected, and we fly with the CDI centered, we
will be exactly on the airway. If we go off route, the CDI will move,
indicating the degrees we have deviated and if the route to follow is to
the right or left. Figure 2.3.8.
The HSI indication is affected by course selection, our position,

and the station position, which tells us the quadrant where the station is
located according to the course we have selected. Our heading does
not affect the indication at all.
22
INSTRUMENTS
Figure 2.3.9 shows the image of the HSI that we will see in the
cockpit. Take time to understand the indications of the instrument. It will
avoid many misunderstandings.
In Figure 2.3.9, the first four images are referenced to the course
selector where we can clearly see the station’s quadrant. The following
four images are the same case, referenced to the heading of the plane,
which is the image we will see in the cabin.
There will also be a “cone of confusion” or “cone of silence”,

where the received indications will change rapidly and will not be
reliable. Once the aircraft passes through this area, the readings will
stabilize.
VHF waves travel in a straight line, and there are no significant

effects of rebound or diffraction. For this reason, the range of a VOR
station depends on the curvature of the earth and the height of the
emitter and receiver. The following formula calculates the range:
23
HOW TO FLY
Range (NM) = 1.25 × (!ℎ 𝐴𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑟𝑎𝑓𝑡 (𝑓𝑡) + !ℎ 𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑓𝑡))
The actual formula uses a multiplication factor of 1.33, which

results in a theoretical range of the VHF signal. In practice, the actual
range is less because of the power of the transmitter, the sensitivity of
the receiver, the losses caused by the cables, or the efficiency of the
antennas.
For example, an aircraft at FL100 will receive a signal from a

VOR station at sea level at approximately 125 NM, and an aircraft at
FL300 will receive a signal from a VOR station at sea level at
approximately 215 NM.
LONG RANGE NAVIGATION

(LORAN)
LORAN is a hyperbolic electronic navigation aid system that
uses the interval between the reception of radio signals transmitted from
three or more transmitters to determine the position of the receiver.
The most modern version is LORAN-C, which works at

frequencies of the electromagnetic spectrum between 90 and 100 kHz,
with a multipulse signal, usually nine for the masters (the ninth pulse
indicates the station and serves to apply some corrections) and eight
for the slaves, or reference stations.
The LORAN system has been used by aircraft and ships in many
countries, including the United States of America, Japan, and several
European countries. Russia uses an almost identical system called
CHAYKA, which uses the same frequency band.
Much like non-directional beacon navaids, the use of LORAN is

rapidly declining, being replaced by other means of navigation.
24
INSTRUMENTS
DISTANCE MEASURING
EQUIPMENT (DME)
A DME equipment indicates the oblique distance between the
station and the aircraft. They are linked to VOR or ILS frequencies, and
although they are different navaids, they are in the same position and
usually have the same range ICAO. Annex 10, p. 3-40 (3.5.3.1.2).
Figure 2.5.1. DME distance.
DMEs operate between the 960 and 1215 MHz frequencies ICAO.
. The chart notes that a VOR frequency has an
Annex 10. p. 3-40 (3.5.3.1.2)
associated DME as follows:
Figure 2.5.2. Illustration of a DME in the charts.
25
HOW TO FLY
What we see in the cockpit resembles Figure 2.5.3. By selecting

the frequency in the NAV equipment, we will obtain the distance
indication in the DME instrument.
Figure 2.5.3. DME equipment.
If we choose to select the distance to the station in the NAV1 or

NAV2 equipment, we will do it through the four-position switch:
We will use N1 to choose the frequency of the NAV1. N2 will

serve to choose the frequency of the NAV2 and HOLD to keep the
indication of the last monitored frequency.
If after selecting N1 we move the switch to HOLD and change

the frequency of the NAV1 unit, we will continue to see the previous
indication. The same will happen if we change the frequency of the
NAV2 after turning the switch from N2 to HOLD.
As a secondary function, there are DME devices that indicate

the speed to/from the station and the time it will take to reach the station
at the current speed.
26
INSTRUMENTS
Figure 2.5.4. DME indication in the ND.
On an aircraft equipped with instruments in the form of EFIS, we

will see the navaid distance information at the bottom of the navigation
display, as shown in Figure 2.5.4.
GLIDE SLOPE
The aircraft we are going to fly will be equipped with a system

that allows the pilot to view instructions in the cockpit to fly a
predetermined final descent path.
Figure 2.6.1. Final vertical path.
We are going to descend following the indications received until

the decision altitude/height (DA/H). Upon reaching this altitude, the pilot
will look outside in search of the runway and decide whether to land or
abort the landing.
27
HOW TO FLY
Today the most used approaches with a predetermined final

descent path are the ILS, although they are rapidly being replaced by
RNAV approaches (you will find a detailed explanation in the Approach
section).
There are two types of final descents: those with a final descent
path that the aircraft can detect, known as precision or 3D approaches,
and final descents without a predetermined final descent path, known
as non-precision approaches or 2D.
For the ILS, the frequency is selected in the NAV equipment.

Frequencies between 108 MHz and 111.975 MHz are normally reserved
for ILS instrument landing systems ICAO. Annex 10. p. 3-5 (3.1.3.2.1).
We will have both the indication of the descent path and the
horizontal guide. The indications will follow the same principles as a
VOR’s. The horizontals will be the same, but the maximum deflection of
the CDI will indicate a deviation of 2.5º instead of 10º. On the vertical
scale, the arrow will represent the position of the path and the center of
scale will represent our position. If the arrow is above the scale, it means
we are below the path of descent, and vice versa.
Figure 2.6.2. Vertical indication.
The closer we get to the station, the more sensitive the

directions will be. The corrections we make will also have to be less.
An ILS is depicted on the charts as follows:
28
INSTRUMENTS
Figure 2.6.3. Horizontal profile (up) and vertical profile (down) of an ILS.
In addition to having the indication of glide slope (GS) and

localizer, there will be beacons to determine the distance to the field:
the outer, middle, and inner markers. As we pass over these beacons,
we will hear them announced in Morse code.
Figure 2.6.4. Markers.
The outer marker will normally be 3.9 NM from the runway

threshold, the middle marker at approximately 3,500 ft (±500 ft), and the
29
HOW TO FLY
inner marker at a distance between 250 ft and 1,500 ft ICAO. Annex 10. p. 3-25
(3.1.7.6)
. These beacons were essential in the early days of aviation, but
they are no longer in use today, having been replaced with ILS
approaches with DME indication.
The localizer will have a range of 25 NM if we are at a deflection

less than 10º from the center of the course ICAO. Annex 10. p. 3-5 (3.1.3.3.1).
The operating principle for RNAV/RNP-based approaches with

a predetermined final descent path will be the same: we will follow the
instructions of the instruments, which will direct us in the horizontal and
vertical planes. The biggest difference is that our position will be
indicated through satellite readings (in some cases, the altitude will be
provided by barometric readings from the plane), and we will select the
approach in the FMS.
If we are operating a cockpit equipped with EFIS, we will have

the indication of the glide slope and locator in the primary flight display.
We can also see the indication in the navigation display if we select HSI
mode.
30
INSTRUMENTS
31
HOW TO FLY
32
FLIGHT PLANNING
3. FLIGHT PLANNING
Before any flight, a complete flight plan must be prepared.
Doing it manually takes a long time, so this section outlines the steps to
follow during planning to do everything needed as quickly and efficiently
as possible. There are web pages and applications that will help us plan
a flight. One of the most complete is the following:
https://www.simbrief.com. Previous knowledge of airports will help a lot
when planning and later flying. If you are not familiar with airports and
their procedures, it will help enormously to ask people who have already
been to those airports and know their peculiarities.
With all flights, it is essential to learn about the airports in which

we are going to operate. We will have to look at the Notice to Airmen
(NOTAM) that affect us, check the weather for each airport and route,
do a mass and balance sheet, and send a flight plan. These steps will
be necessary for any type of flight you plan, be it a trip, a local training
flight, or a recreational flight.
OPERABILITY
Choose the departure aerodrome, destination aerodrome,

arrival alternate, and departure alternate airports. Take a quick look at
the weather and notifications for each airport before selecting them.
We are interested in the following airports:
33
HOW TO FLY
Figure 3.2.1. Planning.
We will determine the meteorology through METAR and TAF.
The takeoff alternate is where we will go if we have a problem

as soon as we take off and cannot return to the departure airport. In the
case of a two-engine aircraft, it will need to be within one hour of cruising
speed with an inoperative engine ICAO. Annex 6. p. 4-8 (4.3.4.1.2).
We will go to the alternate destination airport if the

meteorological or operational conditions at the arrival airport make it
impossible for us to land. We will select one, or two if needed. The
alternate airport must be far enough away from the destination airport
because if we cannot land due to weather conditions, and the alternate
is only a few miles away, it is likely that we will not be able to land there
either.
34
FLIGHT PLANNING
Figure 3.2.2. METAR and TAF. Source: (notampib.enaire.es, 2019)
This book assumes the reader understands the information

conveyed through METAR and TAF.
We are going to note the direction and intensity of the wind at

each airport to figure out the runway we will use. We can also listen to
the Automatic Terminal Information Service (ATIS) to determine the
runway in use at each airport or use applications that give us the
information.
Other than takeoff, we need to know the wind information for the
arrival time at said airport, so we will make an approximate calculation
of the time en route, and we will use the weather forecast (TAF) to look
up the wind.
35
HOW TO FLY
We will read the notifications of the airport and route through the
NOTAMs, which are essential to read and understand. Here we will read
any information that differs from normal operation or any other data that
affects us.
Figure 3.2.4. NOTAM (LEST). Source: (notampib.enaire.es, 2019)
36
FLIGHT PLANNING
For demonstration purposes, Figure 3.2.4 shows the details of

the NOTAMs at Santiago de Compostela (LEST). Both technical
language and normal language are often used to convey messages and
notifications. In the first box of Figure 3.2.4, we can find a reference to a
supplement to the Aeronautical Information Publication (REF AIRAC
SUP 149/18 PHASE 2 ACT). To find out what it is about, we will go to the
SUP section of the Aeronautical Information Publication (AIP) and look
for the reference 149/18. In this case, we will find Figure 3.2.5.
Figure 3.2.5. SUP 149/18. Source: (ais.enaire.es, 2019)
We will read the notice, and if we can operate at the airport, we

will continue with the planning.
PLANNING MINIMAS
There are minimum meteorological conditions that will have to
be met in order for us to select an airport. Depending on the conditions
of the day, we will need alternate airports to make sure we can land
somewhere.
37
HOW TO FLY
This manual includes the documents written by International

Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) and the AIR OPS document, written
by EASA. Both documents include planning minimas, which are detailed
in the following paragraphs. Information from both documents is
included so that the reader can acquire a greater understanding. It is
important to emphasize that EASA is a regulatory organization, while
ICAO gives us only recommendations. Flying in Europe, what is
described in the annexes of the ICAO would not really affect us because
the AIR OPS regulations encompass the ICAO recommendations and
are more restrictive. The reader will also have to compare what is
described in this book with the regulations of each country.
To find out if weather conditions allow us to select an airport, we

will go to the approach charts: each airport usually has more than one
approach, and each approach is defined in these charts, where the
minimum visibility or cloud ceiling necessary to complete each
approach are indicated.
Each operator has its own charts, approved by the competent

authority, or hires a chart service. What we want to know at this point,
the minimum visibility or cloud ceiling, will be indicated as the Figures
3.3.1 and 3.3.2. Depending on the aircraft category, the minimums vary.
Let’s assume we are flying a category B twin-engine piston aircraft.
Figure 3.3.1. Chart minima. Precision approach.
38
FLIGHT PLANNING
Figure 3.3.2. Chart minima. Non-precision approach.
As for the minimums, we will have the following:
• Takeoff minima
• Takeoff alternate minima
• Arrival minima
• Airport operating minima
• Arrival alternate minima
TAKEOFF MINIMA
To take off, we need at least the following weather conditions,

or whatever is specified in the documentation of each airport EASA. AIR OPS
Annex IV. p. 88 (CAT.OP.MPA.110).
Figure 3.3.3. Takeoff minima.
39
HOW TO FLY
These values apply for operations that are not approved for low
visibility takeoff (LVTO).
If we don't have the runway visual range (RVR) value but we

have the visibility, we can apply the following table to convert the
visibility into RVR.
Figure 3.3.4. Conversion of visibility to RVR.
A visibility conversion to RVR/CMV should not be used to

calculate the takeoff minima, for CAT II/III approaches, when there is a
reported RVR or for RVR less than 800 m.
According to ICAO Annex 6, Part I, we should not take off from

an airport unless the weather is above the minimum required by the
operator, and we should not take off or continue through the in-flight re-
planning point unless the weather forecasts indicate that at the
destination airport or at the alternate airport the weather conditions will
be above the minimum established by the operator at the time we expect
to operate at the airport ICAO. Annex 6. p. 4-10 (4.3.5.2).
TAKEOFF ALTERNATE MINIMA
At the takeoff alternate airport, the meteorological conditions

that must be met are the following:
40
FLIGHT PLANNING
Figure 3.3.5. Takeoff alternate minima.
The operator will only select an aerodrome as an alternate

takeoff aerodrome when the meteorological forecasts indicate that, from
between one hour before to one hour after the estimated time of arrival
(ETA) at the aerodrome, the meteorological conditions will be equal to
or greater than the minima of applicable landing. If only non-precision
approaches exist at the alternate airport, the cloud ceiling will also be
taken into account EASA. AIR OPS Annex IV. p. 168 (CAT.OP.MPA.185).
According to Annex 6, Part I of ICAO, the available information

must indicate that, in the estimated time of use, the meteorological
conditions will be above the minimums required by the operator ICAO. Annex
6. p. 4-10 (4.3.5.2)
.
For aircraft with two engines, the takeoff alternate should be at

a maximum distance of one hour at cruising speed with one engine
inoperative.
ARRIVAL MINIMA
According to AIR OPS, in order to select the destination airport,

the weather forecasts will have to indicate that the RVR or visibility is
above that indicated on the approach charts from one hour before to
one hour after our ETA. If we expect to make a non-precision approach
41
HOW TO FLY
(NPA), the ceiling will have to be above the minimum descent

altitude/height (MDA/H) EASA. AIR OPS Annex IV. p. 168 (CAT.OP.MPA.185).
Figure 3.3.6. Arrival minima.
If these conditions are not met, we can still select the destination
airport as long as we select two alternate airports EASA. AIR OPS Annex IV. p. 168
(CAT.OP.MPA.185)
.
According to Annex 6, Part I of ICAO, we can choose the

destination airport with no alternates only if the following detailed
conditions are met. At the time of operating at the destination airport, the
weather forecasts must indicate the meteorological conditions allow for
a visual approach and landing. There also must be separate and
available runways where at least one of these runways has instrument
landing procedures ICAO. Annex 6. p. 4-9 (4.3.4.3.1).
We will select two alternate destination airports if the weather

conditions at the destination airport are below the minimum established
by the operator or there is no weather information ICAO. Annex 6. p. 4-9 (4.3.4.3.2).
AERODROME OPERATING MINIMA
Depending on the types of approach of each airport, there will

be a minimum DA/H or MDA/H that will have to be met, described in the
following table.
42
FLIGHT PLANNING
Figure 3.3.7. Arrival minima.
The final altitude DA/H or MDA/H that is established may be

higher than indicated in the table.
Each DA/H or MDA/H final altitude will require visibility to

complete the approach. We can find a table that indicates the visibility
required for each final altitude and type of airport lighting system in the
CAT.OP.MPA section 110 on page 92, ANNEX IV of the AIR OPS.
If we plan to complete a circling approach, the following table

shows us the minimum visibility/cloud ceiling required for each category
of aircraft.
Figure 3.3.8. Circling minima.
43
HOW TO FLY
ARRIVAL ALTERNATE MINIMA
To choose the alternate destination airport, we will have to

ensure that the weather forecasts indicate that the conditions in the
following table will be met from one hour before to one hour after our
ETA EASA. AIR OPS Annex IV. p. 168 (CAT.OP.MPA.185).
Figure 3.3.9. Alternate airport minimas. Source: (EASA, 2018)
Figure 3.3.9 means that if, for example, we expect to make a

CAT I (precision) approach, the meteorology has to meet the minima of
an aerodrome non-precision approach: the RVR or visibility has to be
above the minimum required, and the ceiling has to be above the
MDA/H.
Paris (LFPG) meets planning meteorological minima and has

separate runways, which means that we really wouldn't need to select
an alternate airport. But we will do it for demonstration purposes.
44
FLIGHT PLANNING
AIP
Each state part of the ICAO publishes the AIP, which contains
the aeronautical information necessary to operate in the country. It
contains permanent information, and its use is essential for air
navigation. Here we will find the available services, the procedures, and
the approach charts to each airport. There will also be manuals and
operating procedures that guide you to comply with all the laws of each
state. All information is kept up to date by regular amendments, AIRAC
amendments, supplements, and NOTAM. You should also read the GEN
and ENR sections of the AIP to familiarize yourself with the country
procedures.
When you have chosen the airports and the minimums are met,
enter the AIP of each airport. Read the aerodrome data document with
special attention to the local regulations section. If possible, look at the
entire AIP for each airport where you are going to operate. Look at the
supplements of each airport in case there is something that affects us.
In Figure 3.4.1 we can find a part of the aerodrome data

document for Adolfo Suárez Madrid-Barajas airport.
Look up information about fuel services if you need them.
45
HOW TO FLY
Figure 3.4.1. AIP. Source: (ais.enaire.es, 2020).
46
FLIGHT PLANNING
ROUTE AND CHARTS

You will have to plan your route from the departure airport to the
destination airport, and then you will have to plan the route from the
destination airport to the first alternate and from the destination airport
to the second alternate.
Read the NOTAMs of each airport and route to find out about
the restrictions that affect you.
We are going to use an airway map and four types of flight

charts. The charts will be for taxiing, standard instrumental departure
(SID), standard terminal arrival route (STAR), and finally the approach
charts.
In Figure 3.5.1 we will find the route we will take through the
airways. Airways are defined between two radio stations/waypoints, and
each one has its own callsign. Along each airway, there will be reporting
points. These reporting points will be defined by coordinates or by a
radial and distance from a station. We are going to enter or leave an
airway through these reporting points or from the beginning of the airway
itself.
The airways, defined between two radio stations or by

waypoints, follow the course that joins both points/stations. We will have
to fly following this course while offsetting the effect of the wind. Each
section of the airway, defined between two reporting points, has
minimum and maximum altitudes that we will have to meet. In
bidirectional airways, we will have to maintain an even altitude flying in
one direction (e.g. FL120, FL140, FL160, etc.) and an odd altitude in the
other direction (e.g. FL130, FL150, FL170, etc.).
While it is also possible to fly between points that we choose

ourselves, we should fly through the airways. This manual explains a
flight on an ATS route (airway flight) because this is what we will do in
most cases.
47
HOW TO FLY
You will have to open the airways chart and select a route from
the departure airport (LEMD) to the arrival airport (LFPG). To do it faster,
you can also log the parameters in an online application or web page
that gives us a route according to our flight.
We can select the route we want and change from one airway
to another if necessary. In our case, we will fly through airways defined
in the lower airway charts. You can find detailed information about the
restrictions of each airway in the AIP of each country you fly over. In the
case of our flight, which goes from Madrid to Paris, we will fly through
the airways detailed in Figures 3.5.1 and 3.5.2.
Later, we are going to write down all the points of our route. It is
also important to note a way to define each point of the airway. Normally
they will be defined based on a course/distance from a radio station or
by coordinates. In this way we can check our position with respect to
them. Also, we should write down the name of each airway, as well as
the distances and course between each section.
48
FLIGHT PLANNING
Figure 3.5.1. Airway chart.
Once our route is defined, we will write it down as shown in

Figure 3.5.2. Besides the points of the route, we will have to write down
the points of the instrumental departure, top of climb (TOC), top of
descent (TOD), arrival, and approach, so the notes in Figure 3.5.2 will
not be final.
49
HOW TO FLY
Figure 3.5.2. Provisional operational flight plan.
Afterwards, we will open all the SID charts to see where the
different instrumental departures finish.
Adolfo Suárez Madrid-Barajas airport has more than forty

departure charts. As you can imagine, making the flight planning by
hand is an extremely time-consuming job.
We can find the RBO2N exit, which takes us from runway 36L to
the RBO point.
50
FLIGHT PLANNING
Figure 3.5.3. SID chart.
51
HOW TO FLY
We will find a lot of information in the standard instrumental

departures charts. This chart is explained in the Departure section,
where you can find out what each piece of data of the chart means. The
information that most matters to us at this time is the departure route
(lower end), the minimum ascent gradients (bottom), the radio aids used
on the route, and other information such as the initial ATC clearance.
If within the instrumental departure we had route points, we

would write them to put them on the route. In the same way, if those
points were affected by restrictions of some kind, we would also write
them down, but since that is not the case here, we will only write down
what you see in Figure 3.5.4.
A big part of the information we find in this chart will be needed

during planning: we will sum the approximate distance of the departure
to later calculate the necessary fuel and the required initial ascent
gradients, and then we will compare them to the maximum ascent
gradient that we can maintain. Finally, we are going to note the radio
aids used at the departure.
Once we have written down everything we need, the next thing

to do is open the STAR charts. We will search to see if any arrival route
starts from any of the last points of the route that we have chosen.
52
FLIGHT PLANNING
Figure 3.5.5. STAR chart.
53
HOW TO FLY
We have the chart with the code 20-2B (Figure 3.5.5) that takes
us from KOVAK to BANOX. The approach to one of the four runways of
the Charles de Gaulle Airport in Paris will begin at BANOX.
This STAR chart is an RNAV arrival, because of this, the points

will not be defined through the course/distance of a radio aid but will be
defined by coordinates and inserted in our flight management computer
(FMC). The aircraft and the crew will have to be qualified to operate a
RNAV procedure. In a RNAV procedure, it will not be necessary to
search for our location using radio aids. It will appear directly on the
EHSI/ ND screen.
As we can see in the STAR chart (Figure 3.5.5), the arrival we

are going to follow is called KOVAK 7E.
We will write down the route and altitude or speed restrictions,

arrival distance, the name of the STAR, and the radio aids we will use
during the arrival. We should pay attention to the minimum sector
altitude (MSA), explained in the Minimum Altitudes section.
54
FLIGHT PLANNING
Figure 3.5.7. Initial approach chart.
55
HOW TO FLY
Figure 3.5.8. Approach chart.
56
FLIGHT PLANNING
Once we have all the arrival information, it is time to open the

approach charts (Figure 3.5.8), which will be the final part of the flight.
At Paris Charles de Gaulle Airport, due to its large size, the initial
approach is on a separate chart, known as STAR + transition, when in
smaller airports the entire approach is on the same chart.
There are many types of final approaches, and we will find the
necessary information about all approaches on each airport’s charts.
The most common types of approaches are explained in the Approach
section.
In this case, as can be seen in Figure 3.5.8, we want to complete

the ILS-type approach to runway 08L.
You will have to calculate the distance you will travel during the
approach (in this case, adding the distances from two charts). Write
down the frequencies of the radio aids, the altitude at which the
approach begins (glide slope capture altitude), and get an idea of how
to fly each approach.
Each airport will have its own peculiarities in the approach route.
It is important to familiarize ourselves with local procedures by reading
all the available information (AIP, NOTAMs, etc.), and if possible, consult
with someone who is already familiar with the airport.
As you can see, all these charts contain a great deal of

information, but in planning you should pay special attention to the route
57
HOW TO FLY
you are going to fly and the altitude/speed restrictions, if any. If you know
an approach is out of service at the destination airport, prepare
alternative approaches.
In the following figure, we have a table taken from the AIP Spain
ENR 3.1, where we find the information for the lower ATS routes
(airways), that is, the airways lower than FL180. Here we can find all the
airways that fly over the country. In the R10 airway, we can read the
vertical limits at each point, and if the altitude at which we have to fly in
the airway is even or odd. We will check the same information for all the
airways through which we fly.
Figure 3.5.10. ATS Routes. Source: (ais.enaire.es, 2020)
Finally, it is important to study the departure and arrival airport

taxi charts. These charts are a map of the airport taxi area.
58
FLIGHT PLANNING
Figure 3.5.11. LEMD chart.
59
HOW TO FLY
Figure 3.5.12. LFPG chart.
60
FLIGHT PLANNING
With the route defined, look at the significant weather chart and
the wind map. Note the wind along the route and if there are any
meteorological phenomena that affect us, such as storms or major icing
effects.
Figure 3.5.13. Significant weather chart.
Figure 3.5.13, called the significant weather chart (SIGWX),

represents the meteorological conditions over the European continent
between flight levels FL100 and FL450. It is vitally important to check
the meteorology en route to anticipate what may happen in flight and to
prepare in case we have to go to the alternate airport.
Fortunately, there is no meteorological phenomenon that affects

us on our route. In northern Europe, however, we can see there are a lot
of clouds, icing, turbulence, and storms.
If there were unfavorable weather conditions or a storm along

our route, we would consider changing the route or altitude. We should
61
HOW TO FLY
not operate in icing conditions unless the aircraft is equipped and

certified to fly in such conditions ICAO. Annex 6. p. 4-11 (4.3.5.5).
Figure 3.5.14. Wind map.
In Figure 3.5.14, we can see the wind we will have at FL100 at

12 UTC. To calculate the wind at other altitudes, remember the wind
veers and increases in intensity with altitude.
Depending on the wind and weather conditions, we will choose

the most favorable cruising altitude. In this case, we will ascend to FL140
on the way to RBO (even heading), and we will maintain that altitude
throughout the route. If when changing airways, the altitude to stay in
the new airway is odd, we will simply go up or down 1,000 ft.
62
FLIGHT PLANNING
DESCENT CALCULATION
When arriving at the destination, we will have to descend from
the cruising altitude to the glide slope capture altitude, following all
altitude restrictions. Calculate how far you will have to start the descent
to reach the appropriate altitude at the glide slope capture point, in our
case 5,000 ft. The descent starting point will be our TOC.
The goal is to stay as high as possible throughout the entire

route, as turbine engines are much more efficient at higher altitudes.
To calculate the distance of descent, we will divide the vertical

distance we have to go down by the vertical speed we expect to have,
and we will multiply it by our horizontal speed on the ground (ground
speed equals speed over the air plus or minus the effect of the wind).
We expect to have a GS of 165 kt, which results in 2.75 NM/min.
Thanks to our arrival chart, we noted our altitude restrictions.
Figure 3.6.15. Planning. Descent calculation.
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HOW TO FLY
The first restriction is that we have to be below FL150 at point

FF501. As we are going to be flying at FL140, we already comply with
that restriction.
The second restriction says we have to be below FL120 over

NERKI. For this, we will calculate to descend 2,000 ft in two minutes,
starting the descent 6 NM before NERKI. The third restriction is that we
have to be below FL110 and above FL090 on BANOX. Because we are
at FL120, we calculate descending to FL110 in one minute, starting the
descent at 3 NM before BANOX.
Finally, we will have to descend to 5,000 ft to capture the glide

path at 14.6 NM GLE. To have a safety margin, we will try to reach that
point 5 NM earlier. We will descend 6,000 ft in six minutes, which means
we will begin the descent at 18 NM before the point where we want to
be at 5,000 ft, that is, 37.6 NM from GLE.
The vertical speed of 1,000 ft/min is an orientative vertical

speed.
When we are done with the destination route, we will have to do

exactly the same from the arrival airport to the two alternates.
It is important to look at all the charts for all the airports. You will
have to be familiar with all the taxiways, departures, arrivals, and
approaches.
FUEL CALCULATION
After the route, you have to calculate the required fuel and the
distances and the times between points.
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FLIGHT PLANNING
In the airplane flight manual (AFM) or the pilot operating

handbook (POH) of your plane, look for the power setting chart where
you will see the consumption and speed for each power and altitude.
We are going to simulate flying a category B twin-engine

airplane. We will maintain a power of 24.0 inHg and 2 450 RPM. With the
power information and the temperature for that day, we will select the
power setting chart illustrated in Figure 3.7.1, and we will find the data
for our cruising altitude of 14,000 ft.
Figure 3.7.1. Power setting chart.
The fuel we are going to carry is the sum of the taxi, route,
alternate, final reserve, contingency, additional, and the extra fuel we
want to add ICAO. Annex 6. pp. 4-11–4-13 (4.3.6.3).
Taxi fuel is the fuel we will consume prior to takeoff. We will take
into account local conditions at the departure airport, or use a standard,
depending on the operator ICAO. Annex 6. p.4-10 (4.3.6.3).
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HOW TO FLY
En-route fuel is the fuel we will need from takeoff to landing at

the destination airport ICAO. Annex 6. p. 4-11 (4.3.6.3). Route fuel is made up of
climb fuel, cruise altitude fuel, and descent fuel.
To calculate the climb fuel, we have to know the approximate

weight of the plane at takeoff. That is, we have to know how much fuel
we will take. For this reason, we will first make an approximate
calculation of the total fuel of the flight, and the actual calculation will be
made last.
For the approximate calculation, let’s imagine we will fly the

departure and arrival at cruising altitude. We will make the sum of the
total distance of the route, taking into account the effects of an average
wind, and dividing the distance by the speed.
As we can see in Figure 3.7.1, at 14,000 ft we are going to

consume 9.7 US gal/h per engine (x2 engine = 19.4 US gal/h), our GS
will be 160 kt. Convert the fuel to pounds to calculate the fuel weight.
We will use a fuel density of 6 lb/US gal for the calculations (AVGAS
100LL).
Figure 3.7.2. Planning. Approximate route fuel calculation.
This will be our approximate route fuel.
Do exactly the same from the destination airport to the farthest

alternate to calculate our alternate fuel. The alternate fuel is the fuel
required to complete a missed approach at the destination airport, climb
to cruising altitude, fly the expected route, descend to the calculated
approach start point, and complete another approach. If we do not have
an alternate destination airport, we will need enough fuel to be at holding
speed at 1,500 ft above the destination airport for 15 minutes ICAO. Annex 6.
p, 4-12 (4.3.6.3)
.
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FLIGHT PLANNING
Calculate the contingency fuel. This fuel is used to compensate

for unpredictable factors. It should be 5% of the route fuel or the fuel
necessary to hold for five minutes at 1,500 feet above the destination
airport under standard conditions, whichever is higher. In our case, the
flight will be approximately 240 minutes, so we will calculate 5% of the
route fuel.
Lastly, add the reserve fuel, which, being a piston aircraft, is

enough for 45 minutes of flight ICAO. Annex 6. p. 4-12 (4.3.6.3).
We should add additional fuel in case of an engine or

pressurization failure at the most critical point of the route, enough to get
to the alternate airport, fly 15 minutes at holding speed at 1,500 ft above
the alternate airport, make an approach, and land. If the fuel we carry
on-board covers these circumstances, we will not need to add
additional fuel ICAO. Annex 6. p. 4-12 (4.3.6.3).
We can add any extra fuel that we deem necessary ICAO. Annex 6. p.
. We will add 160 lb to have approximately an extra hour of flight.
4-12 (4.3.6.3)
Figure 3.7.3. Planning. Fuel calculation.
To simplify the alternate calculations, you can divide the total

distance of the route by the cruising speed (GS) and multiply the time
by the consumption at cruising altitude. Always add a margin of safety.
Now that we know the fuel required for the flight, we can do the
climb fuel calculations using the AFM graphs.
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HOW TO FLY
After that, we will do the route fuel calculations, calculating each

section separately.
We will add the weight of the plane (3,900 lb), the weight of the
occupants (2 crew = 187 lb x2), 50 lb of cargo, and 1,200 lb of fuel. We
will enter the data in the graph.
Figure 3.7.4. Climb time, distance, and fuel.
Following the instructions in your climb graph, calculate the

time, distance, and fuel needed for the cruise altitude. In this case, 9
minutes, 24 NM and 41.7 lb.
With this information, calculate the fuel for the instrumental

departure. We will divide the instrumental departure into two sections:
the initial ascent we already calculated (LEMD-TOC), and from when we
reach the cruising altitude to the next waypoint (TOC-RBO).
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FLIGHT PLANNING
Figure 3.7.5. Operational flight plan.
The TOC is included in the operational flight plan as if it were

another point on the route. In this case, we will arrive at the cruising
altitude before any other point on the route, but if it were the opposite,
we would first put the row of the point with its data, and after this row,
we would add the TOC row where it corresponds with the distance we
have left to reach the cruise altitude.
Next, we will calculate the time and fuel we will consume on all
the sections of the route.
To calculate the time and consumption in each section of the

route, we need to know our airspeed and hourly consumption; we will
obtain this information in Figure 3.7.1. Next, we will add the wind
component to our airspeed. At this point, we know the speed over the
ground. Dividing the distance by the speed, we will have the time for
each section, and multiplying the consumption by this (19.4 US gal/h),
we will know the consumption in each section.
Use Figure 3.7.1 to log the fuel consumption for each leg. The
figure is called an operational flight plan, and we will need one for every
flight. We will have to add up all the fuel consumption on the route. The
final sum is noted in Figure 3.7.6.
We will complete the calculations for the entire route as

described. To calculate our consumption in descent, we should
calculate the approximate weight we will have at the starting point of the
descent and use the graphs to calculate the consumption from the
cruising altitude to the altitude of the airport. In this manual, descent is
calculated as if we were at cruising altitude to simplify planning.
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HOW TO FLY
If we calculate the descent to cruising altitude and power, we

will add a safety margin, and we will take off with a little more fuel than
necessary.
If we think we will spend some time holding, we will have to find

the consumption at the holding altitude at the required power and
multiply it by the time we expect to will be holding the position.
This will be the actual fuel we will have at takeoff.
Figure 3.7.6. Planning. Corrected fuel calculation.
You can see there is only a 30 lb difference between the

approximate fuel we have calculated and the actual calculation, but the
latter is more accurate.
Then check that the ascent gradients with one and two engines
meet the requirements described in the SID chart. If your ascent
gradients do not meet the requirements in the departure, you will not be
able to complete the departure unless you have a procedure for engine
failure. Also calculate the route with an inoperative engine. Make sure
the takeoff and landing distances allow us room for the operation.
LEMD's RBO2N SID restriction tells us we need to have a 6.6%

climb up to 8,000 ft. The first thing we will do is see if at 8,000 ft we can
maintain more than 6.6%. It is assumed that, if not indicated otherwise,
departures require a climb gradient of 3.3% ICAO. Doc. 8168. p. I-3-1-3 (1.5.2).
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FLIGHT PLANNING
We understand that after 8,000 ft the required climb gradient

will be 3.3%, so we are also going to calculate until what altitude we can
maintain the 3.3% climb with one and two engines operating.
Figure 3.7.7. Climb with both engines operative.
In the climb graph with both engines operative, we can see that
we meet the departure restriction and that we can maintain a 3.3% climb
until past 16,000 ft.
Figure 3.7.8. Climb with one engine inoperative.
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HOW TO FLY
As for the climb graph with one engine inoperative, we will not
be able to maintain the 6.6% of climb required, which means that we
need a contingency procedure in case we have an engine failure during
the climb.
Figure 3.7.9. Service ceiling with one engine inoperative.
Based on the service ceiling graph with one inoperative engine,

we will be able to maintain an altitude of almost 6,000 ft. If we have an
engine failure during the route, we will not be able to maintain more than
that altitude, so we will have to go to an area where the minimum altitude
to maintain is less than 6,000 ft. As fuel is consumed during the flight,
the resulting drop in weight will raise the maximum altitude with an
inoperative engine.
PERFORMANCE
We will have to ensure that the performance of the aircraft allows

us to take off and land from/in the airports where we are going to
operate, taking into account the declared distances and applying the
necessary safety corrections for each situation.
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FLIGHT PLANNING
TAKEOFF
In Figure 4.8.1, we can see the maximum takeoff distance that

we are allowed.
Figure 3.8.1. Takeoff distance.
Figure 3.8.2. Takeoff distance.
We will calculate the needed takeoff distance, taking into

account the conditions of the day, the elevation of the takeoff airport,
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HOW TO FLY
and the weight of the plane. We will compare the takeoff distance we
will need and the distance from the airport takeoff runway. The required
takeoff distance should not exceed that described in Figure 3.8.1 EASA.
AIR OPS, Annex IV. p. 244 (CAT.POL.A.305)
.
LANDING
We are going to calculate the landing distance we need and

compare it with the distances available at all the airfields where we might
land.
The required landing distance should comply with that

described in Figure 3.8.3 at all airports EASA. AIR OPS, Annex IV. p. 255 (CAT.POL.A.330).
Figure 3.8.3. Landing distances.
As with the takeoff distance, we will have to use the wind

information at the arrival time, so we will add the route time to the takeoff
time to figure out our arrival time and thus use the correct wind. As for
the weight of the plane, we are going to subtract the route fuel from our
takeoff weight to get the landing weight.
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FLIGHT PLANNING
Figure 3.8.4. Landing distance.
MASS AND BALANCE

We will do the mass and balance sheet of the plane when we
know the fuel we are going to carry for the day's flight.
We will have to know the number of people who are on board

the plane. Ideally, we should also know how much each person weighs
and the seat where they will sit. The effect that each person will have on
the center of gravity will vary according to their position and weight. We
also need to know the load we are going to carry. If we do not know the
weight of the passengers, we will add a standard weight.
We will find all the information on how each passenger or cargo

will affect the plane’s center of gravity in the AFM. We will have to ensure
that the center of gravity remains within limits throughout the flight.
As can be seen in Figure 3.9.1, we will write down the weight in

pounds of each item in the column indicated as “Weight”. With the AFM
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HOW TO FLY
information, we will multiply the effect of each element on the center of

gravity, and we will pass it to the graph.
Figure 3.9.1. Mass and balance.
OPERATIONAL FLIGHT PLAN

In the operational flight plan, we will put the points where we
pass, starting with the departure airport, including the TOC (the point
where we reach the cruising altitude), and the TOD (the point where we
will start the descent).
We will find the wind aloft in the wind maps (Figure 3.5.14). With
this wind and our speed over the air, we will calculate the speed over
the surface and the wind correction angle. With the distance and our
ground speed, we will know the time and consumption in each section.
The rest of the data, such as airways, altitudes, and details can be found
in the information we have used during planning.
During the flight, we will have to fill in the empty cells. The Airway
section describes how to fill them in.
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FLIGHT PLANNING
77
HOW TO FLY
FLIGHT PLAN
For all IFR flights, it will be necessary to send a flight plan with
the required information. The flight plan will be submitted to the air traffic
notification office ICAO. Annex 2. p. 3-7 (3.3.1.3). It will be presented at the
departure aerodrome in person, by telephone, or by other means
prescribed by the ATS authority.
Depending on the services we request and the aerodrome from

which we are going to depart, it may be necessary to send the flight plan
in advance. The minimum notice time will be 60 minutes, unless the
appropriate ATS authority indicates otherwise ICAO. Annex 2. p. 3-7 (3.3.1.4). The
maximum notice time will be 120 hours ICAO Doc. 4444. p. 4-4 (4.4.2.1.1).
The flight plan is sent so that the airports are prepared for our
departure or arrival. In the event of an accident or disappearance, the
emergency services will start looking for us on the route we have
indicated.
In a controlled airport, there is a tolerance of -15/+30 minutes to

initiate the flight plan. If the flight plan does not start until 30 minutes
after the indicated time, it will be necessary to cancel the flight plan and
send a new one. The maximum delay will be one hour for non-controlled
aerodromes ICAO Doc. 4444. p. 4-4 (4.4.2.1.1).
All information regarding flight plans can be found in the ENR

section of the AIP.
To regulate the flow of air traffic through route sectors or

airports, the concept of calculated takeoff time (CTOT), commonly
known as slot, was created by the European Air Traffic Flow and
Capacity Management (ATFCM). Each airport and area control sector
in Europe has a declared capacity, expressed as a maximum number
of flights per hour.
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FLIGHT PLANNING
Within Europe, each IFR flight must submit a flight plan to the
Integrated Initial Flight Plan Processing System (IFPS), based in
Brussels and Paris. The system will verify that the flight plan is in the
correct format and that it complies with the restrictions that have been
published.
If the number of planned flights (demand) exceeds the declared

capacity en route or at an airport, IFPS will start issuing CTOT.
A CTOT is a precise -5/+10-minute departure window in which

the affected flight must take off to ensure that when the flight arrives at
a sector or airport, demand does not exceed capacity. The advantage
of this is that flights will spend the inevitable delay time on the ground at
the departure airport, rather than in the air. IFPS will distribute the delay
fairly between the flights. If an airport can handle forty-four flights per
hour, and there are forty-six flights planned for one hour, the system will
issue small delays to many flights, instead of giving large delays to two
flights. In the event that CTOTs are issued to flights as a result of an
overload during a single one-hour period, CTOTs will also be issued to
flights scheduled one hour before and one hour after that time to avoid
delaying the issue by one hour.
When submitting a flight plan, the aircraft operator includes an

estimated off-block time (EOBT), which is the time the aircraft is planned
to start moving at the departure airport. If a flight is ready to leave its
boarding gate more than 15 minutes before the original EOBT, or is
delayed more than 30 minutes, the airline must send a new EOBT to the
system, as the new departure time could cause an overload somewhere
along the route. Similarly, if a flight has received a CTOT, but cannot
take off within the CTOT tolerance (-5/+10 minutes), the operator or air
traffic control must send a delay message to IFPS, and a new CTOT will
be issued.
Taxi time is the time it takes for the aircraft to leave the gate
(EOBT) and be ready for takeoff. This time is calculated by ATC. The
IFPS must know the taxi time to calculate the CTOT, because it only
knows the EOBT time from the flight plans it receives.
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HOW TO FLY
If a flight is ready to depart before its CTOT, ATC must make the
aircraft wait. If a flight misses its CTOT, ATC cannot issue a takeoff
clearance. A new CTOT must be requested through IFPS, and the flight
will potentially be delayed.
A CTOT is not permanent or immovable. IFPS can send a review

message. Flights that are ready to depart but are subject to a CTOT
delay, can ask ATC to send a ready message, indicating to IFPS that if
a previous CTOT is available, the flight would be ready for it.
Finally, some flights are exempt from ATFCM restrictions, which

means that CTOT delays will not be issued. Examples of such flights are
ambulances, firefighting flights, search and rescue flights, and flights
with heads of state. Flights leaving outside of Europe will also not receive
CTOT, because there is no global ATFM system yet, but IFPS will have
these flights’ information, and they will be included in the calculations.
Figure 3.11.1 illustrates the flight plan that we would complete

for our flight from Madrid to Paris. What should be included in each box
is detailed below.
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FLIGHT PLANNING
Figure 3.11.1. Filled flight plan. Source: (ais.enaire.es, 2019)
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HOW TO FLY
ITEM 7 ICAO Doc. 4444. p. A2-3–A2-4
Aircraft Identification
Insert one of the following aircraft identifications, not exceeding

seven alphanumeric characters, and without hyphens or symbols:
a) The ICAO designator for the aircraft operating agency

followed by the flight identification (e.g. KLM511, NGA213, JTR25).
When in radiotelephony, the call sign to be used by the aircraft will
consist of the ICAO telephony designator for the operating agency
followed by the flight identification (e.g. KLM511, NIGERIA 213, JESTER
25).
b) Or the nationality or common mark and registration mark of

the aircraft (e.g. EIAK O, 4XBCD, N2567GA) when either of the following
factors are true:
1) In radiotelephony the call sign to be used by the aircraft will

consist of this identification alone (e.g. CGAJS) or be preceded
by the ICAO telephony designator for the aircraft operating
agency (e.g. BLIZZARD CGAJS).
2) The aircraft is not equipped with radio.
ITEM 8 (ONE OR TWO CHARACTERS) ICAO Doc. 4444. p. A2-4
Flight Rules
Insert one of the following letters to denote the category of flight

rules with which the pilot intends to comply:
I The entire flight will be operated under the IFR.

V The entire flight will be operated under the visual flight rules
(VFR).
Y The flight initially will be operated under the IFR, followed by one
or more subsequent changes of flight rules.
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FLIGHT PLANNING
Z The flight initially will be operated under the VFR, followed by

one or more subsequent changes of flight rules.
For the last two options, specify in Item 15 the point or points at
which a change of flight rules is planned.
Type of Flight
Insert one of the following letters to denote the type of flight

when so required by the appropriate ATS authority:
S Scheduled air service

N Non-scheduled air transport operation
G General aviation
M Military
X A type of flight not listed above
Specify status of a flight following the indicator STS in Item 18,

or when necessary to denote other reasons for specific handling by ATS,
state the reason following the indicator RMK in Item 18.
ITEM 9 ICAO Doc. 4444. p. A2-4–A2-5
Number of Aircraft (One or Two Characters)
The number of aircraft affected by that flight plan. In formation

flights, only the squadron leader would send the flight plan.
Type of Aircraft (Two to Four Characters)
Insert the appropriate designator as specified in ICAO Doc

8643, aircraft type designators.
If no such designator has been assigned, or in case of formation

flights comprising more than one type, insert “ZZZZ”, and specify in Item
18 the numbers and type(s) of aircraft preceded by “TYPE/”.
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HOW TO FLY
Wake Turbulence Category (One Character)
Insert an oblique stroke followed by one of the following letters

to indicate the wake turbulence category of the aircraft:
H HEAVY, to indicate an aircraft type with a certified takeoff mass

of 136,000 kg or more
M MEDIUM, to indicate an aircraft type with a certified takeoff
mass of less than 136,000 kg but more than 7,000 kg
L LIGHT, to indicate an aircraft type with a certified takeoff mass
of 7,000 kg or less
The wake turbulence for each aircraft is also defined in ICAO

Doc. 8643.
ITEM 10 ICAO Doc. 4444. p. A2-5–A2-8
Capabilities comprise the following elements:
a) Presence of relevant serviceable equipment on board

the aircraft
b) Equipment and capabilities commensurate with flight
crew qualifications
c) Where applicable, authorization from the appropriate
authority
Radiocommunication, Navigation, Approach Aid Equipment, and

Capabilities
Insert one letter as follows:
N No COM/NAV/approach aid equipment for the route to be flown

is carried, or the equipment is unserviceable.
S Standard COM/NAV/approach aid equipment for the route to be
flown is carried and serviceable. Standard equipment is
considered to be VHF RTF, VOR, and ILS, unless another
combination is prescribed by the appropriate ATS authority.
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FLIGHT PLANNING
And/or insert one or more of the following letters to indicate the

serviceable COM/NAV/approach aid equipment and capabilities
available:
A GBAS landing system

B LPV (APV with SBAS)
C LORAN-C
D DME
E1 FMC WPR ACARS
E2 D-FIS ACARS
E3 PDC ACARS
F ADF
G GNSS (see Note 1)
H HF RTF
I Inertial Navigation
J1 CPDLC ATN VDL Mode 2 (see Note 2)
J2 CPDLC FANS 1/A
J3 CPDLC FANS 1/A VDL Mode A
J4 CPDLC FANS 1/A VDL Mode 2
J5 CPDLC FANS 1/A SATCOM (INMARSAT)
J6 CPDLC FANS 1/A SATCOM (MSTAT)
J7 CPDLC FANS 1/A SATCOM (Iridium)
K MLS
L ILS
M1 ATC SATVOICE (INMARSAT)
M2 ATC SATVOICE (MTSAT)
M3 ATC SATVOICE (IRIDIUM)
O VOR
P1 CPDLC RCP 400 (see Note 6)
P2 CPDLC RCP 240 (see Note 6)
P3 SATVOICE RCP 400 (see Note 6)
P4-P9 Reserved for RCP
R PBN approved (see Note 3)
T TACAN
U UHF RTF
V VHF RTF
W RVSM approved
X MNPS approved
Y VHF with 8.33 kHz cannel spacing
Z Other equipment carried or other capabilities (see Note 4)
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HOW TO FLY
Note 1. If you plan to conduct any portion of the flight under IFR, it refers
to GNSS receivers that comply with the requirements of Annex
10, Volume I. If the letter G is used, the types of external GNSS
augmentation, if any, are specified in Item 18 following the
indicator NAV/ and separated by a space.
Note 2. See RTCA/EUROCAE Interoperability Requirements Standard

for ATN Baseline 1 (ATN B1 INTEROP Standard – DO-280B/ED-
110B) for data link services, air traffic control clearance, and
information/air traffic control communications management/air
traffic control microphone check.
Note 3. If the letter R is used, the performance-based navigation levels

that can be met are specified in Item 18 following the indicator
PBN/. You can find guidance on the application of performance-
based navigation to a specific route segment, route, or area in
the Performance-Based Navigation (PBN) Manual (Doc 9613).
Note 4. If the letter Z is used, specify in Item 18 the other equipment

carried or other capabilities preceded by COM/, NAV/, and/or
DAT as appropriate.
Note 5. Information on navigation capability is provided to ATC for

clearance and routing purposes.
Note 6. Guidance material on the application of performance-based

communication, which prescribes RCP to an air traffic service in
a specific area, is contained in the Performance-based
Communication and Surveillance (PBCS) Manual (Doc 9869).
Surveillance Equipment and Capabilities
Insert “N” if no surveillance equipment for the route to be flown

is carried, or the equipment is unserviceable.
Or insert one or more of the following descriptors, with a

maximum of twenty characters, to describe the serviceable surveillance
equipment and/or capabilities on board:
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FLIGHT PLANNING
SSR mode A and C
A Transponder Mode A (4 digits – 4096 codes)

C Transponder Mode A (4 digits – 4096 codes) and
mode C
SSR mode S
E Transponder Mode S, including aircraft

identification, pressure-altitude, and
extended squitter (ADS-B) capability
H Transponder Mode S, including aircraft
identification, pressure-altitude, and
enhanced surveillance capability
I Transponder Mode S, including aircraft identification
but no pressure-altitude capability
L Transponder Mode S, including aircraft
identification, pressure-altitude,
extended squitter (ADS-B), and
enhanced surveillance capability
P Transponder Mode S, including pressure-altitude
but no aircraft identification capability
S Transponder Mode S, including both pressure-
altitude and aircraft identification
capability
X Transponder Mode S with neither aircraft
identification nor pressure-altitude
capability
ADS-B
B1 ADS-B with dedicated 1 090 MHz ADS-B “out”

capability
B2 ADS-B with dedicated 1 090 MHz ADS-B “out” and “in”
capability
U1 ADS-B “out” capability using UAT
U2 ADS-B “out” and “in” capability using UAT
V1 ADS-B “out” capability using VDL Mode 4
V2 ADS-B “out” and “in” capability using VDL Mode 4
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HOW TO FLY
ADS-C
D1 ADS-B with FANS 1/A Capabilities

G1 ADS-C with ATN capabilities
ITEM 13 ICAO Doc. 4444. p. A2-8
Departure Aerodrome
Insert the ICAO four-letter location indicator of the departure

aerodrome as specified in Doc 7910, Location Indicators.
Or if no location indicator has been assigned, insert “ZZZZ”, and

specify in Item 18 the name and location of the aerodrome preceded by
“DEP/”.
Or insert the first point of the route or the marker radio beacon
preceded by “DEP/...” if the aircraft has not taken off from the
aerodrome.
Or if the flight plan is received from an aircraft in flight, insert

“AFIL”, and specify in Item 18 the ICAO four-letter location indicator of
the location of the ATS unit from which supplementary flight plan data
can be obtained, preceded by “DEP/”.
Departure Time
Then, without a space, insert for a flight plan submitted before

departure and the EOBT.
Or for a flight plan received from an aircraft in flight, insert the

actual or estimated time over the first point of the route to which the flight
plan applies.
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FLIGHT PLANNING
ITEM 15 ICAO Doc. 4444. p. A2-8–A2-11
Route
Insert the first cruising speed as in (a) and the first cruising level
as in (b), without a space between them. Then, following the arrow, insert
the route description as in (c).
(a) Cruising speed
Insert the true airspeed for the first or the whole cruising portion
of the flight, in terms of one of the following:
Kilometers per hour: Expressed as “K” followed by four characters

(e.g. K0830)
Knots: Expressed as “N” followed by four characters
(e.g. N0485)
True Mach number: When so prescribed by the appropriate ATS
authority, to the nearest hundredth of unit Mach,
expressed as “M” followed by three characters
(e.g. M082).
(b) Cruising level
Insert the planned cruising level for the first or the whole portion of the
route to be flown, in terms of one of the following:
Flight level Expressed as “F” followed by three

characters (e.g. F085; F330).
Metric level Expressed as “S” followed by four
characters (e.g. S1130).
Altitude in feet Expressed as “A” followed by three
characters (e.g. A045; A100), in
hundreds of feet.
Altitude in meters Expressed as “M” followed by four
characters (e.g. M0840).
For uncontrolled VFR flights, use the letters “VFR”.
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HOW TO FLY
c) Route (including changes of speed, level, and/or flight rules)
Flights along designated ATS routes
Insert, if the departure aerodrome is located on or connected to

the ATS route, the designator of the first ATS route.
Or if the departure aerodrome is not on or connected to the ATS

route, insert the letters “DCT” followed by the point of joining the first
ATS route, followed by the designator of the ATS route.
Then insert each point at which either a change of speed, level,

ATS route, and/or flight rules is planned.
Note – When a transition is planned between a lower and upper ATS

route, and the routes are oriented in the same direction, you do not need
to insert the point of transition.
Follow each point by the designator of the next ATS route

segment, even if it is the same as the previous entry.
Or by DCT, if the flight to the next point will be outside a

designated route, unless both points are defined by geographical
coordinates.
Flights outside designated ATS routes
Insert points, normally not more than 30 minutes flying time, or

370 km (200 NM) apart, including each point at which a change of
speed, level, track, or flight rules is planned.
Or when required by appropriate ATS authority(ies), define the

track of flights operating predominantly in an east-west direction
between 70°N and 70°S by referencing significant intersection points of
half or whole degrees of latitude with meridians spaced at intervals of
10° of longitude. For flights operating outside those latitudes, define the
tracks by significant intersection points of parallels of latitude with
meridians spaced at 20° of longitude. The distance between significant
90
FLIGHT PLANNING
points, if possible, should not exceed one hour’s flight time. Additional
significant points should be included as necessary.
For flights operating predominantly in a north-south direction,

define tracks by referencing significant intersecting points formed of
whole degrees of longitude with specified parallels of latitude which are
spaced at 5°.
Insert DCT between successive points unless both points are

defined by geographical coordinates or by bearing and distance.
Use only the conventions in (1) to (5) below and separate each
sub-item by a space.
(1) ATS route (two to seven characters)
The coded designator assigned to the route or route segment

including, where appropriate, the coded designator assigned to the
standard departure or arrival route (e.g. BCN1, Bl, R14, UB10,
KODAP2A).
(2) Significant point (two to eleven characters)
The coded designator (two to five characters) assigned to the

point (e.g. LN, MAY, HADDY), or, if no coded designator has been
assigned, one of the following:
Degrees only (seven characters):
For describing latitude in degrees, use two characters followed

by “N” (North) or “S” (South), followed by three characters
describing longitude in degrees, followed by “E” (East) or “W”
(West). Fill in the correct number of characters, where
necessary, by inserting zeros, e.g. 46N078W.
Degrees and minutes (eleven characters):
For describing latitude in degrees and tens and units of minutes,

use four characters followed by “N” (North) or “S” (South),
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HOW TO FLY
followed by five characters describing longitude in degrees and

tens and units of minutes, followed by “E” (East) or “W” (West).
Fill in the correct number of characters, where necessary, by
insertion of zeros, e.g. 4620N07805W.
Bearing and distance from a reference point:
Identify the reference point, followed by the bearing from the

point in the form of three characters giving magnetic degrees,
followed by the distance from the point in the form of three
characters expressing nautical miles. In areas of high latitude
where it is determined by the appropriate authority that
reference to degrees magnetic is impractical, degrees true may
be used. Fill in the correct number of characters, where
necessary, by inserting zeros – e.g. a point 180° magnetic at a
distance of 40 nautical miles from VOR “DUB” should be
expressed as DUB180040.
(3) Change of speed or level (maximum twenty-one characters)
At the point a change of speed (5% TAS or 0.01 Mach or more)

or a change of level is planned, express the information exactly as in (2)
above, followed by an oblique stroke and both the cruising speed and
the cruising level, expressed exactly as in (a) and (b) above, without a
space between them, even when only one of these quantities will be
changed.
Examples:
LN/N0284A045
MAY/N0305Fl80
HADDY/N0420F330
4602N07805W/N0500F350
46N078W/M082F330
DUB180040/N0350M0840
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FLIGHT PLANNING
(4) Change of flight rules (maximum three characters)
At the point a change of flight rules is planned, express it exactly

as in (2) or (3) above as appropriate, followed by a space and one of
the following:
VFR if from IFR to VFR

IFR if from VFR to IFR
Examples:
LN VFR
LN / N0284A050 IFR
(5) Cruise climb (maximum twenty-eight characters)
Insert the letter C followed by an oblique stroke; then the point

where cruise climb is planned to start, expressed exactly as in (2)
above, followed by an oblique stroke; then the speed to be maintained
during cruise climb, expressed exactly as in (a) above, followed by the
two levels defining the layer to be occupied during cruise climb, each
level expressed exactly as in (b) above, or the level above the planned
cruise climb followed by the letters plus without a space between them.
Examples:
C / 48N050W / M082F290F350
C / 48N050W / M082F290PLUS
C / 52N050W / M220F580F620.
ITEM 16 ICAO Doc. 4444. p. A2-12
Destination Aerodrome and Total Estimated Elapsed Time (Eight

Characters)
Insert the ICAO four-letter location indicator of the destination

aerodrome as specified in Doc 7910, Location Indicators.
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HOW TO FLY
Or if no location indicator has been assigned, insert “ZZZZ” and

specify in Item 18 the name and location of the aerodrome, preceded
by “DEST/”.
Then, without a space, insert the total estimated elapsed time.
Note – For a flight plan received from an aircraft in flight, the total
estimated elapsed time is the estimated time from the first point of the
applicable route to the termination point of the flight plan.
Destination Alternate Aerodrome(s)
Insert the ICAO four-letter location indicator(s) of not more than

two destination alternate aerodromes, as specified in Doc 7910,
Location Indicators, separated by a space.
Or if no location indicator has been assigned to the destination

alternate aerodrome(s), insert “ZZZZ”, and specify in Item 18 the name
and location of the destination alternate aerodrome(s) preceded by
“ALTN/”.
ITEM 18 ICAO Doc. 4444. pp. A2-12–A2-15
Note.– Use of indicators not included under this item may result in data
being rejected, processed incorrectly, or lost.
Hyphens or oblique strokes should only be used as prescribed

below.
Insert “0” (zero) if no other information is available. Or insert any

necessary information in the sequence shown hereunder in the form of
the appropriate indicator selected followed by an oblique stroke and the
information to be recorded:
STS/ Reason for special handling by ATS, e.g. a search and rescue
mission, as follows:
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FLIGHT PLANNING
ALTRV For a flight operated in accordance with an

altitude reservation
ATFMX For a flight approved for exemption from ATFM
measures by the appropriate ATS authority
FFR Fire fighting
FLTCK Flight check for calibration of navaids
HAZMAT For a flight carrying hazardous material
HEAD A flight with head-of-state status
HOSP For a medical flight declared by medical
authorities
HUM For a flight operating on a humanitarian mission
MARSA A flight for which a military entity assumes
responsibility for separation of military aircraft
MEDEVAC For a life critical medical emergency evacuation
NONRVSM For a non-RVSM capable flight intending to
operate in RVSM airspace
SAR For a flight engaged in a search and rescue
mission
STATE For a flight engaged in military, customs, or
police services.
Other reasons for special handling by ATS shall be

denoted under the designator RMK/.
PBN/ Indication of RNAV and/or RNP capabilities. Include as many of

the descriptors below, as apply to the flight, up to a maximum
of eight entries, i.e. a total of not more than sixteen characters.
RNAV SPECIFICATIONS
A1 RNAV 10 (RNP 10)
B1 RNAV 5 all permitted sensors

B2 RNAV 5 GNSS
B3 RNAV 5 DME/DME
B4 RNAV 5 VOR/DME
B5 RNAV 5 INS o IRS
B6 RNAV 5 LORAN-C
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HOW TO FLY
C1 RNAV 2 all permitted sensors

C2 RNAV 2 GNSS
C3 RNAV 2 DME/DME
C4 RNAV 2 DME/DME/IRU
D1 RNAV 1 all permitted sensors

D2 RNAV 1 GNSS
D3 RNAV 1 DME/DME
D4 RNAV 1 DME/DME/IRU
RNP SPECIFICATIONS
L1 RNP 4
O1 Basic RNP1, all permitted sensors

O2 Basic RNP1, GNSS
O3 Basic RNP1, DME/DME
O4 Basic RNP1, DME/DME/IRU
S1 RNP APCH
S2 RNP APCH with BARO-VNAV
T1 RNP AR APCH with RF (special authorization required)

T2 RNP AR APCH without RF (special authorization required)
Combinations of alphanumeric characters not indicated above

are reserved.
NAV/ Significant data related to navigation equipment, other than

specified in PBN/, as required by the appropriate ATS authority.
Shows GNSS augmentation under this indicator, with a space
between two or more methods of augmentation, e.g. NAV/GBAS
SBAS.
COM/ Indicate communication equipment and capabilities not

specified in Item 10 a).
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FLIGHT PLANNING
DAT/ Indicate data communication equipment and capabilities not

specified in 10 a).
SUR/ Indicate surveillance equipment and capabilities not specified

in Item 10 b). Indicate as many RSP specification(s) as apply to
the flight, using designator(s) with no space. Multiple RSP
specifications are separated by a space. Example: RSP180
RSP400.
DEP/ Name and location of departure aerodrome if “ZZZZ” is inserted

in Item 13, or the ATS unit from which supplementary flight plan
data can be obtained if “AFIL” is inserted in Item 13. For
aerodromes not listed in the relevant Aeronautical Information
Publication, indicate the location as follows:
With four characters describing latitude in degrees and tens

and units of minutes followed by “N” (North) or “S” (South),
followed by five characters describing longitude in degrees and
tens and units of minutes, followed by “E” (East) or “W” (West).
Fill in the correct number of figures, where necessary, by
insertion of zeros, e.g. 4620N07805W (eleven characters).
Or bearing and distance from the nearest significant point, as

follows:
Identify the significant point followed by the bearing from the

point in the form of three figures giving degrees magnetic,
followed by the distance from the point in the form of three
figures expressing nautical miles. In areas of high latitude where
it is determined by the appropriate authority that reference to
degrees magnetic is impractical, degrees true may be used. Fill
in the correct number of figures where necessary by inserting
zeros, e.g. a point of 180° magnetic at a distance of 40 nautical
miles from VOR “DUB” should be expressed as “DUB180040”.
Or the first point of the route (name or LAT/LONG), or the marker

radio beacon if the aircraft has not taken off from an aerodrome.
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HOW TO FLY
DEST/ Name and location of destination aerodrome, if “ZZZZ” is

inserted in Item 16. For aerodromes not listed in the relevant
Aeronautical Information Publication, indicate location in
LAT/LONG or bearing and distance from the nearest significant
point, as described under DEP/ above.
DOF/ The date of flight departure in a six-figure format (YYMMDD,

where YY equals the year, MM equals the month and DD equals
the day).
REG/ The nationality or common mark and registration mark of the

aircraft, if different from the aircraft identification in Item 7.
EET/ Significant points or flight information region (FIR) boundary

designators and total estimated time from takeoff to such points
or FIR boundaries, when required by regional air navigation
agreements, or by the appropriate ATS authority.
Examples: EET / CAP0745 XYZ0830

EET / EINN0204
SEL/ SELCAL Code, for aircraft so equipped.
TYP/ Type(s) of aircraft, preceded if necessary, without a space by

number(s) of aircraft and separated by one space if “ZZZZ” is
inserted in Item 9.
Example: TYP / 2F15 5F5 3B2
CODE/ Aircraft address (expressed in the form of an alphanumerical

code of six hexadecimal characters) when required by the
appropriate ATS authority. Example: “F00001” is the lowest
aircraft address contained in the specific block administered by
ICAO.
DLE/ For an en-route delay or holding, insert the significant point(s)

on the route where a delay is planned to occur, followed by the
length of delay using four-figure time in hours and minutes
(hhmm).
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FLIGHT PLANNING
Example: DLE / MDG0030
OPR/ ICAO designator or name of the aircraft operating agency, if

different from the aircraft identification in Item 7.
ORGN/ The originator’s eight-letter AFTN address or other appropriate

contact details, in cases where the originator of the flight plan
may not be readily identified, as required by the appropriate
ATS authority.
Note – In some areas, flight plan reception centers may insert

the ORGN/ identifier and originator’s AFTN address
automatically.
PER/ Aircraft performance data, indicated by a single letter as

specified in the Procedures for Air Navigation Services —
Aircraft Operations (PANS-OPS, Doc 8168), Volume I — Flight
Procedures, if required by the appropriate ATS authority.
ALTN/ Name of destination alternate aerodrome(s), if “ZZZZ” is

inserted in Item 16. For aerodromes not listed in the relevant
Aeronautical Information Publication, indicate location in
LAT/LONG or bearing and distance from the nearest significant
point, as described in DEP/ above.
RALT/ ICAO four-letter indicator(s) for en-route alternate(s), as

specified in Doc 7910, Location Indicators, or name(s) of en-
route alternate aerodrome(s) if no indicator is allocated. For
aerodromes not listed in the relevant Aeronautical Information
Publication, indicate location in LAT/LONG or bearing and
distance from the nearest significant point, as described in DEP/
above.
TALT/ ICAO four-letter indicator(s) for takeoff alternate, as specified in

Doc 7910, Location Indicators, or name of takeoff alternate
aerodrome if no indicator is allocated. For aerodromes not listed
in the relevant Aeronautical Information Publication, indicate
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HOW TO FLY
location in LAT/LONG or bearing and distance from the nearest

significant point, as described in DEP/ above.
RIF/ The route details to the revised destination aerodrome, followed

by the ICAO four-letter location indicator of the aerodrome. The
revised route is subject to reclearance in flight.
Examples: RIF / DTA HEC KLAX

RIF / ESP G94 CLA YPPH
RMK/ Any other plain-language remarks when required by the

appropriate ATS authority or deemed necessary.
ITEM 19 ICAO Doc. 4444. p. A16-12
Endurance
E/ Insert a four-character group, giving the fuel endurance in hours

and minutes.
Persons on Board
P/ Insert the total number of persons (passengers and crew) on

board when required by the appropriate ATS authority. Insert
“TBN” (to be notified) if the total number of persons is not known
at the time of filing.
Emergency and Survival Equipment
R/ (radio) Cross out “U” if UHF on frequency 243.0 MHz is not

available.
Cross out “V” if VHF on frequency 121.5 MHz is not
available.
Cross out “E” if emergency locator transmitter (ELT) is
not available.
S/ (survival eq.) Cross out all indicators if survival equipment is not
carried.
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FLIGHT PLANNING
Cross out “P” if polar survival equipment is not carried.

Cross out “D” if desert survival equipment is not carried.
Cross out “M” if maritime survival equipment is not
carried.
Cross out “J” if jungle survival equipment is not carried.
J/ (jackets) Cross out all indicators if life jackets are not carried.
Cross out “L” if life jackets are not equipped with lights.
Cross out “F” if life jackets are not equipped with
fluorescein.
Cross out “U”, “V”, or both, as in R/ above to indicate
radio capability of jackets, if any.
D/ (dinghies) Cross out indicators “D” and “C” if no dinghies are
carried, or insert number of dinghies carried.
(capacity) Insert total capacity, in persons, of all dinghies carried.
(cover) Cross out indicator “C” if dinghies are not covered.
(colour) Insert colour of dinghies if carried.
A/ (colour) Insert colour of aircraft and significant markings.
N/ (remarks) Cross out indicator “N” if no remarks, or indicate any

other survival equipment carried and any other remarks
regarding survival equipment.
C/ (pilot) Insert name of pilot-in-command.
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HOW TO FLY
SUMMARY
This are the points we will have to go through in flight planning:
• Choose aerodromes
• Check weather and note the wind
• Check NOTAMs
• Check planning minimas
• Check AIP
• Figure out route

• Check SID charts
• Check STAR charts
• Check approach charts
• Choose altitude
• Check taxi charts
• Check route weather/wind
• Descent calculations
• Fuel calculations
• Performance calculations
Climb
Service ceiling
Takeoff
Landing
• Mass & Balance
• Operational flight plan
• Flight plan
102
FLIGHT PLANNING
If we are lucky enough to get our flight planning done by others,

we will have to check a number of things before going to the plane:
Flight Plan Check
Check the estimated off-block time (EOBT).

Check the estimated en-route time (EET).
Check the departure, arrival, and alternate airports.
Check the route.
Meteorology
Check the general weather at the airport and route.

Check that at the takeoff airport the meteorological minimums comply
with the departure minimums and the approach minimums (in case we
have to return to the takeoff airport once we are in the air).
Check that at the time of arrival at the destination, the weather will be
above the minimum approach.
Also check the weather of the alternates.
Check the wind on the route.
NOTAM + AIP
Check the NOTAMs of all airports and route.

Check the AIP of all airports, especially the departure section of the
takeoff airport and the arrival section of the arrival airport.
Check the country's AIP.
Performance, Fuel and Mass, and Balance
Check takeoff speeds.

Check takeoff/landing distances and runway distances from airports.
Check the fuel carried and the flight time it provides.
Check that the mass and balance are correct and within limits.
103
HOW TO FLY
104
GROUND OPERATION
GROUND
4.
OPERATION
This section details the steps to follow from getting to the plane
until lining up on the runway.
This phase is susceptible to incidents or accidents such as

collisions with other traffic, collisions with obstacles, disorientation, or
exits from taxiways. Disorientation could lead us to cross taxiways or
runways without authorization, putting ourselves and other traffic in
serious danger.
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HOW TO FLY
In commercial operations, there will always be two pilots in the

cockpit who will divide the work for greater efficiency, but in other types
of operations, you may find yourself alone in the cockpit and having to
do the work of two pilots. This book covers both scenarios.
In multi-pilot operations, there are two roles: the pilot flying (PF),
who is going to be in charge of flying the plane, and the pilot monitoring
(PM), who will be in charge of taking assistive actions, such as taking
care of communication, navigating, or reading the checklists.
As soon as you get to the plane, you will have to enter the
cockpit to do a cockpit inspection and then do the preflight or exterior
inspection.
If we need to refuel, we will follow the airport instructions and

our operations manual to carry it out.
We will have to follow the procedures of each aircraft, detailed

in the POH. Although each aircraft is different, the general idea at this
point will be to do the following: a preliminary cockpit preparation, an
exterior inspection, a cockpit preparation, a pre-start procedure, and
the engine(s) starting.
COCKPIT INSPECTION
Preliminary cockpit preparation is done to ensure all systems
and selectors are in the indicated position before energizing the aircraft.
We will complete this procedure as described in our AFM. The most
common elements in these procedures are checking the position of the
landing gear selector, the selection of brakes, flaps, ventilation, and
checking the position of the oxygen selector.
We need to do this in case some selectors are in an unwanted

position. When the aircraft is powered up, control surfaces such as the
106
GROUND OPERATION
flaps, or even the landing gear, could begin to move without us wanting
them to.
You will also have to check the documentation of the plane,

including the technical logbook, which will have to be filled in and
checked when the next revisions are due.
EXTERIOR WALKAROUND
After the cockpit inspection, we will complete the preflight
inspection or exterior walkaround.
In multi-pilot operations, it is the PM who will be in charge of this

procedure.
First, we need to untie tie-downs, chocks, or sensor covers, if

any. Then, if it is physically possible, we will have to make sure that
everything is in good condition and works correctly: the wings, the
ailerons, horizontal and vertical stabilizers with the elevators and tail
rudder respectively, the lights, the stall indicator, the landing gear, and
wheels.
In planes of a considerable size, we cannot inspect all the

elements because they are out of reach. The manufacturer of the plane
will have proposed solutions for these cases.
The most important thing is to check that the engine oil is within
the required limits and that we have enough fuel to complete the flight.
If we do not have a visual fuel indicator, we will have to check it in the
cockpit.
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HOW TO FLY
COCKPIT PREPARATION
While the PM is doing the exterior inspection, the PF will be
doing this procedure up to a point and will finish the procedure with the
PM when he/she returns to the cockpit.
We will power up the aircraft to check most of the aircraft's

systems and ensure they are configured correctly.
We are going to configure the FMS with the route we sent in the
flight plan and the speeds we calculated. Then we will check alarm
systems, electrical panels, and the rest of the elements indicated by the
aircraft manufacturer.
If control informs us the route we need to follow is different from

what was planned, we will change the route of the FMS.
TAKEOFF BRIEFING
We should give a briefing for the taxi, takeoff, departure, and
arrival phases. In this manual, we will give two briefings, one including
taxiing, takeoff, and departure and another for the arrival ICAO. Doc 8168. p. III-
5-3-2 (3.4.2)
.
The objective of the briefing is to review what we will do so that

there are no surprises during the flight. You will have to be clear about
the important parts of the briefing to be able to present them concisely.
The takeoff briefing should be given before starting the engine.

Although there will be situations in which, due to lack of time, we will
need to do it afterwards.
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GROUND OPERATION
In the preflight briefing, we will highlight the information

necessary for the flight, including equipment out of service or any other
anomaly, communications and emergency procedures, and
meteorological conditions ICAO. Doc 8168. p. III-5-3-2 (3.5).
The departure briefings should include the following detailed

information: runway in use, taxi route, runway intersections during
taxiing, aircraft configuration, and takeoff speeds, callouts, departure
route and procedures, navigation equipment for the departure,
restrictions, emergency procedures, departure alternate, and items
included in the minimum equipment list (MEL) ICAO. Doc. 8168. p. III 5-3-3 (3.5.3).
You will need to have the taxi and departure charts handy. Here are the
points we should touch in a good takeoff briefing.
Taxi Our position, what runway are we going to, and the taxi
route, highlighting the hot spots.
Takeoff How we're going to take off, including configuration,

steps, speeds, and callouts.
Departure The departure route we are going to fly, including turns,

when we are going to raise the flaps and the gear, the
rate of climb, the initial climb altitude, and restrictions.
Emergencies Procedure in case of emergency during takeoff.
Extras If we have any anomaly, such as equipment out of

service, NOTAM that affect us, the weather if there is
something out of the ordinary, and fuel.
It is critical to be able to do this briefing concisely. There is a lot

of information we could give at this point, and although it may valuable
information, it can take a long time. It is also important not to ignore too
much information and give too short a briefing. Over time the briefings
become boring and repetitive, but they are given for safety reasons so
both cabin crew members are aware of what is to come.
Below is an example of the briefing we would give on the flight

from Madrid to Paris.
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HOW TO FLY
Figure 4.5.1. Aerodrome chart of Madrid.
Taxi We are at stand T5, first right turn to take the M7 taxiway,
later left turn to continue on M8, until M17. Left turn on
R6, then right turn on R8 until waiting point Z2 of runway
36L. We will be especially careful at intersections
marked on the chart as “hot spot”.
Takeoff We are going to take off with a 15º flap configuration.

The steps to follow will be: Takeoff power, V1 at 60 kt, VR
at 80 kt, V2 at 90 kt. With positive climb landing gear up,
at 400 ft, accelerate to 100 kt, flaps up, reduce power
and accelerate to 120 kt.
Departure We will complete the RBO2N departure, chart 10-3T5,

June 7, 19, effective June 20. Runway heading to SSY,
then 017º to D10.0 BRA / D5.6 SSY, intercept course
005º of BRA, until D12.0 BRA. Turn right to intercept
RBO R237. Initial ascent to 13,000 ft. We have to be
above 12,000 ft at RBO, max 250 kt below 10,000 ft.
MSA 10,000 ft. BRA116.45 and SSY117.85 selected.
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GROUND OPERATION
Figure 4.5.2. SID chart.
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HOW TO FLY
Emergencies If there is an emergency before rotation, idle power,

brakes, and reverse if possible. If we cannot stop before
the end of the runway, we will cut fuel lines, call for an
emergency, and turn everything off.
In case of emergency after takeoff, we will try to land on

the runway. If this is not possible, we will make an
emergency landing as slowly as possible with full flap,
landing gear as required. If we are above 1,000 ft, we
are going to do a 180º to land on the runway again.
Extras Meteorology OK. There is no NOTAM that affects us or

systems out of service. We have 1,230 lb of fuel on
board. We will land with 3:30 h of fuel.
ATC CLEARANCE
In every IFR flight we will need an ATC clearance to fly the route,
this authorization will be received through control.
The ATC authorization will detail the steps to follow during the
flight. Normally they will inform us that we are cleared for the destination
via flight plan, which means that initially we will follow the departure and
route that we have planned and inserted in the flight plan ICAO. Doc 4444. p. 4-
7(4.5.7.2)
.
In the same authorization, they will tell us how to complete the

departure. We will probably receive the authorization to fly a published
instrument departure. If an initial ATC authorization at an altitude is
written in the chart, we will be authorized at that altitude without the need
for control to say it. If there is no published instrumental departure, we
will be directed to follow a route and ascend to an altitude.
Still, we may request changes to the authorization if we require

them for any reason, and they will grant them to us if possible.
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GROUND OPERATION
CONTROLLED AIRPORT
For IFR flights, we will usually take off from a controlled airport
where the controller will direct us at all times. However, it is possible that
we take off from an uncontrolled airport, and for that reason, this manual
covers both cases.
In controlled airports, there will normally be the ATIS, which is a

recording on a specific frequency, that can be found in the aerodrome
chart, that gives meteorological information and airport notifications, if
any, an example from the LEMD airport below:
“This is Madrid Barajas status information departure S, at time

1030. Runway in use for departure 36L and 36R. Runway in use
for arrival 32L and 32R. Transition level 140, wind 030º 6 kt,
maximum 10 kt, minimum 4 kt, variable between 350º and 080º,
visibility CAVOK, temperature 22, dew point 07, QNH 1023,
NOSIG. This was Madrid Barajas status information departure
S.”
As you can see, at the beginning the transmission an indicator

is reported. When communicating with the controller, we will report the
ATIS indicator that we have received so that they know that we have
updated information. If there is no ATIS service, when communicating
with the tower we will request information from the airport by sayinh, “We
request information from the field”.
In a controlled airport, we will need authorization to start the

engine and to taxi. Similarly, if we are parked in a position that requires
pushback, we will need authorization to do so. As with all IFR flights, we
need ATC clearance.
At first, we will only request the authorization for start-up, which

is really the only thing we need at that moment.
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HOW TO FLY
They may give us the ATC clearance directly along with the
start-up authorization, but there will be airports where the controller
usually gives the ATC clearance during the taxi. We do not need to
request ATC clearance at this point; control is fully aware that we need
authorization to take off. They may not give it to us at the beginning for
various reasons, but they will give it to us before takeoff clearance. We
can request it if we are in a hurry to know our route, but to avoid
saturating the frequency, generally we will wait for them to give it to us.
If we require pushback, we will contact the platform. We will find

the platform frequency on the aerodrome chart.
In Figure 4.7.1 we have the procedures for requesting start-up

in LEMD.
Figure 4.7.1. Airport briefing LEMD.
114
GROUND OPERATION
Normally, we will find the frequencies in the aerodrome charts.

Look for the frequency responsible for the clearances. It will probably
be Ground in most airports, but in extremely busy airports have a
specific frequency for departure clearances, called Departure or
Delivery.
As you can see in Figure 4.7.1, they indicate the procedure for
requesting authorizations. We are heading towards RBO, so we will
contact Clearance Delivery East. Looking at the aerodrome chart, we
find that it is frequency 130.080. They also tell us what notifications we
have to give and when / how we should make the initial call.
As a general rule, the initial communication should include the

designation of the station we are calling, our identifier, our position, and
any other information required by the appropriate ATS authority ICAO. Doc.
4444. p. 7-3 (7.3)
. If we are subject to CDM regulations, we will have to request
the start-up in a range of -5/+5 min of our target off-block time (TOBT).
“Barajas Clearance Delivery East. HTF22. Good morning,

Beechcraft Baron 55. At T5 with information S received. Request
start-up.”
“HTF22, good morning in T5. Cleared to Paris Charles de Gaulle via

flight plan, standard instrumental departure RBO2N, FL130
squawk 5266. Start-up approved. Contact platform on 121.705 for
pushback.”
“Cleared to Paris Charles de Gaulle via flight plan, standard

instrument departure RBO2N, FL130, squawk 5266. Start-up
approved and with platform for pushback on 121.705. HTF22.”
“Platform, HTF22 on sand T5. Ready for pushback.”
“HTF22, starting pushback.”
115
HOW TO FLY
If the ATC clearance was not passed to us during the start-up

call, it will be passed to us later as follows:
“HTF22, ready to copy?”
“Affirmative. HTF22.”
“HTF22, cleared to Paris Charles de Gaulle via flight plan, standard

instrumental departure RBO2N, FL130, squawk 5266.”
“Cleared to Paris Charles de Gaulle via flight plan, standard

instrumental departure RBO2N, FL130, squawk 5266. HTF22.”
Although many aspects will remain the same, each flight will be
different, and we have to be prepared.
The ATC clearance authorizes us to fly the route, but that does
not mean we are authorized to taxi or take off yet. For this, we need an
authorization that clearly details it.
The following data that we receive has to be transmitted back to

the controller to ensure we have received the information correctly ICAO.
Doc 4444. p. 4-8 (4.5.7.5)
.
a) ATC route authorizations

b) Authorizations to enter, land, take off, hold, cross, or taxi
on a runway
c) Runway in use, altimeter selection, transponder code,
flight level instructions, heading, speed, meteorology,
and transition levels
Whenever you communicate with controllers, be prepared to

write down the instructions you receive.
116
GROUND OPERATION
UNCONTROLLED AERDROME
An uncontrolled airport means there will be no control tower and
therefore no instrumental departure. In those cases, we will have to take
off with visual flight rules and change to IFR rules in flight by doing an
IFR joining.
Fortunately, these airports are usually aware of the situation, and

we may find details of the actions to be taken in the AIP or in the airport
documents.
To illustrate this, we will use the example of the French airport of

Annemasse (LFLI).
Figure 4.8.1. Aerodrome chart LFLI.
117
HOW TO FLY
Like all IFR flights, we need an ATC clearance to enter

controlled airspace. We will have to communicate with the airspace’s
control.
In the Annemasse airport information, we see that we can join

the IFR routes in the VOR CBY or at the MOLUS reporting point. It also
details that Geneva Departure controls IFR joining flights departing from
Annemasse.
We will contact Geneva Departure to receive the ATC clearance

while we are still on the ground. The first point on our route will be the
VOR CBY. The idea is to take off in visual flight rules, and when we get
to the VOR CBY (entry point in airway), transition to IFR rules and
continue with the flight through the airway.
Figure 4.8.2. IFR joining.
Communications with Geneva will resemble the following, where

we are going to tell them where we are, our flight plan, and when we
plan to join the IFR route.
118
GROUND OPERATION
“Geneva Departure, HTF22. Good morning, Beechcraft Baron 55.

On ground at LFLI (Annemasse), with flight plan to Paris. We
expect to be airborne in 10 minutes for IFR joining.”
"HTF22, Geneva Departure. Good morning. Climb 7,000 ft on

course to CBY. In the air, contact Geneva Departure at 119.53.”
“Climb to 7,000 ft on course to CBY, airborne with 119.53.”
As it is an uncontrolled airport, we do not need authorization to

start the engine or to taxi, but we must communicate everything we do
on the airport's air-to-air frequency so the rest of the traffics are notified.
In principle we will not receive answers because there is no control
tower, but it is possible that other traffic will answer us for coordination.
We will communicate when we start the engine, start the taxi, enter the
runway, and go for take off.
“HTF22 in stand 12, starting up.”

“HTF22 taxiing to holding point 12.”
“HTF22 entering runway 12 for takeoff.”
When departing from an uncontrolled airport, we are unlikely to

have a transponder code when taking off. We will select the 7000 code
as the standard code until we are assigned a code. For VFR flights in
most of Europe, code 7000 is selected when none have been assigned
to us. In North America, the code that is selected in these cases is 1200.
BEFORE START OR PUSHBACK

Once we are authorized to start, we will prepare everything for
starting the engine. If due to our stand we need pushback, we will do it
with the engine off, and once they have placed us in position, we will
start the engine.
119
HOW TO FLY
It will be important to know the procedures by heart in order to

operate smoothly. Focus on memorizing the important steps. There are
critical steps, such as opening the fuel lines when starting the engine,
and there are less critical steps, such as checking the ventilation
selection. If you are aware of the critical points, you will not forget them,
and you will be able to quickly go over some other steps on the days
you need to speed up the procedures.
In the procedure prior to starting the engine, in general, the most

important points will be to turn on the batteries if they were off, turn on
the external lights, check that the fuel lines are open, make sure the
parking brake is on, and check that power is set to idle.
ENGINE START + AFTER START

We will ask for authorization, if we do not have it, and start the
engine(s) following the AFM procedure. After starting the engines, we
will check that all the engine indications are correct.
The generators, from this point on, will have to be in line to feed
the batteries with charge. We will check that all the anti-icing systems,
instruments, and equipment are working correctly. We will select the
takeoff flaps configuration and configure the navigation systems by
selecting the frequencies of the radio aids we are going to need. If we
have a weather radar, we will leave it in standby mode.
Usually we will have to do what is described in this section, but

this information is only orientative. While each plane will have its own
peculiarities, the general idea is that we configure the plane with almost
everything necessary to fly.
For airplanes equipped with EFIS instrument systems, we will

have to configure the navigation display to show us the flight plan. We
will select a range according to the departure we are going to complete.
120
GROUND OPERATION
TAXI
Taxiing will be similar in all airports. Small airports will have

simple taxi routes, and busier airports will have longer, and
consequently, more complicated taxi routes.
The biggest difference we are going to find is in uncontrolled

airports where there are no taxi clearances, and therefore, we are going
to start taxiing when we see fit, communicating our actions to the rest of
the traffic.
In busy airports, it is likely we will find the taxi routes already

defined in the airport information chart, but it does not hurt to look at the
taxi charts and get an idea of how the taxi will be. You can see which
will be our taxi route from Adolfo Suárez Madrid-Barajas airport in Figure
4.11.1. We are at R-3.
Figure 4.11.1. Airport briefing chart.
When we are ready to taxi, we will request authorization to do

so. The controller will give us the taxi route if we don't already have it. It
is likely that the controller will give us a partial route that does not reach
121
HOW TO FLY
Figure 4.11.2. Explained aerodrome chart.
122
GROUND OPERATION
the holding point of the runway. In that case, we will simply complete the
authorized taxi route. We will contact the controller when we reach that
point, and they will authorize us to continue, or they will ask us to hold
the position.
In the takeoff briefing we will have described a taxi route. If the

route changes upon receipt of clearance, we will give a confirmation
briefing with the new taxi route, basically highlighting the new taxi route.
We will contact Ground directly to let them know we are ready

to move. In Madrid, due to the large size of the airport, each section of
the taxi is controlled by a different frequency. We will call the one that
corresponds to us.
“HTF22. Ready to taxi.”
“HTF22, cleared to taxi via M7 until M17, later R6 and R8, until
holding point Z2, runway 36L.”
“Taxi via M7 until M17, later R6, R8 to hold Z2 of runway 36L.

HTF22.”
During the taxi, we will need to have the taxi chart in view. If we
are in a multi-pilot cabin, the PF will taxi, and the PM will guide the PF in
navigation. Before moving, we will make sure that the platform is free of
people or traffic. We will not do any checklists, and we will not look inside
the cockpit because most accidents occur during taxi. If we have to look
inside the cockpit, we will ask the PM to take the taxi controls.
In the POH, you will have indicated the taxi power, the cylinder
temperature, and the oil temperature required prior to the taxi.
At the beginning of the taxi, we will check that the brakes and
the flight controls are working correctly, deflecting them to the
maximum.
123
HOW TO FLY
We will need authorization from the controller to cross a runway

intersection. Whenever you are unsure whether you can cross a runway
intersection, call the controller again, indicating your position:
“Reaching runway intersection A. HTF22.”
“HTF22, cleared to cross the runway 08-26.”
“Cleared to cross the runway 08-26. HTF22.”
If you have doubts whether you are authorized to complete any

action, do not hesitate to ask. If you ask, the worst that will happen is the
controller will repeat the authorization. If you don't ask and complete the
action anyway, you could cause an accident and put many lives in
serious danger.
Before reaching the holding point, they will have probably told
us what actions to take later.
“HTF22, reaching holding point Z2. Hold your position. You are
number 3 for departure.”
“Holding position, number 3. HTF22.”
If we had not received a similar communication, we would report

our position while waiting for authorization to enter the runway and take
off.
“At holding point Z2, runway 36L. HTF22.”
“HTF22, hold position. You are number 3 for departure.”
“Holding position, number 3. HTF22.”
If we fly in an airplane with a piston engine, at the holding point,

or at the point established for it in the aerodrome data, we will do the
engine run up according to the procedure.
124
GROUND OPERATION
We will check the altimeter error at the holding point, comparing

our indication with that of the runway threshold’s altitude, shown on the
taxi chart. The maximum allowed error is ±60 ft if our altimeter is
designed to indicate up to 30,000 ft, and a maximum error of ±80 ft if
our altimeter is designed to indicate up to 50,000 ft ICAO. Doc. 8168. p. III-1-3-2
(3.2)
.
125
HOW TO FLY
126
DEPARTURE
5. DEPARTURE
This section describes the steps to follow from when we are

authorized to take off and apply takeoff power until we enter the airway.
During the instrumental departure, we will follow the route

defined in the SID chart. Complying with the altitude and speed
restrictions, it will take us from the takeoff runway to the entry point on
the airway.
It is possible that we will reach the cruising altitude during the

departure, before entering the airway where we will do the cruise
procedure. This procedure is included in the Airway section.
127
HOW TO FLY
AIRPLANE CONFIGURATION
To be clear about the departure, we will look at the chart (Figure

5.1.1), and we will get an idea of what we are going to do. We will
complete the RBO2N departure, taking off from runway 36L. We will
climb on the runway heading and turn right on VOR SSY to continue on
heading 017º until we intercept the BRA 005º radial. When we have
intercepted the 005º radial, we are going to stay on it and monitor the
VOR RBO. When we are approaching the 237º radial of RBO (approach
course 057º), we will begin the turn towards RBO to keep the 237º radial
inbound.
At the holding point, we will wait to be cleared to enter the

runway and take off. Until we receive a clear call saying, “Cleared to
enter the runway” or “Cleared to take off”, we will not have authorization
to do so. It is important to emphasize that the ATC authorization for the
route does not allow us to enter the runway or take off. It is only an
authorization for the route.
Being clear about what we are going to do during departure, we

will check that the plane is configured for takeoff and that we have the
radio aids selected correctly. The most important thing in the aircraft
configuration will be to check the following points:
Flaps According to performance calculations

Navigation Selected navaids and OK
Flight control panel Flight directors, selected altitude, EHSI
mode and range, and autopilot mode
Electric systems Especially the battery and generators
Anti-ice systems Depending on the weather
Lights Beacon, navigation; strobe when
entering the runway; and landing when
starting takeoff
Transponder Code and mode selected
Ventilation As required
Other systems Peculiarities of each airplane.
128
DEPARTURE
Figure 5.1.1. Explained SID chart.
129
HOW TO FLY
The selection of radio aids will be as follows, VOR SSY selected

in the NAV1 equipment with BRA in standby. VOR BRA selected in the
NAV2 equipment with RBO in standby. There is no NDB in this chart, but
we are going to select the NDB BJ (Barajas) to have it just in case.
In a conventional cockpit, the NAV1 equipment will be

connected with the RMI single needle and with the HSI. The NAV2
equipment will be connected with the RMI double needle and with the
OBI, and the DME equipment will have a switch to flip between NAV1,
HOLD, and NAV2.
If we have a conventional cockpit, it will look like Figure 5.1.2.

With the track course selected in the HSI, receiving the SSY indication,
in the OBI we will have the course 005º and the indication of BRA. The
DME will be with BRA, the RMI single needle with the NAV1, and the
double needle with ADF.
The reasons for this selection are as follows:
NAV1 We will have SSY active because it is the first radio aid
we are going to use. BRA will be in standby because it
is the next radio aid we will use.
NAV2 We will have BRA active at all times to monitor the 005º
distance course. We will not have SSY here because we
already have the NAV1 indication, so we will select RBO
in standby to have it prepared, this being the third radio
aid.
DME As you can see on the chart, we should get to point D5.6
SSY / D10.0 BRA, and then to D12.0 BRA. At first we
won’t care if we have the indication of SSY or BRA, but
then we need the indication of BRA, so we will have the
BRA indication from the beginning to avoid having to
change the frequency.
ADF Although in this departure there is no procedure that

uses the NDB, we are going to select a nearby NDB to
have its indication in case the rest of the systems fail.
130
DEPARTURE
Figure 5.1.2. Cockpit prepared for the RBO2N departure.
If we had a cockpit with the instruments in the form of the EFIS,

the selection of radio aids would be identical, but instead of selecting
specific courses on the instruments, we will have the route points
projected in the ND. In the ND, we will select a mode that allows us to
see at least the next point on the route.
Figure 5.1.3. Cockpit prepared for the departure RBO2N (EFIS).
131
HOW TO FLY
When we are ready to take off, we will call on the frequency we

are using to communicate. If we were taxiing, we would probably
contact the tower. It is helpful to select the next frequency you have to
communicate with as a standby frequency. The tower will give us the
ATC clearance or transponder code, if it has not already been given,
and it will give us the takeoff clearance.
As with taxiing, we may be asked to fly a different departure or

unpublished procedure for various reasons. If the departure
authorization differs from what was said during the departure briefing,
we will make a confirmation briefing highlighting it.
We will not be able to take off until we have clearance to take

off, clearance for the departure, and a transponder code.
When we get to the holding point, they will call us, saying we are
authorized to enter the runway and take off, or that we are authorized to
line up on the runway and maintain position. Airports usually have a
frequency that deals with approaches or departures they will tell us in
the takeoff clearance if we have to contact any other frequency while in
the air.
“HTF22, cleared to enter and take off runway 36L. In the air contact
departure on 118.08.”
“HTF22 authorized to enter and take off runway 36L. In the air
with departure at 118.08.”
When entering the runway, we are going to check that there is

nobody in it and that no traffic is coming to land. Turn on the strobe lights
and landing lights, and check that all the heading indicators show the
runway heading with a maximum error ±10º. If we have an error of more
than 10º, we should cancel the takeoff.
132
DEPARTURE
TAKEOFF AND
INSTRUMENTAL DEPARTURE
The first phase of takeoff is completed visually, following the
center line of the runway until you start to fly, have a positive climb, and
raise the landing gear. Afterwards, we will follow the route of the
instrument departure. We will not make any turn until we are 400 ft above
the elevation of the aerodrome and are 600 m from the start of the
runway.
During takeoff, we will do callouts to check that everything is

going according to expectations. Callouts vary from operator to
operator, but they will maintain a similar structure.
When we are ready to take off, we will say, “Takeoff power”, and
we will apply power. We will look at the engine instruments. When we
have confirmation that the motor is giving the required power, we will
say, “Set” to confirm that the motor operates correctly.
As soon as the plane starts to accelerate, we will check that the

speed indicator gives us an incremental speed, reaching our V1. We will
check the engine and oil parameters, if everything is correct, we will say
the speed: “60 kt, V1”.
Reaching our VR, we will say the speed, “VR, rotate”, and we will
gently pull the controls to make the plane takeoff. With positive climb,
we will say, “Positive climb, landing gear up”. We will raise the landing
gear, and we will turn off the landing lights. When we reach 400 ft, we
will let the plane accelerate and say, “Flaps 0”. We will raise the flaps,
and we will accelerate to our rate of climb. We will surely also have to
reduce the power at this point.
Now we can do the climb checklist.
133
HOW TO FLY
Figure 5.2.1. Takeoff profile.
When the workload allows, we should follow the instructions to

contact the approach frequency and report our intentions. That is, the
previous authorization we have received. This frequency deals with
departures and approaches. It will direct us to our next point. Sometimes
they will allow us to continue with the published instrumental departure.
Other times they will direct us to other points on our route or will ask us
to make changes to the route.
“Madrid Approach, HTF22. Good morning. RBO2N climbing to

13,000 ft.”
“HTF22, continue with RBO2N departure.”
“Continue with RBO2N departure. HTF22.”
If during the start you suffer an engine failure and your operator
has an engine failure procedure, you will have to communicate it to the
controller and detail the procedure that you are going to follow, because
he will not know your company’s engine failure procedure.
134
DEPARTURE
DEPARTURE ROUTE
Navigation in instrument flights is carried out by understanding
the position of the station through the information provided by the
instruments.
If we have three instruments, we can monitor the position of

three radio stations at the same time.
Figure 5.2.2. Departure route.
In this departure, at first we monitor SSY in the RMI, when the

station goes from being right in front of us to being exactly behind, it
means that we have just passed precisely above the station.
At that moment, we will set the heading 017º, and we will monitor
the OBI with the BAR frequency and the selected 005º radial. When the
135
HOW TO FLY
course deviation indicator moves into the center, we will be exactly on

the 005º radial of BRA. We are going to turn to heading 005º, and
compensating for the wind, we will stay with the OBI indication centered.
At the same time, we will have changed the frequency of the

NAV1, and we will have selected the one of RBO. We will also have
selected the 057º approach course. When the course deviation indicator
centers in the HSI, that means we are exactly on the 057º approach
course. In that moment, we will turn to keep the approach course to the
VOR RBO, and we will look for the following frequencies to select them.
INITIAL CLIMB
VX will be the speed to reach the MSA in the shortest horizontal
distance possible (best angle of climb). When we are above MSA, we
will accelerate to our speed VY, the best rate of climb speed (ft/min).
During the climb, we will continue to maintain climb power. If we

fly in a piston plane, we will have to gradually increase the position of
136
DEPARTURE
the levers. At higher altitude, the density of the air decreases and the
power that a lever position gives us will also decrease. You will also have
to reduce the mixture gradually. If the density of the air decreases and
we continue to feed the engine with the same amount of fuel, the fuel/air
ratio will be enriched. The fuel pressure required at each altitude will be
indicated in the AFM power charts. See Figure 5.3.1.
The mixture should be reduced progressively, according to our

current level. If we go from FL050 to FL140, at FL100 we should have
around 6.2 PSI of fuel flow. If at the beginning of the climb we put the
mixture that we should have at FL140, it may not be enough for
combustion, and the engine will turn off. The opposite will happen if we
keep the configuration we had at FL050. Too much fuel will enter for
combustion, and the engine may stall.
As you climb, keep checking the engine gauges and act

accordingly. Each aircraft will have its own actions to manage the
systems. We will have them detailed in the AFM.
ALTIMETER CHECK
As we go through the transition altitude, we will switch to flight
levels and do an altimeter check; change the altimeter pressure sub-
scale to 1013 hPa to have the indication of flight levels.
To do the altimeter check, choose a level that we will reach

relatively soon; for example, for FL063, say, “Altimeter check, FL063”.
When your altimeter passes through FL063, say, “Now”. The CM2 will
check its altimeter, comparing the indication of its altimeter and yours.
Calculate and state the difference between altimeters. For example, if
when you said “now” his altimeter was passing FL064, that is 100 ft
above, so say, “Plus 100 ft”.
After doing the altimeter check, proceed to do the climb

checklist if you didn’t do it before.
137
HOW TO FLY
When you are at 1,000 ft from your cruising altitude, say, “1,000
ft to level” and begin leveling 10% in advance of your climb rate. For
example, if you are going at 500 ft/min, begin leveling when 50 ft remain
to level.
FL100
When passing through FL100, we will check several elements
before reaching cruising altitude. If we are carrying passengers, we
would turn off the seatbelt lights now. It will also be the end of the sterile
cockpit.
PBN DEPARTURE
With the creation of area navigation, RNAV charts were created
where the points we are going are not defined by course/distance from
a station.
In area navigation, the points are inserted in our FMS via

coordinates, and we can go to them directly because the aircraft is able
to locate its own position. On the navigation display screen we will have
an indication similar to conventional mobile GPS, where our route will
appear drawn as a line and will move, keeping our position fixed on the
screen.
In Figure 5.6.1, we can see the chart of two RNAV departures

with an endpoint at RBO, the RBO2R departure has only one point on
the route, called MD047. When we are at this point, we will have to turn
to the course indicated by the ND.
138
DEPARTURE
Figure 5.6.1. RNAV SID.
139
HOW TO FLY
This is how RNAV navigations are completed. The

communications will be identical to the conventional procedures where
they will authorize us to an RNAV departure by its callsign.
OMNIDIRECTIONAL
DEPARTURE
If we want to take off from an airport to enter an airway through
point ZZZ, but that airport does not have any published instrumental exit
that connects point ZZZ and the airport, we could make an
omnidirectional exit, which is about making a route from the point of
takeoff to point ZZZ, following the controller's heading and altitude
indications.
In the following example, we would be taking off from an airport

with no instrumental exit, bound for Paris Charles de Gaulle, and the first
point on the route would be ZMR. The ATC authorization would be similar
to the following:
“HTF22, cleared to Paris Charles de Gaulle via flight plan. Maintain

runway heading up to 4,500 ft then right turn to ZMR”
“Cleared to Paris Charles de Gaulle via flight plan, runway heading up

to 4,500 ft, then left turn to ZMR. HTF22.”
140
DEPARTURE
IFR JOINING
For a IFR joining, the takeoff profile will be identical, but we will
navigate following visual flight rules on course to the first point of our
route, where IFR will start.
The communications that we will have on the ground are

detailed in the uncontrolled aerodrome section.
Figure 5.8.1. IFR joining.
The change of flight rules will be done verbally on the frequency,

where they will confirm that we are under IFR rules as follows.
“HTF22, contact reaching CBY. IFR starts passing CBY.”
“We will report reaching CBY. HTF22.”
When we get to CBY, we'll report it.
141
HOW TO FLY
“Reaching CBY. HTF22.”
“HTF22, at 13:03Z, IFR starts now.”
“IFR starts now. HTF22.”
They might also tell us that we start IFR when crossing an

altitude.
DEPARTURE REGULATIONS
Unless otherwise specified, the instrument departure is
assumed to require a minimum climb gradient of 3.3% ICAO. Doc 8168. p. I-3-1-3
(1.5.2)
.
When we have to make a course change of more than 15º during

departure, it is considered a turn departure ICAO. Doc 8168. p. I-3-2-2 (2.3).
In turn departures and omnidirectional departures, it is assumed

that after takeoff the runway heading is maintained, and no turn is
completed until over 400 ft from the field elevation and 600 m from the
start of the runway ICAO. Doc 8168. p. I-3-2-2 (2.3). ICAO. Doc 8168. p. I-3-3-1 (3.2).
Figure 6.9.1 details the maximum speeds in a turning departure

for aircraft of different categories ICAO. Doc 8168. p. I-3-2-3.
Figure 5.9.1. Maximum speeds for turning departures.
142
DEPARTURE
143
HOW TO FLY
144
AIRWAY
6. AIRWAY
This section covers the actions we will complete from the

moment we enter the airway until we arrive at the exit point and the
approach to the airport begins.
The airway portion of flights is the phase with the lightest

workload. We will have to follow our route and record the times and fuel
consumption. Each region is controlled by a control center where they
radar monitor our position. We will change frequencies when flying over
each region. We will communicate with the controller of the region, and
if we get disoriented and go off the route for any reason, the controller
will call us asking us to return to the route.
145
HOW TO FLY
CRUISE POWER SETTING
When you level at the cruise altitude, do the cruise procedure.

It is possible that you will reach that altitude during the SID. You will have
to select the engine configuration, which will consist of cruising power,
engine revolutions, and the fuel mixture in a piston plane; this info will
be in the AFM power tables. When flying turbine engines, we are going
to select only the engine power.
Depending on the temperature of the cylinders, you will need to

operate the engine cooling/ventilation systems. One way to control the
temperature of the cylinders on a piston engine is to regulate the fuel/air
mixture: the fuel is cold, so more fuel per revolution will cool the
cylinders, and vice versa.
Figure 6.2.1. Max cruise.
It is likely the cruise procedure will say we have to close the

engine vents to keep it warm, but there is no point in doing so if the
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engine is still too hot. In that case, we will let the engine cool down and
then we will close the ventilation. It is critical that the actions you take
are for a reason, and not just because it is said in the procedures.
The power that we will put in cruise varies from operator to

operator, in the AFM we will have tables for different cruise speeds,
among them the max cruise, max endurance, or long range. Depending
on which one we want to fly, we will face our weight, the temperature,
and the altitude at which we are to find the power and speed to fly.
In some aircraft, especially ones with a piston engine, the

manufacturer may not have published charts with so many
configurations, and may have published charts that indicate only the
different speeds and consumptions for each cruise configuration.
During the cruise, you will need to continue checking the engine
gauges and the remaining fuel. At the same time, you can compare your
speed on the ground (ground speed) with your indicated speed to know
if you have headwind or tailwind. Note that to calculate the true air speed
(TAS), your indicated air speed (IAS) increases by 2% for every 1,000
ft.
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HOW TO FLY
You can determine the crosswind by keeping the heading of a

radial and seeing if you are being pushed to the right or left. If our aircraft
is equipped with systems capable of calculating the wind
speed/heading, it will not be necessary for us to calculate it.
AIRSPACES
The world's airspace is divided by regions. Depending on the
kind of airspace we are in, the characteristics will change.
Within controlled airspace, ATC service is provided in

accordance with the airspace classification. We will need authorization
to enter the controlled airspaces, for which we will have to communicate
with the frequency of the airspace we are going to enter. In uncontrolled
airspace, air traffic control does not exercise any authority, although it
can act in an advisory manner by providing information.
As the routes that we fly in the air are three-dimensional, the

airspaces will also be three-dimensional. That is, they will be cubes
defined by coordinates positioned on top of each other. Each airspace
will be located in relation to the requirements of the area.
Each airspace will have a designation and dimensions in

relation to the flight phases it deals with.
REGIONS
Aerodrome Traffic Zone (ATZ)
The ATZ is a controlled airspace associated with an aerodrome

that is established so that the control tower (TWR) can control
aerodrome traffic and protect VFR flights. When there is also IFR traffic
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and a controlled traffic region (CTR) has been established, this usually
encompasses the ATZ.
Figure 6.3.1. Aerodrome traffic zone.
Figure 6.3.2. Aerodrome traffic zone.
Controlled Traffic Region (CTR)
A control zone (CTR or controlled traffic region) is a controlled

airspace, usually around an airport, that extends from the surface to a
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HOW TO FLY
specific upper limit and is established to protect the air traffic operating
to and from that airport. In an area where there is more than one airport,
the CTR will likely cover all of them. This airspace is usually dedicated
to a tower controller.
Figure 6.3.3. Controlled traffic region.
Figure 6.3.4. Controlled traffic region.
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AIRWAY
Control Area (CTA)
A control area called CTA is a controlled airspace that exists in

the vicinity of an airport, extending from a lower level to a specified
upper level. The lower level will not be the floor. It is usually located on
top of a CTR and provides protection for aircraft leaving the airport.
It differs from a terminal manoeuvring area (TMA) in that the CTA

is smaller and controls the smaller airport(s).
Figure 6.3.5. Controlled area (CTA).
Terminal Control Area (TMA)
A TMA is a controlled airspace surrounding a large airport with

a high traffic volume. It is where the approach and departure control
service is provided.
TMA airspace is normally located at the main airport.
It differs from a control area, or CTA, in that it is divided into

several levels of larger areas.
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HOW TO FLY
Figure 6.3.6. Terminal control area (TMA).
Figure 6.3.7. Terminal control area (TMA).
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Flight Information Region (FIR)
A flight information region is an uncontrolled airspace of defined

dimensions within which the flight information service and the alert
service are provided.
The size of FIRs is a matter of administrative convenience for

the countries concerned:
A FIR for the airspace of a medium size country

Multiple FIRs for the airspace of a large country
One FIR for the airspace of several small countries
In some cases there is a vertical split of the FIR where the lower
part remains called the FIR, usually from ground level to FL245, while
the above airspace is called the upper information region (UIR), usually
from FL245 to FL410.
Figure 6.3.8. Flight information region.
Figure 6.3.9. Flight information region.
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HOW TO FLY
Area Control Center (ACC)
An area control center, known as a radar center, monitors IFR

traffic in its flight information region.
In this airspace the en-route control service is provided to IFR

flights.
It extends from a lower level to a specific upper level, both levels

at high altitude.
It differs from a FIR in that the ACC provides control service and
the FIR does not. The name of an ACC will be identical to that of the FIR
that encompasses it.
ATS Route
An ATS route is a specified route designed to channel traffic

flow as necessary for the provision of air traffic services.
The term “ATS route” has several meanings: airway, advisory

route, controlled or uncontrolled route, arrival or departure route, and so
on.
An ATS route is defined by route specifications that include an

ATS route designator, the route to or from significant points (waypoints),
the distance between significant points, the notification requirements,
and, as determined by the appropriate ATS authority, the lowest safe
altitude.
Specifications for ATS routes are published in national AIPs.
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AIRSPACE CLASSIFICATION
Each airspace will be different because the regulations within

that airspace will change. Seven classes of airspace are identified with
callsigns from A to G.
Figure 6.3.10. Airspace classification.
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HOW TO FLY
Figure 6.3.11. Illustration of the airspace classes in real operation.
Figure 6.3.12. Illustration of airspace class of Salamanca.
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Figure 6.3.11 illustrates how the different regions of airspace are

usually assigned according to the size of the airport they encompass. It
also illustrates the class that each airspace usually has.
Figure 6.3.12 shows how we would see the class of each

airspace in the charts. In the case of Salamanca (LESA), it would be
class D.
COMMUNICATIONS
When you enter the airway, the controller of the takeoff airport
will pass you to the area control center responsible for the FIR where
you are. When we change from one FIR to another, it is the controller
who will ask us to communicate with the next region. The
communications will resemble the following:
“HTF22, contact with Madrid Control in 136.525.”
“With Madrid Control in 136.525. HTF22.”
In the initial call with a frequency, we should include the

following elements ICAO. Doc 4444. p. 4-15 (4.11.2):
a) Identification of who we are calling

b) Identification of the aircraft
c) Flight level or altitude
d) Additional elements required by the ATS authority, such
as the next point where we are going
“Madrid Control, HTF22. Good morning. Passing FL100 to

FL140, on course to RBO.”
“HTF22, Madrid Control, radar contact. Continue climb.”
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HOW TO FLY
“Radar contact. Continue climb to FL140. HTF22.”
Radar contact means that we appear on their screen. We will

continue with the route of our flight plan and report at the reporting
points.
It is possible that at this point we still do not have authorization

to climb to our cruising flight level. When we contact the control center,
they will surely grant us an authorization to climb.
“Madrid Control, HTF22. Good morning. Passing FL100 to

FL140, on course to RBO.”
“HTF22, good morning. Continue climb. What final level do you

request?”
“Continue climb. We request final level FL240.”
“HTF22, cleared to climb to FL240.”
“Cleared to FL240. HTF22.”
If we notice we are reaching the authorization limit, and they do

not call us to grant us a higher altitude, we will communicate our altitude
to them.
“HTF22 reaching FL140. Request higher level.”
The controller may change our route or send us directly to some

point within our route. It is therefore important to know our position at all
times and to know how the rest of the points of the route are defined. We
can request direct routes to points to cut time. It is also possible that
they will ask us to maintain course, change altitude, or change speed.
Communications will resemble the following:
“HTF22, continue direct to BAN.”
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“HTF22, maintain present heading.”

“HTF22, descend to FL220.”
“HTF22, decelerate to 150 kt.”
“HTF22, turn right to heading 040º.”
When we receive authorizations, we will have to repeat them to

the controller to ensure we have received the information correctly. The
data to be called back will be the following: ATC route authorizations;
authorizations to land, take off, cross and taxi the runway; information
on the runway in use, altimeter setting, transponder code, level, heading
and speed instructions, transition levels, and ATIS information ICAO. Doc
4444. p. 4-8 (4.5.7.5)
. If we leave the airway we will have to comply with the
minimum off-route altitude (MORA), detailed in the Minimum Altitudes
section.
CHANGE OF RADIO AIDS IN

THE AIR
During conventional instrument flights, we will fly following the
indications of a radio aid. We will have NAV1 and the HSI/RMI as our
main instruments.
If we have to monitor a second navaid, we will select it in the

NAV2 to see its position in the OBI/RMI.
Figure 6.5.1 shows us the case of a radio aid and course

change. At the beginning we will go through the 360º radial of XYZ, with
XYZ on NAV1 and the next navaid, which is CBA on NAV2.
Once we are on the CBA 075º inbound course (we will see it on
the RMI, double needle), we will turn to the 075º course to stay on
course.
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HOW TO FLY
We are going to tune the CBA frequency on the NAV1 and keep
the 075º course using the HSI. If the frequency and the equipment work
correctly, we will select the next frequency in the NAV2, which in this
case will be BBI.
Figure 6.5.1. Radio aid change.
In general, the NAV1 equipment will be connected to the RMI

single needle and the HSI. The NAV2 equipment will be connected to
the RMI double needle and the OBI, and the DME equipment will have
a switch to change between NAV1, HOLD, and NAV2. The ADF
equipment will be connected to both needles of the RMI, which we can
select if we want to have the NAV or ADF information on each needle.
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AIRWAY
Figure 6.5.2. Communication box.
To identify each station by listening to the Morse code, we are

going to press the pads marked with each device in the communications
box. To hear it through the speakers, we will press the upper pad, and
to hear it through the headphones, we will press the lower pad.
Before following the indications of a new frequency, check as

well that you are receiving the correct distance indication in the DME.
In the departure chart we have indicated the frequencies and

equipment (DME, VOR, ADF) that we will need during the departure. We
cannot stop receiving this information at any time during the departure.
FILLING IN THE OPERATIONAL

FLIGHT PLAN
During the flight, we will have to fill in the operational flight plan
that we made during planning. The idea of the operational flight plan is
to check how we are doing on the route and whether the calculated time
and fuel are being met. It also helps to take notes of the authorizations
received and to record the different sections of the flight.
At each point, we will write down the time, the duration of the
leg, and the current fuel. Later, we will compare with what we had
calculated.
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HOW TO FLY
Initially, we are going to write down the takeoff time in the actual
time of arrival (ATA) box and the fuel that we have in the REM box
(remaining).
When we have the takeoff time, we will add the calculated time
to the next point and write it down in the ETA box, in the row of the next
point.
Then we are going to add the time to the next point and write it
down in the same way, repeating the action until all the points of the
route are covered.
When we get to the next point, we will write down the time in the
ATA box. We will also write the time it took from the previous point in the
ATE box and the remaining fuel under the REM box.
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AIRWAY
That is how we will fill out the operational flight plan. In Figure
6.6.4, you can see the operational flight plan filled in until ALEPO.
According to this image, we would find ourselves between ALEPO and
NOLSA.
MINIMUM ALTITUDES
During the route, we will find altitude limitations. We should not
fly below these altitudes, but if we do, it will be our responsibility, and
we should have visual contact with the ground.
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HOW TO FLY
MINIMUM SECTOR ALTITUDE (MSA)
MSA is the safe altitude that protects us from obstacles within a

25 NM radius of a radio station. It will appear on approach, SID and
STAR charts. Pay close attention to the station it is based on, in this case,
BBI.
It's going to give us a minimum clearance of 1,000 ft from the

highest obstacle in that sector.
Figure 6.7.1. MSA.
Flying between the 075º and 002º inbound courses, we should

not go below 5,800 ft. Between the 075º and 284º inbound courses, we
should not go below 4,500 ft, and between the 284º and 002º inbound
courses, we should not go down below 7,000 ft in a range of 25 NM from
the VOR BBI.
We can go down below these altitudes, but we will have to

communicate to the tower that we have visual contact with the ground.
When flying below these altitudes, we will be responsible for

maintaining the minimum altitude, and if an event occurs, we will be held
responsible.
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AIRWAY
MINIMUM EN-ROUTE ALTITUDE

(MEA)
We can find the MEA on the airway

charts, indicated as Figure 6.7.2. If we stay
between the minimum and maximum altitudes,
we will have guaranteed reception of the radio
aid signal and communication in both
directions with ATC, while protecting us from
the obstacles that will be encountered along
the route. According to Figure 6.7.2, in the
section between ELTEP and FORNO, we will
have to go between 5,500 ft and FL245.
Figure 6.7.2. MEA.
If we fill a flight plan through airways, we should select altitudes

that comply with the MEA.
MINIMUM OBSTACLE CLEARANCE

ALTITUDE (MOCA)
The MOCA is the minimum altitude that provides us with the

necessary vertical separation from the highest obstacle in the section of
the route. This minimum altitude does not ensure that we will have ATC
radar reception or radio aid reception.
It will give us a vertical separation of 1,000 ft when the maximum

elevation of the obstacles is less than 3,000 ft, a vertical separation of
1,500 ft when the elevation of the obstacles is between 3,000 ft and
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HOW TO FLY
5,000 ft, and a separation of 2,000 ft when the elevation of obstacles is

greater than 5,000 ft.
Figure 6.7.3. MOCA.
MINIMUM OFF-ROUTE ALTITUDE

(MORA)
There are two types of MORA: MORA

and GRID MORA.
The MORA protects us when we leave

the route for less than 10 NM laterally. It ensures
1,000 ft of vertical separation in non-mountainous
areas and 2,000 ft in mountainous areas.
Figure 6.7.4. GRID MORA.
The GRID MORA will protect us within a quadrant limited by

latitude and longitude. It will protect us with 1,000 ft where the highest
elevations are 5,000 ft MSL, and 2,000 ft where the highest elevations
are 5,001 ft or more.
Figure 6.7.4 is an example of a 7,100 ft. GRID MORA.
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MINIMUM HOLDING ALTITUDE (MHA)
The minimum holding altitude is the minimum altitude that we

can maintain during the hold.
Figure 6.7.5. MHA.
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HOW TO FLY
168
PERFORMANCE BASED NAVIGATION
PERFORMANCE-
7.
BASED NAVIGATION
The rapid evolution of commercial aviation leads to an
accelerated evolution of the navigation systems used. Today, ground
station-based navigation systems are still used, but it is increasingly
clear that the systems used in the future will depend entirely on GPS-
based navigation systems, where the position of the aircraft is defined
by satellite systems and waypoints are defined by coordinates.
ICAO has designed standards related to the accuracy and

performance of GPS systems for navigation, which led to the creation of
the performance-based navigation (PBN) concept.
RNAV
The random navigation, or area navigation, is based on defining

the position of the aircraft through sensors (satellite signal, VOR radials,
inertial systems or DME distances) in order to fly the designated flight
route. Therefore, it is a type of performance-based navigation.
When a procedure is said to be RNAV, it means that it will be

possible to fly the route without depending on ground stations. Using
this type of navigation, a simple satellite signal will allow aircraft to fly
through waypoints defined by coordinates.
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HOW TO FLY
RNP
Required navigation performance is also a type of PBN. It is

similar to the RNAV concept, except that RNP improves the RNAV
system using an active monitoring and alert system of the precision and
performance of the on-board navigation system.
This difference makes it possible to reduce the margins of the

procedures, thus optimizing flight routes. This type of navigation is
widely used in approach procedures, where precision can be reduced
to 0.1 NM.
PBN
The general idea of PBN is that the necessary precision,

functionality, integrity, and continuity are stipulated, but the way to
achieve these objectives is not fixed. Thus the systems used may vary,
but the result will remain the same.
Performance-based navigation was introduced to standardize

RNAV system performance specifications and ensure accuracy
throughout approach procedures or in airspace. This required precision
also refers to RNP operations and is the most sophisticated means of
navigation.
PBN will allow us to use RNAV and RNP systems with more
efficiency in terms of airspace and optimized procedures to reduce
noise and optimize efficient fuel consumption.
In addition, it allows the aircraft to switch from navigation based

on radio aids to navigation based on PBN during flight.
170
From now on, as long as an aircraft with the required systems

can maintain a strong enough satellite signal, it will no longer need to
rely on conventional systems (i.e. radio aids).
NAVIGATION METHODS
RNAV navigation defines the position of the aircraft by

computing the information received through the following systems:
• GNSS (including GPS) (satellite based), together with

augmentation systems
• DME/DME (based on ground stations)
• VOR/DME (based on ground stations)
• INS/IRS (based on aircraft systems)
The computation of the information will be interpreted by the

flight management system (FMCS).
As a crew, we will communicate with the system through the

FMS, one type of FMS is illustrated in Figure 7.5.1, although the
equipment varies greatly between systems.
Figure 7.5.1. FMS.
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HOW TO FLY
Through the FMS we can introduce all kinds of procedures that

the plane can follow thanks to the automatic pilot, or it will direct us to
follow it through the flight directors. In the FMS, we will have all the
procedures of the airports where we are going to operate, although we
will also be able to enter points. The navigation information included in
the FMS will have to be updated every 28 days.
We will visualize the route that we have logged in the FMS in the
navigation display of our instrument system, and we will be able to see
what the autopilot is doing on the PFD screen.
Figure 7.5.2. PFD (left) and ND (right).
REQUIRED PRECISION
RNAV 'X' / RNP 'X' means that, in terms of reliability, the aircraft
must be able to fly 95% of the flight time with precision within a radius of
'X' miles around the center line of the desired flight path
172
In addition, RNP operations allow performance monitoring and

alerting in the event of loss of precision. This is what we know as
integrity. Monitoring by the crew is mandatory.
The following standards are used today:
RNAV 10 Used only on oceanic/remote routes.
RNAV 5 Used on continental routes or in the arrival

phase of an approach.
RNAV 2 Used on continental routes, departures and

arrivals of an approach.
RNAV 1 Used on continental routes, departures,

arrivals, and initial and intermediate segment of
an approach.
A-RNP Advanced RNP is part of the next

enhancements to be implemented to current
navigation standards. It will be dedicated to
route operations and will enhance current
RNAV operations.
RNP AR RNP authorization required operations are

procedures that require special approval
authorization for the crew, the operator, and the
aircraft. They are used in demanding
environments and allow another level of
precision, which can be as low as 0.1 NM.
FLIGHT PHASE
The requirements usually established for the different flight

phases are described below:
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HOW TO FLY
EN-ROUTE (ENR)
Three different PBN applications are distinguished for en-route

operations:
• RNAV 5 (Basic RNAV ~ B-RNAV)

• RNAV 1 (Precision RNAV ~ P-RNAV)
• Advanced RNP ~ A-RNP
TERMINAL (TMA)
Four different PBN applications are distinguished for terminal

operations:
• RNAV 1 (P-RNAV)
• Basic RNP 1
• Advanced RNP
• RNP Authorization Required ~ RNP AR
APPROACH (APCH)
Approach operations are subject to an enhanced RNAV: RNP.

The navigation sensor is assumed to be GNSS. To increase precision,
the sensor is associated with an X- Based Augmentation System (xBAS).
Satellite (SBAS) for LPV approaches

Ground (GBAS) for GLS approaches
Aircraft (ABAS) for LNAV and LNAV/VNAV approaches
Four types of approximations are distinguished:
• RNP APCH – Non-precision approach with 2D guidance (LNAV)

• RNP APCH – Approach with vertical guidance (APV) with 3D
guidance (LNAV/VNAV, LPV, GLS)
• Advanced RNP
• RNP AR APCH
174
FLY-BY, FLY-OVER
Fly-by turns are a key feature of an RNAV flight path. The RNAV
system uses information about aircraft speed, bank angle, and wind to
calculate turn anticipation to smoothly transition from one route segment
to the next.
Fly-over turns, on the other hand, follow the turn principle used
in conventional navigation, where the turn is initiated after passing the
waypoint. Figure 7.8.1 makes it clear that fly-by turns allow for a much
smoother transition between two route sections and are more fuel
efficient.
Figure 7.8.1. Fly-by, fly-over.
OFFSET
RNAV systems can provide the ability to fly a route using a

lateral offset from the original route. In general, lateral offsets can be
selected in increments of 1 NM and up to 20 NM.
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HOW TO FLY
Figure 7.9.1. Offset.
When an offset route is activated in the RNAV system, the

aircraft will depart from the defined route to intercept the offset route at
an angle of 45º or less. When the offset route is canceled, the aircraft
will return to the original route in a similar way.
176
INSTRUMENTAL MANEUVERS
8. INSTRUMENTAL
MANEUVERS
This section details the instrumental maneuvers such as point-
to-point and DME arcs as well as flight techniques and some other
miscellaneous information that covers the entire instrument flight, such
as the points where we will receive authorizations.
FLIGHT TECHNIQUES
It is assumed that the reader has acquired visual flight training

and is able to fly an airplane safely.
The biggest difference in handling the aircraft in instrument

flight is the references we use. In a visual flight we look outside the
cockpit, using the actual horizon as a reference to maintain a straight
and level flight. Thanks to peripheral vision, we can look at other
instruments or inside the cabin while we have a reference on the horizon.
In visual flights, we are not allowed to get into clouds, so we will never
lose the horizon information.
In an instrument flight, on the other hand, we will go through

clouds on countless occasions, losing sight of the real horizon. Due to
the acceleration forces, we will not be able to trust our instincts to know
the position of the aircraft, which can lead to confusion if we believe that
the plane is in a straight and level flight, but in reality, we are entering
into a turn or a climb/descent. For this reason, all aircraft certified for
instrument flight have an artificial horizon. The artificial horizon will be
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HOW TO FLY
the most important flight instrument for flights through clouds or flights
with reduced visibility.
Our eyes should be on the artificial horizon at all times. If we

want to see the indications of any other instrument we will do so, but
without delay, we will return to the artificial horizon.
An essential action in instrument flight is to trim the flight

controls, although we are flying manually, the plane should fly alone.
There will be flight phases, such as takeoff or approach, where the
workload will be enormous. If we dedicate most of our resources to flying
the plane, we will not be able to do the rest.
Think of the elevator trim as if it were a speed control. The plane

will try to maintain the same speed all the time. If you reduce the power,
the plane will lower the nose to accelerate or raise the nose to decelerate
in the case of excess power. Once we have selected the speed, with
the power control we will select if we want to descend, ascend, or
maintain the altitude.
It is important to emphasize that this method is indicated for

airplanes that are relatively small. For big airplanes, we should control
the speed with the power and the altitude with the nose.
FIX-TO-FIX
During instrumental flights, we will need to go from one point

based on a radial and distance from one station to another point on a
different radial and distance, which is known as fix-to-fix. We will use the
RMI as the main instrument. The best way to understand it is through
examples, so we will follow the example in Figure 8.3.1.
178
Figure 8.3.1. Fix-to-fix on the map.
Suppose we want to go from our position (P1: radial 190, 15 NM)

to the radial 070º, 10 NM (P2). Using only the information from the RMI
and the DME, we will set the course that takes us from where we are
directly to the desired position.
We will draw a circle with the center in the VOR that passes
through our position and another circle with the center in the VOR up to
the position we want to reach. See Figure 8.3.2.
We will take this image to the RMI, with the larger circle being
the outer ring of the RMI and the station the center of the instrument.
P1 will be our position, indicated by the arrow tail. To find point

P2, we will look for the 070º radial on the instrument, and we will
calculate the distance according to the relationship between distances.
In this case, 10 NM is two-thirds of 15 NM, so you will be at two-

thirds of the center of the instrument, which is illustrated in Figure 8.3.3.
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HOW TO FLY
Figure 8.3.2. Fix-to-fix on the map.
We will draw a line from our current point to our destination, and
we will move the line to the center of the instrument.
Figure 8.3.3. Fix-to-fix on the RMI.
180
Our position is indicated by the arrow tail of the RMI. To avoid

confusion, the arrow is not drawn in these images.
Once we are on the heading, the final position will be just above
our position, as can be seen in Figure 8.3.4. The needle will trace the
displayed path. If you have crosswind, the image will resemble the
second figure.
Figure 8.3.4. Fix-to-fix on the RMI.
Go on checking your position and recalculate the point-to-point

a little every time. In this way, if the wind or any other factor makes you
leave the route, you will correct it.
With crosswind, you will have to set a wind correction angle to

the required side.
As can be seen in Figure 8.3.5, when the RMI needle is less than
90º, the station will be in front of us, and we will move closer until the
RMI needle is 90º. When the needle is more than 90º, we will move away.
In this case, there will be a point where we will be about 6 miles from the
station, then we will move away to mile 10. See Figure 8.3.2.
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HOW TO FLY
Figure 8.3.5. Inbound and outbound in RMI.
When you have to do a fix-to-fix, they will usually ask you to fly
closer to or away from the station on the fix-to-fix course/radial. Select in
the HSI the course you will have to set after the fix-to-fix. When the CDI
needle starts to move, follow the advice to push it with the lubber line to
get perfectly established in the course/radial (explained later).
DME ARC
In a DME arc, we try to fly in circles around a station, maintaining

the same distance at all times. We will use the RMI and the DME.
If we fly with the RMI needle at 90º, we will be flying a course

perpendicular to the VOR, making circles around it, as can be seen in
Figure 8.4.1.
182
Figure 8.4.1. DME arc.
To keep the RMI needle at exactly 90º all the time, we should
constantly maintain a very tiny angle of bank. Given that this is not
practical, we will instead put the RMI needle at 85º from our heading,
wait for the needle to pass 95º, and turn to put it at 85º again.
As described in the previous section, if the needle is above 90º,

we are approaching the VOR, and if it is below, we are moving away, so
at first we will get a little closer, and then we will move slightly away
(maximum 0.5 NM). We will use the same technique to counteract the
effect of the wind because sometimes it will bring us closer to the station
and other times it will move us away. It is important to know which
direction the wind is coming from before entering the arc. Look for it
while on ground or determine the wind as described in the Cruise
section.
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HOW TO FLY
Figure 8.4.2. DME arc.
When the wind pushes you into the arc (i.e. pushing you closer
to the station), you will have to counteract the effect by turning until the
needle is approximately at 110º. When the wind pushes you out from the
arc, you will have to put the needle at about 60º to return to the desired
distance. When we are back at the correct distance, we will turn again
at 85º.
184
Figure 8.4.3. How to counteract the wind effect.
Keep in mind that the higher cutting heading you set, the faster
you will get closer to the desired distance. Pay close attention to the
DME in these cases.
The ground speed that the DME shows us is the oblique speed
to or from the station. If we want to maintain the distance, it should be
zero.
For example, let's say we're at mile 20, and we want to fly an arc
at mile 15, counterclockwise. We head towards the station and turn right
before reaching mile 15 to put the RMI needle at 85º. If we start this turn
at mile 15, we will move and finish the turn at a different distance at 15
miles, so we will have to anticipate entering the arc.
Then we will stay in the heading until the RMI needle is at 95º,
where we will turn to the left to put the RMI needle at 85º again.
To exit the arc, we will choose a radial and leave the arc on it.
We will also enter an anticipation. Select the radial on the HSI and follow
the CDI push advice to leave the arc or calculate the anticipation.
185
HOW TO FLY
Figure 8.4.4. Full DME arc.
ARC ANTICIPATION
Arc entry (NM): GS ÷ 10 ÷ 2 (NM)
!" × %
Arc exit (Radials): (º)
&'( × )*
186
RADIAL INTERCEPTION
During instrumental flights, we will fly following radials and
courses constantly; it will be essential to know how to intercept any
radial/course from our position. To do this, we will have to know which
radial/course we are on and set a course to intercept the next one. We
will use the RMI as the main instrument, but we can also use the OBI or
HSI.
Figure 8.6.1. Example of an interception.
Using the example in Figure 8.6.1, imagine that we are

approaching a station on the 240º course, and the controller asks us to
approach the station on a 270º course. As you can see, we will have to
make a left turn, fly an interception course, and turn right when we are
approaching the desired radial/course.
It will be important to have a clear mental picture of where we

are and where we are being directed. That is, whether the desired
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HOW TO FLY
radial/course is to the left or right of our position. An image like Figure

8.6.1 should instantly pop into our minds.
To see if the desired course/radial is to the left or right of our

position, we need to identify the desired course/radial in the RMI and
draw a line that passes through the center of the instrument. This is how
the arrow will have to stay after we complete the interception.
Imagine that the center of the RMI is the station, the tail of the
arrow is the radial you are on, and the imaginary line is the radial/course
you have to intercept; you will have to turn towards it.
Figure 8.6.2. Interception in RMI.
In any case, with the rules outlined below, it will not be

necessary to have a mental image, but it will be helpful to confirm the
established interception course.
It is also important to know our distance from the station: if we

are far from the station and the difference between the desired
radial/course and ours is large, we can ignore the rules and set a higher
interception course, and vice versa.
One of the most important ideas is that in RMI the arrowhead

tends to fall, and the arrow tail tends to rise. See Figure 8.6.3.
188
Figure 8.6.3. Arrowhead falls; arrow tail goes up.
If we intend to intercept an approach course, it will have to be

below the arrowhead. If we intend to intercept a radial, it will have to be
above the tail of the arrow.
INBOUND INTERCEPTIONS
In the inbound interceptions, we will fly in the direction of the

station.
The first thing we will do is find our current course to the station,
indicated by the RMI arrowhead. For the HSI and OBI, the course
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HOW TO FLY
selector should be turned until the CDI needle is centered and the
TO/FROM indicator shows “TO”.
The following is about how to identify the approach course that

we want to intercept. If we were asked to intercept a radial, we would
have to add or subtract 180º to determine the desired inbound course.
It is a common mistake to confuse radial with the inbound course to the
station, not to add or subtract 180º, and to make a wrong interception.
In the following example, we are on the 300º inbound course

(radial 120º), and we want to approach on the 260º course.
To figure out our interception course, we will put our eyes at the
desired course (260º). We will continue in the direction of the arrowhead
(300º), and we will add 30º in this direction. The result will be our
interception course (330º).
Figure 8.7.1. Interception in the RMI.
If the difference between the desired course and the current one
is small, (<15º) adding 30º will be excessive and less will be enough.
190
Figure 8.7.2. Example on the map.
≥90º (PASSED INTERCEPTION)
If we were asked to approach the station where the difference

between the arrowhead and the desired course is more than 90º, we will
be facing the situation in Figure 8.8.1.
In these cases we will set a course contrary to the desired

inbound course (desired inbound course +180º), we will wait to pass
abeam the station, and we will count one minute before turning 90º
towards the station (arrowhead) to intercept the desired course.
Figure 8.8.1. Example of a passed interception.
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HOW TO FLY
OUTBOUND INTERCEPTIONS
In the outbound interceptions, we are going to intercept a radial

to get away from the station.
Similar to inbound interceptions, we will have to find the radial

for our location. The tail of the arrow indicates our radial in the RMI. For
the HSI and OBI, the course selector must be turned until the CDI needle
is centered and the TO/FROM indicator shows “FROM”.
Then we will have to identify the radial that they ask us to fly.
Once we have identified our current radial and the desired

radial, we will apply the appropriate rule. As said before, these rules are
only a suggestion to choose the course of interception. The distance to
the station, and the difference between the desired radial and ours, will
be important elements in choosing this heading.
In the following example, we will go to the arrow tail (120º). We

will continue in the direction of the desired radial (080º), and we will add
45º in this direction. The result will be our interception course (035º).
Figure 8.9.1. Example in the RMI.
192
Figure 8.9.2. Example on the map.
>90º (PASSED INTERCEPTION)
If the difference between the arrow tail and the desired radial is
more than 90º, we will do a passed interception.
In these cases, we will set the radial course and wait to pass
abeam the station. We will then count one minute before turning 45º
towards where the desired radial (arrowhead) is to intercept it.
Figure 8.10.1. Example of the passed interception on the map.
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HOW TO FLY
CDI PUSH
During instrument flights, we should turn with a bank angle that

gives us a turn of 3º/s, which is known as a standard turn. This angle will
vary with our speed. The formula to calculate the angle will be as follows:
+,-
Bank angle (º) = )*
+ 7
That angle of turn will cause a lateral displacement from the

point where we started the turn to the point where we are on the new
heading.
Figure 8.11.1. Displacement in a turn.
As can be seen in the first image of Figure 8.11.1, if we start the

turn at the moment we pass the desired radial, we will finish the turn on
a different radial, which will force us to continue with the turn until we are
on the radial we wanted to intercept.
Doing it that way is not going to be a big problem for us in most

cases because we will end up on the radial we had in mind. But if we
are doing that in every interception, it means we are not anticipating
what is going to happen. There will be cases in which if we do so, we
will enter another sector where the minimum altitude to maintain may be
higher than the one we just left, putting the operation in danger.
To prevent that, we will begin to turn in advance, as shown in

the second image of Figure 8.11.1. One way to anticipate is to make it
194
so that the HSI lubber line pushes the CDI. When the CDI starts to move,
we will start the turn. If we follow this rule in the interceptions, we will
come out perfectly on the radial.
Figure 8.11.2. CDI push.
It is important to emphasize that this is a general technique,

especially suitable for interceptions in the vicinity of the navaid. It may
not be suitable if we are too far from the station and there are many
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HOW TO FLY
radials to cut through. Turns in instrumental flights must be 3º/s or 25º of

maximum bank, this rule should prevail over what the CDI push
technique indicates.
CLEARANCES
During instrument flights, we will maintain contact with the tower

at all times, and we will have to be authorized to complete any action.
Generally, we will receive the same clearances at the same points along
the route, regardless of the country or airport in which we are flying.
Figure 8.12.1. Clearances.
1 Start-up It will be the first clearance that we will receive

from the tower. They authorize us to start the
engine (and pushback if necessary).
2 Taxi This clearance allows us to taxi to the holding
point and will come with a taxi route.
3 ATC Clearance The ATC departure clearance authorizes us to
fly the route to the destination. This
authorization alone does not allow us to take off,
taxi, or line up on the runway.
4 Line up/takeoff When we are ready to depart, they will give us
clearance to enter the runway and take off.
196
5 Climb It is unlikely that with the departure clearance

they will authorize us directly to the cruising
altitude that we will maintain. We will receive
this authorization during the climb.
6 Route changes During the route, it is possible that the points of
our route change. They may direct us to
climb/descend or to change the speed.
7 Descent To descend, we will need clearance.
8 Approach When we are approaching the destination
airport, they will clear us to start the approach.
This clearance does not allow us to land on the
runway.
9 Landing When we are on the final approach, they will
clear us to land.
10 Taxi After landing, we will vacate the runway, and we
will be directed to our parking stand.
VECTORING
It is possible that the controller will direct us to follow headings

for various reasons such as separation from other traffic or to position
ourselves for the beginning of an approach. This technique is known as
vectoring, and the phraseology to be use will be the following:
“Continue present heading” – The pilot is directed to stay on present

heading until further notice.
“Fly heading ___” – The pilot is directed to turn to achieve the indicated
heading, in the direction that takes the least time possible.
“Turn left/right, heading ___” – Similar to the previous instruction, the

pilot is informed with the required heading and direction of the turn.
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HOW TO FLY
“Turn left/right ___ degrees” – Similar to the previous instruction, the

pilot is directed to turn a number of degrees in the indicated direction.
“Resume own navigation” – This instruction is used for the pilot to

continue with his flight plan.
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DESCENT
9. DESCENT
This section details the part of the instrument flight from when
we leave the airway until we start the approach to the destination airport.
If we cannot land at the destination airport due to weather

conditions or any other irregularity, we will go to the alternate airport.
Before starting the new route to the alternate, we will inform the
controller of our situation and request a new route from our position to
the alternate.
Normally we will follow the standard terminal arrival (STAR), but

if there is no STAR published, following the instructions of the controller,
we will fly directly to the station where the approach begins.
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HOW TO FLY
BEFORE DESCENT
Before starting the descent, you will have to find out about the
weather at the destination. Do a briefing prior to the descent and tune
into the frequencies that we will use in the descent and approach. We
will also need the authorization of the controller.
Procedures vary from airport to airport, but we will most likely

follow the published STAR route. In any case, we will have to
communicate with the controller of the destination airport, who will detail
the route to follow and the altitudes to maintain during arrival.
METEOROLOGY
When we are approaching the destination airport, we will tune

the arrival ATIS frequency. You can find this frequency on the airport
charts. See Figure 9.4.1.
The Paris ATIS will resemble the following transcript.
“This is Charles de Gaulle information T recorded at 1415UTC.

Expect approach ILS landing runway 08L and 09R, takeoff
runway 08R and 09L. Expect departure 1A, 1B, 1Y, transition
level 050. Wind 120º 5 kt. Visibility 10 km or more. Clouds FEW
3,500 ft. Temperature 18. Dew point 07. QNH 1026. Inform in
initial contact that you have received information T.”
If the destination airport does not have an ATIS service, we will

request the weather information from the controller.
With the information received, and the meteorological minimums

from the approach charts, we can determine whether we can land at the
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DESCENT
destination airport or if we have to go to the alternate airport. We will also

take advantage of any information received by ATIS to anticipate what
we have to do. In this case, the ATIS dictates that ILS approaches are
expected to runways 08L and 09R, so we will look for the ILS approach
charts to those runways and begin to review them. The most common
approach is the ILS. It is the one we will prepare in the event that it is not
specified in the ATIS.
During planning we calculated the point of descent, but the

beginning of the descent will depend on whether control decides to give
us a lower level or keep us at an altitude. We can also request the
descent if we really require it for any reason.
Before starting the descent, we should give an approach

briefing, where we will layout the actions we will take from the beginning
of the descent until we complete the approach and taxi to the assigned
parking stand.
APPROACH BRIEFING
In this briefing, as in the takeoff briefing, we will share the

actions that we are going to take. Generally, we will give the information
chronologically and detail any relevant information so everyone knows
what is coming next.
A good approach briefing should include these points:
Meteo + NOTAM
The weather at the destination (by ATIS), and if there are

NOTAMs that affect our operation. If we decide to go to the
alternate, we will state that in the briefing.
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HOW TO FLY
STAR + restrictions + radio aids + holding + Descent
The STAR or arrival that we plan to complete, the name and date
of the chart, and route with restrictions, if any. Radio aids that
we will use and where they are tuned. If we plan to enter a
holding, we will say the type of entry and peculiarities (distance
and radial on which the hold is based). We will indicate our
planned descent start.
Approach + final course + DA/H + missed app + MSA
The approach we will make and the name and date of the chart.
Radio aids we will use and where they are tuned. The final
course. The DA/H. Glide slope interception altitude and altitude
restrictions, if any. We will read the missed approach procedure
from the chart and the MSA.
Landing configuration + taxi route
The configuration with which we intend to land (flap). And the

taxiing route we will take from the runway to the parking stand,
if known. It is good practice to aim for a exit point on a specific
taxiway.
Fuel + alternative
The fuel we will have upon landing and other relevant

information (emergency situation, systems out of service, low
visibility at destination, passenger in need of medical attention,
etc.).
We will use the STAR, approach and taxi charts to guide us in

the briefing. Each chart will have the name of the procedure it illustrates
and an identification or a plate number. It will also have a date from
which that chart became effective.
Both cockpit crew will have their chart, and it will be necessary
to make sure that the chart is the same. This is why the identification of
the chart is said aloud. We will emphasize what we can expect and any
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DESCENT
situation that is out of the ordinary because it is a good habit for both
cabin crew members to be aware of the situation in detail and to know
the actions that each should take.
If this is an RNAV arrival, it differs from conventional procedures

in that we do not need to use radio aids. In conventional arrivals, if
possible, we will tune all the necessary radio aids before starting the
briefing.
The briefing on this flight would resemble the following:
Meteo + NOTAM
The meteorology is OK at the destination airport, and there are

no NOTAMs that prevent us from operating. We will continue to
LFPG.
STAR + restrictions + radio aids + holding + descent
We plan to complete the STAR RNAV KOVAK 7E. Chart 20-2B,

NOV 30, 2018, effective DEC 6. Route: over KOVAK max 280 kt,
BENAR, ROMGO, FF501 max FL150, NERKI max 250 kt max
FL120, BANOX (IAF) between FL110 and FL090. In principle,
without holding. STAR RNAV: we don't need to configure
navaids. We plan to start the descent 6 NM before NERKI.
Approach + final course + DA/H + missed app + MSA
We plan to complete the ILS 08L approach. Chart 21-0A1, 28

DEC 2018, effective 03 JAN, Route: BANOX, SUBOX and
vectors to IF. Chart 21-1, 17 APR 2020, effective 23 APR. ILS
GLE 108.7 frequency will go on NAV1, final course 085º, DA
538´ (200´). Glide slope capture at 5,000 ft. Missed approach,
runway heading climb to PG415, max 5,000 ft, then PG416
ascending to FL070. Proceed to LORNI at FL070 to wait. MSA
3,500 ft.
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HOW TO FLY
Figure 9.4.1. STAR chart explained.
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DESCENT
Landing + taxi
We plan to land on runway 08L. We will taxi as directed.
Fuel
We expect to land with 520 lb of fuel. The minimum fuel for the
alternative is 232.5 lbs, which gives us approximately 290 lbs of
extra before proceeding to the alternate.
On the following pages you can find the approach charts. At the
Paris Charles de Gaulle airport we encounter an unusual situation in
aerodromes with less traffic, where the initial approach is on a separate
chart, known as a transition, illustrated in Figure 9.4.2.
In that chart we can see that after the BANOX point we will go
to SUBOX, and we will be vectored to the beginning of the approach.
We can also see the actions we will take if we have a communications
failure and what we should say in the initial communication.
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HOW TO FLY
Figure 9.4.2. Initial approach chart.
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DESCENT
Figure 9.4.3. Approach chart with briefing flow.
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HOW TO FLY
DESCENT COMMUNICATIONS
During the airway, we will maintain communication with the

controller of the area control center in charge. When we arrive at the
airway exit point, we will be transferred to the arrival airport. If we are
reaching the airway exit point and they have not yet transferred us to the
approach frequency, we will call informing them of our position so that
they can coordinate the arrival.
When we communicate with the destination airport, we will have

to report our altitude and position. We need them to give us
meteorological information if we have not received it by ATIS, the
authorization to continue with the instrumental arrival, and the clearance
to descend. Before descending we have to know the local pressure
(QNH) and the transition level ICAO. Doc. 4444. p. 4-14 (4.10.4).
They will probably authorize us to continue with the instrumental

arrival if it exists. If there is no instrumental arrival, they will direct us to
the station where the approach is based. Although we have calculated
the descent in one point, they will probably direct us to descent in
relation to the traffic in the vicinity. In any case, we should be aware at
all times of the distance we have left to descend and the altitude to which
we should descend. Whenever you communicate with controllers, have
paper and a pen ready to write down what they tell you.
“HTF22, contact De Gaulle Approach in 125.83.”
“With De Gaulle Approach in 125.83, goodbye.”
“De Gaulle Approach. HTF22 FL140, reaching KOVAK.”
“HTF22, bonne soirée. Continue KOVAK7E. Descend to FL120.”
“KOVAK6E and descend to FL120. HTF22.”
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DESCENT
In this case, they tell us to continue with the STAR KOVAK7E

and descend to FL120.
To descend, we need an authorization, either from the ACC, in

this case Paris Control, or from the airport approach frequency.
When flying within the control area of busy airports, we should

not request descents or route changes unless it is for an important
reason.
In small uncrowded airports, we could ask for the altitude that

suits us best. For this, anticipate and start requesting the descent
clearance before reaching your top of descent. It will take some time
after you call to get authorization.
If we really needed to descend, we would request it in the

following way.
“HTF22 at 11 NM from NERKI, request descent.”
“HTF22, to what level do you want to descend?”
“We request FL120. HTF22.”
“HTF22, cleared to descend FL120.”
“Cleared FL120. HTF22.”
At airports as big as Paris Charles de Gaulle, they would

probably deny us the clearance and let us descend when it suits them.
If we had to start the descent on the airway, we would call the controller
who is coordinating us, and we will tell her the same.
Flying above the transition altitude, we will have 1013 hPa

selected in our altimeter. If they authorize you to go below the transition
level, enter the local pressure directly. We should enter the local
pressure going below the transition, but we may forget due to the large
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HOW TO FLY
workload. It is safer to enter the local pressure before passing the

transition level than to forget to enter it. If you have two altimeters in the
cockpit, select the local pressure in one and the standard pressure in
the other.
IFR CANCELATION
Our trip may end in an uncontrolled aerodrome that does not

have IFR approaches. In those cases, we are going to cancel our IFR
flight to land following visual flight rules. We will do so by contacting
whoever is in control of our flight and transmitting the message.
If our flight plan goes to an uncontrolled airport, control will be

aware that we are going to cancel the instrument flight plan, and it is
possible that they will call us to ask our intentions. In those cases, we
will simply have to communicate our plan.
“HTF22, we request to cancel IFR flight plan.”
“HTF22, confirm that you request to cancel your IFR flight plan?”
“Affirmative. HTF22.”
“HTF22, your IFR flight plan has been canceled at 14:07.”
“IFR canceled. HTF22.”
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DESCENT
MINIMUM VFR CONDITIONS
To go from IFR rules to VFR rules, we will need the

meteorological conditions (distance from clouds and minimum visibility)
to be above the minimum indicated below.
Figure 9.7.1. Minimum VFR conditions.
SPECIAL VFR (SVFR)
It is also possible that when moving to VFR rules, the weather

conditions are below what is established in Figure 9.7.1. In those cases,
we will follow the special VFR rules.
The special visual flight rules (SVFR) will be operated within a control
zone when the conditions detailed below are met:
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HOW TO FLY
(a) Unless otherwise permitted by the competent authority, such

SVFR flights can be performed only during the day.
(b) The flight will remain clear of clouds and with the surface in
sight.
(c) Visibility shall not be less than 1,500.
(d) Speed will be 140 kts IAS or less to give adequate opportunity
to observe other traffic and any obstacles in time to avoid a
collision.
(e) An air traffic control unit will not issue a special VFR clearance
for the aircraft to take off or land at an aerodrome within a control
zone, or enter the aerodrome traffic zone or circuit aerodrome
traffic when weather conditions in that aerodrome are lower than
the following minimums:
(1) Visibility on the ground is less than 1,500 m.

(2) The cloud ceiling is less than 180 m (600 ft).
HOLDING
Before any approach, there will be a defined space where we

can hold position. The holding is a procedure to maintain position before
starting the approach, either to wait until other traffic lands before us or
to drop in altitude.
The tower will tell us to enter the defined holding and to maintain
the position at X altitude. If the lower level gets free, they will allow us to
go down to the next level. We will continue like this until it is our turn to
start the approach. Thanks to today's coordination, it is not usual to do
holdings in real operation, but we have to be able to fly them correctly.
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DESCENT
The holdings will be based on a radio aid or a waypoint. There

are two types of holdings, depending on the turn: standard hold, where
the turns are to the right, and non-standard hold, where the turns will be
to the left.
Figure 9.9.1. Standard hold (left) and non-standard (right).
On the holding, the route illustrated in Figure 9.9.1 is traced,

where the straight sections are limited by time or DME distance from a
station and turns are of 180º, maintaining a maximum bank angle of 25º
or the bank that gives us a turn of 3º/second (degree coordinated turn
./"
= )* + 7) ICAO. Doc 8168. p. I-6-1-1 (1.3.2). The maximum speed will be 170 kt for
category A and B aircraft ICAO. Doc 8168. p. I-6-1-6.
All holdings will be based on a radial, which is the outbound

course or radial.
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HOW TO FLY
Figure 9.9.2. The parts of holding.
The straight legs will be approximately one minute, and at 3º/s

it will take a minute to complete the 180º turns. That is, it will take four
minutes per lap. For holds higher than 14,000 ft, straight sections will be
1:30 ICAO. Doc 8168. p. I-6-1-5 (1.4.9).
In the holds, it is essential to keep the speed constant at all

times. It should not vary by more than ±5 kt. The time between sections
is used to calculate the wind and apply a correction. If the speed is not
constant, it will change all the calculations.
The wind is going to push us during the hold. The idea is to

correct for it so that we are established on the radial when we finish the
inbound turn, and so that the approach segment lasts exactly one
minute ICAO. Doc 8168. p. I-6-1-1 (1.3.3).
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DESCENT
ENTRY IN HOLDING
The instruments we have on the plane tell us the position of a

station. To enter the holding, we will go directly to the station. When the
instruments indicate that the station goes from being in front of us to
being behind, we will know that we are just above. In this moment, we
will enter the holding. There are three types of entry, depending on the
sector we are in: offset, teardrop, and direct.
Figure 9.9.3. Holding entry sectors.
Each entry has its characteristics, and they are flown in a

different way. It is important to be clear about your entrance. To find out
which entry you should make, the hand rule described below is of great
help.
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HOW TO FLY
HOLD ENTRIES
There are entries that have higher priority than others for the
security they provide. Depending on the entry you make, you may leave
the 5 NM protection area ICAO. Doc 8168. p. I-6-2-2. We can force one entry or
the other if we are right on the edge of two entries, to a maximum of ±5º
ICAO. Doc 8168. p. I-6-1-2 (1.4.1)
. The order of priority will be as follows:
Teardrop, direct, and offset. The offset entry being the least
secure, where you proceed outside the holding area.
To know the entry we must make, we will use the right hand in
the standard holdings and the left in the non-standard ones. Place the
index finger on the current heading and extend the thumb and middle
fingers as illustrated. Then find the radial on which the hold is based
(outbound course). We will assume that there is 70º between the index
finger and the middle finger and that there is 110º between the index
finger and the thumb.
Figure 9.9.4. Hand rule.
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DESCENT
If the radial is between the index finger and the middle finger, it
will be a teardrop entry. If it is between the index finger and the thumb,
it will be an offset entry, and if it is between the thumb and the middle
finger, it will be a direct entry. Practice with different entries and
approach courses. Knowing the entry we must make has to be
automatic.
Figure 9.9.5. Hand rule on a map.
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HOW TO FLY
OFFSET ENTRY, SECTOR 1
If you proceed through the offset sector, but you are within ±5º
of the teardrop sector, inform in the cockpit that you are in the offset
sector but that you will make an entry in teardrop in order of priority. The
same if you are within ±5º of the direct sector.
In this entry, when you go over the station, turn to the outbound
course. After one minute, turn 180º as illustrated in Figure 9.9.6 and
intercept the inbound radial towards the station.
Figure 9.6.6. Offset entry.
When you pass through the station, the time will be taken
depending on the heading you have maintained while proceeding
towards the station.
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DESCENT
Figure 9.9.7. Offset entry, timer start.
If once you fly over the station you have to turn between 0º and
30º to establish yourself on the outbound course, take the time over the
station.
If you have to turn more than 30º for the outbound heading, start
the timer when you are on the outbound heading with the wings level.
Before arriving at the station, be prepared to take time when you pass
through the station or when you have the plane leveled.
All turns will be made with a maximum bank angle of 25º or the
bank angle that gives us a turn of 3º/s, whichever is less.
After one minute on the outbound course, we will turn to re-

intercept the inbound course.
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HOW TO FLY
Figure 9.9.8. Inbound turn.
When we have turned to intercept the inbound course, we will

check the time. In this case, we will take time when we have passed the
inbound course. If we have not intercepted the radial/approach course
after thirty seconds, we will go straight to the station.
In Figure 9.9.9, we will check the time once we have established

ourselves on the intercept course. Figure 9.9.9 details the case of
crosswind conditions. Holdings with wind will be explained later.
As you can see in Figures 9.9.8 and 9.9.9, in both cases we will
have to fly for a while to intercept the inbound course, which means we
will travel a greater distance, and it will take longer to reach the station
than it would to leave a perfectly established inbound course.
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DESCENT
Figure 9.9.9. Inbound turn offset entry.
OFFSET ENTRY TIPS

The sector of this entry is quite wide. Depending on where you
enter, you will have to do one thing or another to come out better
established and have fewer problems.
If you are approaching near the teardrop sector, as you can see
in Figure 9.9.10, you will be almost set on the outbound heading, but
when you turn to the inbound heading, you will be almost on the tear
drop radial, which means you’re going to have to set a large cut-off
heading if you want to intercept the approach radial before thirty
seconds.
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HOW TO FLY
Figure 9.9.10. Offset entry advice.
To avoid this situation, you can fly on a heading greater than the
outbound heading, as Figure 9.9.11 shows.
Remember that the holdings provide a protection of 5 NM. Be

careful not to leave the area if you follow the previous advice.
If you enter close from the direct sector, wait about five seconds
to turn to the outbound heading. In this way it will cost you much less to
intercept the inbound radial, and you will probably get it within thirty
222
DESCENT
seconds. Do not take into account the approach time in this type of
entry. For the time to be reliable, we have to be established in the
inbound radial after the turn.
If you know you have a lot of headwind before you enter the
hold, fly away longer than a minute (01:15 or 01:30) before turning
inbound.
TEARDROP ENTRY, SECTOR 2
This entrance is the highest priority because it proceeds inside

the holding, and we follow a radial.
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HOW TO FLY
Figure 9.9.13. Teardrop entry.
Once we go over the station, we will follow the teardrop radial:

30º less than the outbound radial (standard) and 30º more than the
outbound radial (non-standard).
If nothing in the chart states the contrary, we will fly away for one
minute on the teardrop radial, and we will turn to the indicated side. If
the holding is more than a minute, or is defined by a distance, after one
minute we will turn to the outbound course, and we will keep it until we
reach the distance or until the time passes.
Figure 9.9.14. Teardrop entry defined by time or distance.
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DESCENT
After having flown one minute on the teardrop radial, we will be

at the point where we should turn in a normal hold. We will assume that
we are already flying the hold, and we will turn to the corresponding side
to intercept the inbound course.
In the case of entering a racetrack through this sector

(explained in the Approach section), we will do a minute or a minute and
a half in the drop radial, and then we will turn to the outbound course,
and we will maintain the course until we reach the distance or until the
outbound time has passed.
DIRECT ENTRY, SECTOR 3
The direct entry is the second highest in priority. If we could

choose between this or the entry in teardrop, we would do the entry in
teardrop. In this entry, when we fly over the station, we will turn to the
side of the holding turns, and we will fly away on the outbound course.
It is flown exactly as if we were already in a holding.
Figure 9.9.15. Direct entry.
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HOW TO FLY
Both in this entry and in the rest of the laps of the holding, you
will have to take the time of the outbound leg, it will be done when you
pass through the abeam radial (when you have leveled the wings before
passing through this radial), or when you level the wings (if you have
already gone through the abeam radial).
Figure 9.9.15. Direct entry.
If we enter through the center of the sector, there will be no

problem because it will be as if we were already flying in the holding.
The problems will arise when we enter at the edges of the sector.
DIRECT ENTRY TIPS
There is a large sector through which we can enter. If we enter

close to the teardrop sector, the situation detailed in Figure 9.9.16 will
occur.
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DESCENT
Figure 9.9.16. Direct entry advice.
To solve the problem detailed in Figure 9.9.16, lengthen the time

to start the turn five to ten seconds later. We will enter the holding
pattern, and we will be better established after the turn to inbound, as
Figure 9.9.17 shows.
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HOW TO FLY
Take into account the effect the wind will have on your course.
If before entering the hold you have an idea of the direction and intensity
of the wind, operate accordingly.
If we enter close to the offset sector, the route we are going to

trace will look like the one we can see in Figure 9.9.18.
In these cases, there is no need to alter anything because our

route will be similar to the one we will do in normal holdings. The most
important factor in this type of entry is the beginning of the turn. We
should start the turn just after we fly over the station to be well
established in the inbound turn.
WIND CORRECTION
The objective of the hold is to come out perfectly established on

the inbound course after completing the turn and to take exactly one
minute on the inbound leg. For this we will have to correct for the wind.
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DESCENT
We will divide the wind into two components: the headwind or

tailwind and the crosswind. We will correct both components in the
outbound section.
ABEAM
The first wind indication will be the abeam radial.
Figure 9.9.19. Abeam indication.
On a day without wind, we will cross the abeam radial when we

are set out on the outbound course, but a tailwind or headwind will alter
the situation.
If, once we are on the outbound course, it takes us more than

five seconds to intercept the abeam radial, it means we have a
headwind. If we have passed the abeam radial more than five seconds
ago, we will have a tailwind. This indication is highly reliable as long as
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HOW TO FLY
we have started the turn over the station, and we have maintained a
coordinated turn. The five seconds are a margin to make sure. We can
always have made small mistakes that alter the moment of intercepting
the radial.
We should keep on the outbound course for one minute in the

first lap after the entry, but if thanks to the abeam indication we clearly
have a headwind or a tailwind, we will adjust the departure time
accordingly.
We will stay on course for a little over a minute if we have a

headwind or for a little less than a minute if we have a tailwind. With
experience, you'll learn to adjust the outbound time based on how long
it takes to intercept the abeam, but for now, add or subtract about ten
to twenty seconds.
It is critical to be precise when taking the time. To take the

outbound time, we are going to start the timer the moment we go through
the radial of abeam ICAO. Doc 8168. p. I-6-1-2 (1.3.4).
INBOUND TURN
When the outbound time elapses, we will turn to intercept the

inbound course, making a right turn in a standard hold and a left turn in
a non-standard hold.
As you turn, monitor the turn. Before turning, you should be on

the teardrop radial. That is, a radial 30º less than the outbound radial
(standard).
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DESCENT
Figure 9.9.20. Inbound turn.
The arrowhead of your RMI should travel about 30º per minute.
When you have made a half turn, look at the arrow to see if it is 15º from
your inbound course. If not, adjust the turn. If it is less than 15º from your
inbound course, accelerate the turn by setting more bank angle. If it is
more than 15º from your inbound course, turn with less bank or stay on
an intercept course.
Remember that the HSI lubber line should push the CDI when it
starts to move.
There are three possible outcomes for the turn: that we stay
inside the holding, that we stay out of the holding, or that we stay
established on the radial. The latter is the situation we want to finally
reach.
The three situations described are shown in Figure 9.9.21.
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HOW TO FLY
Figure 9.9.21. Possible cases after the turn to inbound.
If we are not settled on the radial after the turn, it means that we
have a crosswind component pushing us. This will be the indication to
find the crosswind component that is affecting us, adding the crosswind
quadrant and the head/tailwind quadrant, we will establish the
correction.
Figure 9.9.22. Starting timer inbound.
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DESCENT
After completing the turn to inbound, we will start the timer.

Depending on whether you are inside or outside the holding, you will
take time at one point or another. If you stay inside and have to set an
intercept heading, take the time when setting the intercept heading. If
you are out from the holding, take your time as you pass the inbound
heading.
Try to intercept the approach course within thirty seconds and

proceed to the station. If you do not intercept it within thirty seconds,
proceed directly to the station for the course you are on, and do not take
into account the time of that leg. Try to intercept the approach course
as soon as possible and maintain the necessary wind correction.
OUTBOUND CORRECTION
If after the turn to inbound you were inside the holding, it means
you have wind from outside the holding.
Figure 9.9.23. Wind correction angle.
In these cases, you will have to turn towards the wind after the
turn to outbound, keep in mind that to correct the wind of the turns in
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HOW TO FLY
this section you will have to multiply the wind correction angle of the
inbound leg by approximately three.
If after the turn to inbound you were outside the holding, it

means you have wind coming from inside the hold.
Figure 9.9.24. Wind correction angle.
As in the previous situation, you will have to turn towards the

wind and multiply by approximately three the wind correction angle of
the inbound leg.
We multiply the wind correction by three because it is not

practical to put a wind correction in the turns. This leaves us with only
the outbound leg to make a wind correction. We will have to apply a
correction approximately three times greater than what we used during
the approach minute (one minute the first turn, approximately one
minute outbound, and one minute the second turn).
If you have not been able to determine a correction angle in the

approach section, but you know you have a crosswind from one side,
set an angle of 10º–15º towards the wind side during the outbound leg.
You will refine it later.
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DESCENT
If we do not correct a strong crosswind, the effect it will have on

our route will be similar to Figure 9.9.25, where we be established far
from our desired point, and we will be forced to try to intercept the
inbound course, probably without success.
Figure 9.9.25. Effect of a very strong crosswind.
TIPS FOR CROSSWIND

CORRECTION
In calm wind conditions, before turning to intercept the inbound

radial, we will be exactly on the teardrop radial. That is, on a radial 30º
less than the departure radial (standard) about three nautical miles from
the station (flying at 2,000 ft above the station).
If the time we calculated passes, and we are not in that position,

it means the wind correction we have set is not correct.
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HOW TO FLY
This RMI indication does not tell us if the headwind/tailwind or

the crosswind pushed us, but it can help us in a couple of situations, as
illustrated in Figure 9.5.26.
Figure 9.9.26. Wind effect in a holding.
If the radial we are on is much closer to the outbound radial than

the teardrop radial, it probably means we are flying inside the hold. We
will have to turn a little more aggressively to intercept the inbound radial.
If the radial we are on before turning is more than 30º from the
outbound radial, we have likely had a lot of headwind, and we are still
close to the station. It may also mean that we are flying far outside the
hold.
These situations do not present a big problem unless we have

an extremely strong head wind during the outbound leg. We will have
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DESCENT
the headwind information when we make the first turn and do the abeam
check.
If you know you don't have a lot of headwind, after the turn you
will have some time to try to intercept the inbound radial, even if you
come out on the far inside or outside of the hold.
If we have a lot of headwind, and we continue close to the

station and decide to turn, it can lead to a difficult situation. We will have
little time to intercept the course before passing through the station. The
needle will be extremely sensitive, and the wind will push us towards the
station, further cutting down the time we have.
It is possible that instead of going over the station we will pass

by one side, which will throw us off the next lap. See image 9.9.27.
Figure 9.9.27. Effect of a very strong wind.
It is crucial that it does not happen. If you are sure you have a
lot of headwind, lengthen the first lap’s outbound leg without fear. If it
does happen, stay calm and fly on the outbound heading for 1:30 or
1:45.
237
HOW TO FLY
TIME CORRECTION
To correct for the headwind or tailwind, we will use the inbound

times as a reference. Our objective will be to take exactly one minute on
the inbound section. For this, we will modify the outbound time to
counteract the effect of the wind. It will be critical to come out perfectly
established in the radial.
Figure 9.9.28. Time correction.
The approach time will be taken when we set the interception

course or are passing the approach course, whichever occurs first. See
Figure 9.9.22.
If you fly a minute outbound, and it takes less time inbound, it is

because you have a headwind in the outbound and a tailwind in
inbound. The correction rule that is used is the following:
“Double of what I need. Half of what I have left.”
It is a simple rule that means that if you have flown outbound

one minute, and it took you 50 seconds to fly back, you have 10 seconds
left before the minute is up. We add “double of what I need”. Double of
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DESCENT
10 seconds is 20 seconds. We will do 1:20 minutes outbound on the

next lap. See Figure 9.9.29.
Figure 9.9.29. Holding with headwind.
If you take longer in the inbound than in the outbound leg, it is

because you have a tailwind outbound and a headwind inbound.
Figure 9.9.30. Holding with tailwind.
If we fly one minute outbound, and the inbound takes 1:20

minutes. That means we have 20 seconds to spare. We will subtract
“half of what I have left”. Half of 20 seconds is 10 seconds, so we will
subtract 10 seconds per minute from the outbound. We will do 50
seconds in the outbound leg.
239
HOW TO FLY
We will continue correcting in this way until we take a minute in

inbound. If with the correction, flying outbound takes 1:20 minutes, and
it turns out that in inbound it takes 55 seconds, we have 5 seconds left
to reach the minute. So we will add “double from what is missing”, 10
seconds, to what we were doing: 1:20 + 10s = 1:30.
If in the approach turn you are not established and you fly a long
time on an interception heading, you will fly with headwind and cover a
greater distance. Don't take time into account in these cases.
Figure 9.9.31. Inbound with an interception heading.
REFERENCE TIME
The reference time is what you lack or have left of the minute in
the inbound leg, in the case that you make an outbound leg of one
minute.
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DESCENT
We will use this information to correct for the wind in approach.
If you do one minute in outbound, and it takes 50 seconds in

inbound, the 10 seconds remaining in the inbound is the reference time.
You will get the reference time when you already know the wind
correction. In this case, you would be doing 1:20 in outbound.
Similarly, if after the correction you are doing 50 seconds in

outbound, the reference time will be 20 seconds (in the case you had
done a minute in outbound, it would take you 1:20 in inbound).
To put it a different way, to find out the reference time, we will

turn upside down the rule “Double what I need. Half of what I have left”.
ADJUSTING THE WIND

CORRECTION IN OUTBOUND
Once you know how long you are going to fly outbound, adjust
the wind correction angle again. The more time you spend on this leg,
the more impact the correction you put will have because you are
correcting the outbound leg and the turns, and vice versa.
In the outbound section, we will correct the two minutes of

turning plus the one minute of departure. That is three times the
approach correction. But if we fly outbound during 1:30, those extra 30
seconds with 15º correction will result in an excessive correction, and in
the opposite case, if we fly away during 45 seconds, the 15º correction
will not be enough.
When the outbound time is different from the minute, the

correction we give will also change. We will use less of a correction
angle when the outbound leg is longer and more correction angle when
the outbound leg is shorter.
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HOW TO FLY
242
APPROACH
10. APPROACH
The approach is the final part of the flight, where we descend

until landing at the destination airport. There are two types of
approaches: 3D approaches (precision), which have a vertical or glide
slope indicator, and 2D approaches (non-precision), which do not have
vertical guidance.
Later, in the section Examples of Approaches, we look at all the

step-by-step actions a pilot should take during the approach.
As an overview, during the approach we will lower the landing

gear and the flaps, and we will follow a horizontal flight profile and a
vertical flight profile that will bring us to an altitude where we will look
outside the cockpit. If we see the runway, we will land on it, and if we do
not see it, we will abort the approach.
243
HOW TO FLY
Even if we do not see the complete runway, seeing parts of it

will be enough to continue with the approach. Everything we need to
know is written on the approach chart.
Figure 10.1.1. Approach chart.
On the approach chart, we will see the horizontal profile, which

indicates the route we will take looked at from above. It shows the
headings we will take in each leg. The last leg will be equipped with a
lateral deviation indicator to keep us aligned with the runway.
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APPROACH
Below the horizontal profile, we will have the vertical profile. We

will see the altitudes where we should be in each section. Glide slopes
will be indicated on 3D approach charts. For 2D approaches, we will
follow a calculated descent.
Above in the chart we will have the steps to follow in the event
that we proceed with a missed approach.
Once the approach begins, we will descend at will, maintaining

the minimum altitudes of each section, as indicated on the approach
chart.
Figure 10.1.2. Altitudes for each distance in a non-precision approach.
We will also have a chart like the one indicated in Figure 10.1.2
that shows the altitude we should be at during each point of the final
descent. The numbers above refer to the distance to the approach
station/fix, and the numbers below refer to the altitude we should be at.
If we did not have a glide slope, we would compare our altitude to the
ones in the chart to ensure we were on the correct descent path. We
should keep a calculated vertical speed and check/correct our altitude
during the descent with the chart.
Before beginning the approach, there will be a defined space

where we can do holdings. If we are going to hold, we will be notified /
we will send a notification before reaching the point so that the tower
can coordinate it. Holdings will be based on a radio aid or waypoint.
That point will coincide with the initial approach fix (IAF), which is where
the approach will begin. It is also the Clearance Limit after which we will
not be able to start the approach without being authorized to it and we
should continue/enter a holding.
On the following pages are two instrument approach charts with

a brief explanation of the information they contain.
245
HOW TO FLY
Figure 10.1.3. Non-precision chart explained.
246
APPROACH
Figure 10.1.4. Precision chart explained.
247
HOW TO FLY
AIRCRAFT CATEGORIZATION
The aircraft categorization system is based on the speed the
aircraft flies at during the short final phase. Five categories are assigned
from A to E.
Figure 10.2.1. Aircraft categorization.
TURNS
Turns will be 25º of bank or the angle of bank that results in a

rate of turn of 3º/s, whichever is less.
SPEEDS
As a general rule, below FL100 we will maintain a speed lower

than 250 kt. Procedures that require speed limitations will be indicated
on the charts.
Each plane is different, and the speeds change. The flaps and
the landing gear will also have structural speed limits that we need to
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APPROACH
know by heart so that we never exceed them. Each flap setting will have
a minimum speed below which we will stall. In short final we will
decelerate to a speed close to the stall speed (VAT) and maintain it until
we flare and land.
VAT Speed that we will maintain in the short final, is obtained

as follows: 1,3 x VS0 / 1,23 x VS1G
VS0 Stall speed
VS1G Stall speed in landing configuration with MTOM
VLE Maximum speed with landing gear extended
VLO Maximum landing gear extension speed
VFE Maximum speed with flaps / slats extended
VMO Maximum operating speed
DEAD RECKONING (DR) SEGMENT
An approach may include a dead reckoning segment on the

way to a localizer. The DR route will be flown following a course that will
intercept the localizer. We will manually correct the effect of the wind.
The point of interception of the locator will be the beginning of the
intermediate approach segment.
Figure 10.4.1. Dead reckoning.
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HOW TO FLY
RADAR GUIDANCE TO IAF
Some procedures are published without any defined route after

a fix or waypoint. These procedures are mostly linked to air traffic
controllers who are responsible for providing radar vectors during the
approach in busy areas.
Figure 10.5.1. Radar vectorized approach chart.
In Figure 10.5.1, we can see that after SUBOX we will be

vectorized by the controller.
REVERSAL PROCEDURES
It is probable that the approach will be done in the form of an

outbound-inbound. These procedures will leave us, in most cases,
facing the runway. We will follow predefined procedures that are used
in approaches around the world: 45-180, 80-260, base turn, and
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APPROACH
racetrack. The profiles will be defined by time or by distance from the

station that we will use during the approach ICAO. Doc 8168. p. I-4-3-6.
Figure 10.6.1. 45-180.
Figure 10.6.2. 80-260.
Figure 10.6.3. Base turn.
Figure 10.6.4. Racetrack.
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HOW TO FLY
RNAV T/Y ARRIVAL
In RNAV approaches, the reversal procedure will not be

necessary. In most airports it is the controller who will vectorize us until
we are aligned with the runway, and we will be authorized for the
approach later.
Sometimes, RNAV approaches will be made following a “T” or

“Y” profile. These approaches are known as omnidirectional, which
means we will go to one IAF or another, depending on the course we
are coming from.
Figure 10.7.1. RNAV “Y” and “T”.
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APPROACH
Figure 10.7.2. “T” Procedure.
Using Figure 10.7.2 as a reference, we will go to IAF GJ4Ø1

when we arrive from the north. We will go to IAF GJ4Ø3 when we arrive
between GJ4Ø1 and GJ4Ø2, and we will go to IAF GJ4Ø2 when we
arrive from the shouth. The symbol “Ø” is used to avoid confusion
between the number zero and the letter O.
+/- 30º
When we do not need to do a holding, we will start the approach

directly as long as we arrive with a maximum deviation of +/-30º of the
initial approach segment.
The starting point of the approach (IAF) will have a hold based
on that same point. When we arrive with a deflection of more than +/-
30º from the initial segment of the approach, we will make an entry in the
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HOW TO FLY
hold to face the segment of the initial approach and begin the
procedure. See Figure 10.8.1 ICAO. Doc. 8168. p. I-4-3-7.
Figure 10.8.1. ±30º.
The controller will assume that we will take the most appropriate
actions in each case, which means if we proceed with less than a 30º
difference, and we have the authorization, we will start the
approximation directly. If for any reason we want to do holdings, we will
have to notify them.
MINIMUM CONDITIONS TO
START AND CONTINUE THE
APPROACH
An instrument approach can be initiated regardless of the
reported RVR/VIS. But if the reported RVR/VIS is less than the applicable
minimum, we will not continue the approach:
• Below 1,000 feet above the airfield
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APPROACH
• Through the final approach segment in the event that the DA/H
or MDA/H is more than 1,000 feet above the aerodrome
When RVR is not available, RVR values can be achieved by

converting visibility.
If, after passing 1,000 feet above the airfield, suddenly the
reported RVR/VIS falls below the applicable minimum, the approach
may be continued to DA/H or MDA/H.
The approach can be continued below DA/H or MDA/H, and the

landing can be completed as long as the appropriate visual reference
for the type of approach operation and for the intended runway is
achieved at or before DA/H or MDA/H and maintained EASA. AIR OPS Annex IV. p.
215 (CAT.OP.MPA.305)
.
APPROACH SEGMENTS
The approaches are divided into segments, where each of them
has certain limitations and safety margins. This section details the
different segments and the actions that should be taken in each
segment. The regulations that affect each one are also included.
When we have authorization from the controller to begin the

approach, we will follow the route indicated on the approach charts. You
can descend at will while maintaining the minimum altitude dictated on
the chart unless the controller directs you to do otherwise.
INITIAL APPROACH SEGMENT

The initial approach segment is between the initial approach fix
and the intermediate approach fix (IF). This segment provides an
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HOW TO FLY
obstacle separation of at least 1,000 ft in the primary area. The point

defined for the holding will use the IAF point as a station. In this way, we
can start the approach directly at the end of the last turn of the holding.
To follow a stabilized approach, the wind must be corrected for

both heading and timing. An explanation for this is found later in this
manual.
An aircraft is considered to be on the outbound/inbound leg when it

is at:
- Half scale deflection for ILS/VOR

- ±5º of deflection for NDB
During the approach we will descend through levels indicated

on the charts. We can select the vertical speed we want, but we will be
subject to a maximum and minimum vertical speed limitation, indicated
in Figure 10.10.2 ICAO. Doc 8168. p. I-4-3-5. These descent limitations will apply
throughout the approach.
Figure 10.10.2. Maximum/minimum descent.
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APPROACH
Figure 10.10.1. Initial approach segment in LESO.
257
HOW TO FLY
INTERMEDIATE APPROACH
SEGMENT
In this segment, the speed and configuration should be
configured to prepare the aircraft for the final approach. For this reason,
the descent gradient is kept as low as possible.
If the final approach fix (FAF) or final approach point (FAP) is

specified, the intermediate approach segment will be from the start of
the inbound segment to the FAF or FAP.
If there is no FAF specified, the inbound segment will be directly

the final approach segment. If we did not have an IF specified, the
intermediate approximation segment does not exist.
Obstacle separation is reduced from 1,000 ft to 500 ft in the

intermediate segment.
258
APPROACH
Figure 10.11.1. Intermediate approach segment in LESO.
259
HOW TO FLY
FINAL APPROACH SEGMENT

In the final approach segment, we will line up with the runway
and complete the final descent to the landing or start the missed
approach.
This segment is between the FAF (non-precision approach) or

FAP (precision approach) and the final landing, or missed approach
point (MAPt). The start of the final segment will be indicated on the
vertical profile with a Maltese cross, or on the horizontal profile with the
FAF or FAP indicator. It is also possible that the FAF is not specified on
the chart.
FAF A point specified in a non-precision approach

that indicates the beginning of the final
segment.
FAP A point specified in a precision approach that
indicates the beginning of the final segment.
DA/H The decision altitude/height is an
altitude/height in a precision approach where
the approach should be aborted if the required
visual references to continue the approach
have not been obtained.
MDA/H The minimum descent altitude/height is an
altitude/height in a non-precision approach
where one should not descend if the required
visual references have not been obtained.
MAPt Missed approach point is a predefined point, in
both precision and non-precision approaches,
where the missed approach should begin.
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APPROACH
Figure 10.12.1. Final Approach Segment in LESO (non-precision).
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HOW TO FLY
We have several final approach options, depending on the

guidance we have. The types of guidance are described below.
NON-PRECISION APPROACH (2D)
A non-precision approach has lateral guidance but not vertical

guidance. The descent must be configured manually by making
descent calculations or by following the altitude indications described
on the approach chart until the MDA/H.
The optimal descent gradient will be 3º (5.2%), the maximum

gradient being 6.5% for category A and B aircraft, and 6.1% for category
C, D, and E aircraft.
Within these approaches, the most common will be the

following: VOR, NDB, LOC, and LNAV.
PRECISION APPROACH (3D)
A precision approach has lateral and vertical guidance. The

descent path is normally captured between 1,000 ft and 3,000 ft above
ground and is followed to the DA/H point.
Figure 10.12.2. Glide slope indication in an HSI.
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APPROACH
With the ILS frequency selected in the NAV1, we will have the
indication of the descent path (vertical guidance) in the vertical scale
(GS) of the HSI, and the indication of the horizontal profile in the CDI.
The optimal descent gradient for a non-precision descent is 3º.

The minimum gradient is 2.5º, and the maximum is 3.5º. If the glide slope
stops working, the procedure becomes a non-precision approximation.
These procedures provide obstacle protection, assuming the pilot does
not deviate more than half a deflection on the instrument scale. If the
pilot deviates more than half a deflection, he/she should abort the
approach.
During the glide slope, there will be a glide slope check

indicated on the chart. The glide slope check indicates the altitude at
which we should be at while maintaining the glide slope. It is used to
avoid interception of false glide slopes. As we go through that point, we
will say, “Glide Slope check, 3927 ft.”
Figure 10.12.3. Glide slope check.
Within these approaches, the most common are the following:

ILS, LNAV/VNAV, and LPV.
Depending on the weather conditions, there is more than one

category of precision final approaches for which the crew and aircraft
must be certified.
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HOW TO FLY
Figure 10.12.4. Different approach categories.
PERFORMANCE-BASED NAVIGATION
PBN approaches fall within both 2D approaches (LNAV) and 3D

approaches (LPV, LNAV/VNAV).
Unlike conventional ground station approaches, these

approaches are based on information received through GPS systems
and ABAS, GBAS, or SBAS augmentation systems for horizontal
navigation. Vertical navigation is achieved through baro-VNAV in the
cases of LNAV/VNAV and through GPS (augmented by satellite: SBAS)
in the cases of LPV.
Normally, the final approach will be made straight-in, where we

will line up to the runway and land, or circling, where we will complete
the full approach to the DA/H or MDA/H point and make a turn to
complete visual traffic and land on the opposite runway. If we are going
to do a circling, we will have to communicate it to the tower.
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APPROACH
Figure 10.12.5. Straight-in and circling approaches.
In non-precision approaches, a final segment that deflects less

than 30º to the runway is considered straight-in. In precision
approaches, the runway must be centered with the final segment.
VISUAL REFERENCES TO LAND

To descend below MDA/H or DA/H, you need to have at least
one of the following visual references:
a) The runway
b) Runway threshold
c) Touchdown point markings
d) VASI or PAPI system
e) Approach lighting system
f) Runway lights
g) Threshold lights
h) Touchdown point lights
i) Other references accepted by the authority
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HOW TO FLY
CONFIGURATION
Before landing, we will have to configure the plane by extending

the landing gear and flaps. In order to standardize the operation as
much as possible, we will always configure them at the same point.
As a general rule, we are going to extend the flaps first, the

landing gear second, and lastly the final flap configuration. The
extension of the flaps will make the aircraft rise momentarily due to the
increase in lift force. You will need to counteract the effect by lowering
the nose of the aircraft.
In normal operation, we will first do the flap extension

approximately one minute (2–3 NM) before the start of the final descent
or about 8–10 NM from the runway threshold. We will set the landing
gear approximately 5–6 NM from the landing point, and at 4 NM we are
going to extend the flaps for landing.
Figure 10.14.1. Landing configuration.
We can also do it as follows:
In a precision approximation, the glide slope indicator will move

on the scale. When we have the glide slope 1½ points above on the HSI,
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APPROACH
we will extend the flaps and reduce our speed. When the glide slope is
1 point above, we will extend the landing gear, turn on the landing lights,
and slow down again.
Figure 10.14.2. Landing configuration.
The authorities do not require a precise way of configuration of

the aircraft. We just have to make sure that the aircraft has the final
configuration before the stabilized approach check, which is explained
in the next section.
Depending on the operator and the plane, we will do the

configuration at different points. It should be noted that the landing gear
and the extended flaps create an increase in the plane’s resistance,
increasing fuel consumption. For this reason, the later we configure the
plane, the more fuel we will save.
The flaps have a structural speed limit. Above that speed, the
extension could cause structural damage. If at the moment we need to
extend our flaps, our speed is above the limit, we could first extend the
landing gear, which usually has a higher structural limit, to use the
resistance to decelerate to a speed where flaps can safely be extended.
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HOW TO FLY
The aircraft should be configured for landing at the latest 1,000

ft above the elevation of the touchdown point, which in a 3º descent
would be approximately 3 NM from the touchdown point. If for any
reason we have to speed up the process, we will delay the configuration,
but we will have to be configured at 3 NM/1,000 ft from the touchdown
point.
STABILIZED APPROACH
During the final segment of the approach we will check that we
are flying a stabilized approach, which means that the aircraft
configuration is correct and that the engine and pitch / roll parameters
are within limits.
Each operator should establish the stabilized approach criteria

as described in Document 8168.
As an example, in this manual the stabilized approach will be

checked at 1,000 ft above aerodrome level (AAL).
In our case, being stabilized will mean the following:
• Landing gear down and locked with three green lights

• Final flaps configured
• Landing checklist completed
• Proper power, not idling
• Pitch between 0 and +5º
• Bank angle less than 10º
• Speed between VREF +10 kt and VREF. Never less than VREF
• Vertical Speed less than 1,000 ft/min
• Precision approach: LOC deviation < Half scale, GS deviation
< half scale
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APPROACH
• Non-precision approach: NDB deviation < +/-5º, VOR deviation

< half scale
If below 1,000 ft any parameter is no longer within the limits, we

will have to abort the approach.
There are operators that establish the so-called “gates”, which

require certain parameters or actions to be completed to continue. An
example of this is having the flaps configured before 2,000 ft AAL. This
means that no matter how much we want to speed up the process, we
will not be able to go below 2,000 ft AAL if we don’t have the flaps
configured.
DESCENT CALCULATIONS
When we are authorized to initiate an approach, we are directly
authorized to descend to the altitude MDA/H or DA/H, provided that we
comply with the minimum altitudes of the approach.
The descents will be made differently for precision approaches

versus non-precision approaches. But we have to maintain the
maximum and minimum vertical velocities of Figure 10.16.1 in all
approaches.
Figure 10.16.1. Maximum/minimum descent.
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HOW TO FLY
PRECISION
In precision approaches, we will have to descend from our

current altitude to the glide slope capture altitude to intercept the glide
slope from below.
In the case of Figure 10.16.2, we will assume we are going to

descend from 5,500 ft to 4,500 ft. We will have to reach 4,500 ft a little
before the glide slope interception point (5.8 IALR). We can select the
vertical speed we want for this descent as long as we stay within the
limits of Figure 10.16.1. In this case, we are going to calculate a descent
at 500 ft/min. It will take us two minutes to descend 1,000 ft, and if our
speed is 120 kt (2 NM/min), we will travel 4 NM on the descent. If we
begin the descent just before the turn to inbound, we will reach the glide
slope interception altitude at approximately 7.2 NM from IALR.
Figure 10.16.2. Precision approach.
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APPROACH
If we started the descent from 7,500 ft, we would advance the

beginning of the descent as required, in this case, 8 NM.
NON-PRECISION
In non-precision approaches, we will have to descend from our

altitude to the minimum descent altitude/height (MDA/H), complying with
the minimums on the chart and with the maximum and minimum vertical
speed regulations in Figure 10.16.1.
In the beginnings of instrumental aviation, descents were made

in steps, going from minimum to minimum, but this technique requires
serious changes in power and pitch at each level of descent, which
causes an increase in stress and use of resources. This technique has
been the cause of many accidents into the ground (controlled flight into
terrain), so the use of the continuous descent final approach (CDFA)
technique is now recommended, where a continuous descent to MDA/H
is calculated. Some countries require a safety margin to be added
above the MDA/H in cases of a CDFA descent.
Figure 10.16.3. Step-by-step descent.
The stepped descent is a relatively easy technique to carry out.

We will stay at the minimum altitude at all times. In the case of Figure
10.16.3, as soon as we pass through the VOR, we will descend to 3,300
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HOW TO FLY
ft. When we are at 5.0 NM of SSN, we will descend to 1,500 ft, and when
we are in the inbound leg, at 8.0 NM of SSN we will begin the final
descent. The vertical speed that we will maintain in the final descent will
vary depending on our speed on the ground, which we can read in the
lower left table (in ft/min).
On the other hand, if we are going to make the approach

following the continuous descent final approach technique, we will stay
at 5,200 ft and descend at a constant vertical speed, starting the
descent at a point that we will have to calculate.
Figure 10.16.4. CDFA.
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APPROACH
In this case, we have to descend from 5,200 ft to 50 ft, which is

almost 5,200 ft. We are going to maintain a constant 500 ft/min descent,
so we will need approximately 10:30 minutes to descend. Let's assume
that we will maintain 120 kt of ground speed (GS) during the approach
and 90 kt once we configure the landing gear and flaps.
At 120 kt, we will travel 2 NM per minute, and at 90 kt, 1.5 NM

per minute. With this information, we can calculate that we will have to
start descending 3:30 minutes before the turn to approach, as can be
seen in the upper part of Figure 10.16.4.
After calculating the descent, we will have to check that we

comply with the minimums. In this case, we have a minimum of 1,500 ft
until we are 8.0 NM from SSN and another minimum of 3,300 ft until we
are 5.0 NM from SSN. We perfectly comply with those limitations. If we
do not comply with the limitations, we would have to delay the descent
and apply a higher vertical speed, always staying within the limits of
Figure 10.16.1.
Remember that on the approach chart we will have the

indication of the altitude at which we should be in reference to the DME
distance to the station.
Figure 10.16.5. Final altitudes chart.
WIND CORRECTION ON
APPROACHES
Approaches are usually designed so we have a space to hold
just before the approach. The inbound leg of the holding will have the
initial heading of the approach (+/- 30º).
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HOW TO FLY
During the holds the wind will push us during the approach. In
an approximation by time, we will have to correct so that the approach
time is the same as the one designed. For this, we will use the holding
reference time. The reference time is explained in the descent section.
In procedures 45–180, base turn, and 80–260, the inbound

heading of the hold will be the outbound heading of the approach, and
the the outbound heading in the hold will be the inbound heading in the
approach. For this reason, we will put the opposite correction that we
put on holding. If the approximation had more than one minute, we will
multiply the time by the minutes of the approach.
In racetrack procedures, the correction will be the same as in

the holding.
Figure 10.17.1. Outbound and inbound in holdings and approach.
To explain it in detail, we will use case 1 (tailwind during the

inbound approach) and case 2 (headwind during the inbound
approach).
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APPROACH
Figure 10.17.2. Case 1, tailwind during the approach inbound.
If during the hold for case 1 we are flying outbound 1:20, the
reference time will be -10 seconds. In the approach we will subtract 10
seconds from each minute of distance. In this way, the inbound of the
approximation will last exactly as calculated. If, for example, the original
outbound of the approach lasted 3 minutes, we will do 2:30 in outbound
(0:50 x 3 = 2:30).
Figure 10.17.3. Case 2, headwind during the approach inbound.
If in the holding for case 2, we are flying outbound for 0:50, the
reference time will be +20 seconds, in the approach we will add 20
seconds to each minute. If, for example, the outbound of the approach
lasted three minutes, we will multiply 1:20x3 and make a four-minute
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HOW TO FLY
outbound. In this way, the inbound approach will last exactly as

calculated.
With regard to descent calculations, we will begin to descend in

reference to the point where we have to be at the minimum altitude, i.e.
the end of the approach.
Let's imagine an approach where the outbound takes two

minutes, plus the turn and the inbound. It will last five minutes in total.
We have calculated that it will take us four minutes to descend to the
missed approach point (MAPT).
On a day without wind, the approach will resemble Figure

10.17.4.
Figure 10.17.4. Wind correction.
With today's wind, in the holding we are flying outbound for1:15.

The reference time is -7 seconds. Subtracting the 7 seconds from each
minute, we decide to fly the approach outbound for 1:45.
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APPROACH
If we start the descent in reference to the beginning of the

approach, for example, thinking, “I have to start the descent one minute
after starting the approach”, we will make a correct descent on a day
with calm wind, but as can be seen in Figure 10.17.7, we would fall short
in the descent with today's wind.
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HOW TO FLY
But if we start the descent in reference to the end of the

approach, thinking, “I have to start the descent four minutes before the
end of the approach”, the wind correction will leave the approach time
intact, and we will reach the minimum at the calculated point. You can
also think of the start of the descent as the time before the turn. In this
case, you will begin the descent one minute before the turn begins, 45
seconds after the approach begins.
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APPROACH
Most approaches are limited by distance. In those cases the

corrections described in this chapter do not apply; we must configure
the vertical speed and establish a wind correction angle. Although it is
possible to make exact calculations, due to the complexity of the
calculations, it will be sufficient to increase the vertical speed when we
have a tailwind in the inbound leg of the approach and to reduce the
vertical speed when we have a headwind in the inbound leg of the
approach.
MISSED APPROACH PROFILE

Lastly, we have the missed approach profile. If for any reason
the approach cannot be continued, we would follow this profile. We
should start this procedure above DA/H or MDA/H, following what is
dictated in the chart.
Figure 10.18.1. Missed approach profile.
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HOW TO FLY
In this phase, the pilot will apply the maximum power and raise
the flaps and landing gear with the intention of starting a climb as quickly
as possible.
The missed approach begins at the missed approach point

(MAPt). If we decide to miss the approach before this point, the
approach must be continued until overflying the MAPt point before
starting any turn.
By default, the gradient of climb in a missed approach will be

2.5%. Due to the orography, it is possible for procedures with higher
ascent gradients to be designed, but in those cases this information will
be highlighted on the approach chart.
The missed approach consists of three phases: initial,

intermediate, and final.
The initial phase begins at MAPt and ends at the beginning of

the climb. There are no turns in this phase.
The intermediate phase of a missed approach begins at the

beginning of the climb. Normally, the ascent continues without turns.
This phase extends to the first point where an obstacle-free space of 50
m (164 ft) is obtained. The maximum turn in this phase is 15º.
The final phase begins at the point where an obstacle-free

space of 50 m (164 ft) is obtained and extends to the point where a new
approach, hold, or return to the route begins.
EXAMPLES OF APPROACHES
The previous sections presented the theoretical part of an
approach, taking into account the established limitations, the descent
calculations, the segments of an approach, etc. This section will explain
the actions we will take as pilots when completing an approach.
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APPROACH
CONVENTIONAL 3D
The most commonly used conventional 3D approaches are ILS.

For each ILS approach, we will have a chart like the one in Figure
10.20.1. Let us assume that we come from the 230º course of the VOR
BBI and proceed from an altitude of 6,500 ft.
We assume that the approach briefing is completed.
The first thing we will do is calculate the descent.
In this approach, we estimate reaching 4,500 ft, which is the

glide slope interception height, at approximately 7 nm from IALR. Flying
at 120 kt and at a vertical speed of 500 ft/min. It will take us four minutes
and 8 NM to descend 2,000 ft. From end to beginning, traveling the
section between D7.0 IALR and D9.2 IALR will take one minute, in the
180º turn another minute, and in the outbound section approximately
another two and a half minutes. We will start descending two minutes
before the approach turn, 30 seconds after we establish ourselves on
the outbound leg.
With the descent calculated, we are going to configure the radio

aids we will use. In the LESA ILS Z rwy 21 approach, two radio aids are
used. BBI is used at the beginning of the approach, and once we are
aligned with the approach course, IALR is used. This is an ILS frequency
that has horizontal indication (locator) and vertical (glide scope).
There are several ways to have the indication of the two stations
in the cockpit, the first would be to have BBI on NAV1 and NAV2 at the
beginning and tune IALR on NAV1 during the turn on approach. The
advantage to choosing this mode is we can use the indications of the
HSI at all times, which is the most accurate instrument and the one that
is best located in our field of sight. The downside is that we will have to
change the navaid during the turn to inbound, which will increase our
already high workload.
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HOW TO FLY
Figure 10.20.1. Precision approach chart.
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APPROACH
The other way to have the indication of the two stations is to

select from beginning to end IALR on the NAV1 and BBI on the NAV2
equipment. The negative side is that we will have to use the equipment
linked to the NAV2 at the beginning of the approach, but the advantage
is that we will not have to change the radio aid during the approach.
If there was wind, we would also need to know how to correct

for it. In this example, we will assume that there is a calm wind.
Once we have everything described above, and the approach

checklist completed, we will communicate with the controller to inform
them we are ready for the approach. The controller may also contact us
to ask and thus authorize us to make the approximation.
“Salamanca Approach, HTF22 ready for approach.”
“HTF22, cleared for ILS Z runway 21 approach.”
“Cleared ILS Z runway 21. HTF22.”
With this clearance they allow us to start the approach, but we

still do not have authorization to land on the runway. For this, we need
another authorization.
Once we are cleared to complete the approach, we will go to

the point where the approach begins, in this case BBI.
The entry to the racetrack approaches will be identical to the

holding entry. We suppose that we are approaching the 230º course of
the VOR BBI, so we will make a direct entry, turning to the right to be on
the 030º course. If we had wind, we would correct it by entering a wind
correction angle.
The steps we will follow during the approach are illustrated in

the following figures and described in the following paragraphs. There
are two ways to configure the flaps and landing gear on a precision
approach: a configuration based on GS deflection and a configuration
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HOW TO FLY
based on distance to landing point. In commercial aviation, it is usually

configured according to the distance to the landing point.
Each approach will have its peculiarities, but in the vast majority
of ILS approaches we will follow the same steps.
Figure 10.20.2. Precision approach configured based on distance.
Figure 10.20.3. Precision approach based on glide slope deflection.
As we have calculated, we will begin the descent 30 seconds

after we settle on the 030º course. We are going to monitor the distance
to BBI, and when we get to mile 5.5, we will turn right to the 210º course.
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APPROACH
If we have BBI in NAV1, we will change the IALR frequency from

standby to active during the turn. If we have IALR in NAV1, we will not
change the frequency of NAV1, but we will have to change the DME
reading to have IALR.
The IALR frequency is an ILS frequency, so the maximum

deflection on the instrument scale will be 2.5º. We are going to configure
the final course (210º) in the HSI. During the turn, the locator will begin
to move in the HSI instrument. At that moment, we will make the callout,
“LOC ALIVE”. When we are established in the approach course, we will
say, “LOC CAPTURED”. Being set on the approach course in an ILS
means that the deflection of the localizer is less than half scale ICAO. Doc.
8168. p. I-4-3-4 (3.3.4)
. Once we are established in the approach course, we can
descend below the minimum, in this case 5,000 ft.
It is critical to check that the DME reading we have is that of the

IALR.
If we configure according to distance, at 2 NM from the

beginning of the descent, we will check the speed. If it is lower than the
maximum speed of the first flap extension, we will extend them. We will
say, “Speed check” to emphasize that we have checked speed. Before
extending the flaps, we will say, “Flap 1”.
When the glide slope indicator starts to move, we will say, “Glide
slope alive”. Then when the descent path indicator is centered, we will
say, “Glide slope captured” and begin the descent, keeping the path
indicator centered.
Upon reaching approximately 5–6 NM from the landing point,

we will say, “Speed check” as we check that the speed is lower than the
structural limit of the landing gear and then extend the landing gear. We
will say, “Landing gear down” then check the light that indicates the
landing gear is down and locked.
Approximately 4 NM from the touchdown point, we are going to

extend the final flaps, first checking the speed while saying, “Speed
check” and highlighting the action by saying, “Flaps full”.
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HOW TO FLY
If we configure according to glide slope, when the GS is at 1.5

points of deflection, we will extend the first flap configuration. Then,
when the GS is at 1 point of deflection, we will extend the landing gear,
and finally, when we are approximately 4 NM from the touchdown point,
we will extend the final flap setting.
Then, we will complete the landing checklist. On the landing

checklist, the most important things will be to check that the landing
gear is down, the flap settings are correct, and that the lights are set.
It is usual that at some point during the approach we will be

transferred from the approach controller to the tower controller, who will
authorize our landing.
“HTF22, contact Salamanca Tower in 118.1.”
“With Salamanca Tower in 118.1. HTF22.”
“Salamanca Tower, HTF22 short final.”
“HTF22, cleared to land, runway 21.”
“Cleared to land runway 21. HTF22.”
The closer we get to the runway, the more sensitive the

indications will become, which means that our corrections will have to
be lower for an X deflection the closer we are to the ground.
During the descent, there will be a point where, staying on the

descent path, we should be at a predefined altitude on the chart. At that
point, we will check that the altitude is correct, and we will say it out loud.
In the case of the LESA approach, it will be checked at D4.0 IALR, and
we will have to be at 3,927 ft. If that is correct, we will say it as follows,
“Glide slope check, 3927 ft”.
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APPROACH
When we are 1,000 ft above the landing point, we will check that
we are on a stabilzed approach by calling out, “1000 ft, stabilized”. From
this point on, if we stop being stabilized, we must abort the landing.
When we are about 500 ft above the minimum, we will review

the immediate actions in the case of an aborted landing.
When we get to DA/H, we will say, “Minimum” and look outside.

If we see the runway, we will continue the landing visually.
Before descending below 1000ft from the runway elevation, we

will slow down to be at VREF.
When we are on the runway, we will flare to land.
CONVENTIONAL 2D
The most common non-precision, or 2D approaches, are VOR,

NDB, or LOC based approaches. As in precision approximations, we
will have a chart for each approximation. In the case of the VOR rwy 22
approach, we will assume we are coming from the 010º inbound course
and proceeding from an altitude of 5,200 ft.
We assume that the approach briefing is completed.
The first thing we will do is calculate the descent.
Non-precision approximations are based on minimum MDA/H.

In some countries, the final descent based on MDA/H can be converted
to continuous descent (CDFA), and among these regulations, part of
them will require adding a margin called add-on to ensure that there is
no descent below MDA/H, generally +50ft.
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HOW TO FLY
Figure 10.21.1. Non-precision chart.
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APPROACH
In this case, we have to descend from 5,200 ft to 50 ft. That is a

descent of almost 5,200 ft. We are going to maintain a constant 500
ft/min descent, so we will need approximately ten and a half minutes to
descend. Let's assume that we will maintain 120 kt of ground speed
(GS) during the approach and 90 kt once we configure the landing gear
and the flaps. We will suppose that we will go at approximately 90 kt
from 8 NM to the threshold of the track.
At 120 kt, we will travel 2 NM per minute, and at 90 kt 1.5 NM

per minute. Calculating from the end to beginning of the approach, it will
take us 3 minutes from the threshold of the runway to be at 8 NM (at 90
kt). From mile 8 to the turn, it will take 2:30 minutes. Then it will take a
minute to turn, and finally, the outbound leg will take 6:30 minutes.
With this data, we can calculate that we will need to start

descending four and a half minutes before the turn to approach.
With the descent calculated, we are going to configure the radio

aids that we will use during the approach. In this approach, we will only
use the VOR SSN. We will have it configured in NAV1 and NAV2, and
we will have BTZ in standby, which is the closest station that is not SSN.
If there were wind, we would also need to know how to correct

for it. In this example, we will assume that there is a calm wind.
Once we have everything described above and the approach

checklist completed, we will communicate with the controller to inform
them we are ready for the approach. The controller may also contact us
and thus authorize us to make the approach.
“San Sebastián Tower, HTF22 ready for approach.”
“HTF22, cleared for VOR runway 22 approach.”
“Cleared for VOR runway 22 approach. HTF22.”
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HOW TO FLY
With this clearance, they allow us to start the approach, but we

still do not have clearance to land on the runway, for this we need
another authorization.
Once we are cleared to complete the approach, we will go to

the point where the approach begins, in this case the VOR SSN.
Figure 10.21.2. Non-precision approach.
We are going to fly outbound on the 027º course, and we will

begin the descent at the calculated point: 4:30 minutes before starting
the turn. At mile 13 SSN, we will begin the turn to the right. During the
turn, we will set the final course (214º) in the HSI. The CDI of the HSI will
begin to move during the turn, and at that moment, we will say, “CDI
alive”. When the CDI is at a deflection lower than half scale, we will say,
“CDI captured”. We will continue with the descent until we are
approximately at 8 NM from the touchdown point, where we will check
our speed, and if it is less than the flap extension speed, we will extend
them. We will say, “Speed check” and then “Flap 1” before extending
them.
When we arrive approximately 5–6 NM from the landing point,

we will check that the speed is lower than the structural limit of the
landing gear, saying, “Speed check”, and extend the landing gear as
we say, “Landing gear down”. We will then check the light that indicates
the landing gear is down and locked.
290
APPROACH
During the approach, we will usually be transferred from the

approach controller to the tower controller, who will authorize our
landing. In the case of San Sebastián, the complete approach is carried
out by San Sebastián Tower, so we will not transfer controllers.
“HTF22, cleared to land, runway 21.”
“Cleared to land runway 22. HTF22.”
At approximately 4 NM from the touchdown point, we will extend

the final flaps after checking the speed. We will say, “Speed check” and
the selected flap configuration, “Full flaps” in this case, and complete
the landing checklist.
On the landing checklist, the most important things will be to

check that the landing gear is down, the flap settings are correct, and
that the lights are set.
When we are 1,000 ft above the landing point, we will check that
we are on a stabilzed approach by calling out, “1000 ft, stabilized”. From
this point on, if we stop being stabilized, we must abort the landing.
When we are about 500 ft above the minimum, we will review

the immediate actions in the case of an aborted landing.
When we get to MDA/H, we will say, “Minimum” and look

outside. If we see the runway, we will continue the landing visually.
Before descending below 1000ft from the runway elevation, we

will slow down to be at VREF.
When we are on the runway, we will flare to land.
291
HOW TO FLY
PBN APPROACHES
Flying PBN-type approaches is almost identical to flying

conventional approaches, although there are several aspects that
change depending on the approach. The crew, the aircraft, and the
operator will have to be certified to fly PBN approaches. Capabilities will
be indicated in the flight plan.
Procedures of this type will have to be configured in the FMS,

which vary greatly from system to system.
PBN approaches are subject to enhanced RNAV: required

navigation performance (RNP). It is assumed that GNSS will be the
navigation sensor and, for greater precision, there will be some type of
augmentation system:
Satellite-Based Augmentation System (SBAS)

Ground-Based Augmentation System (GBAS)
Aircraft-Based Augmentation System (ABAS)
For aircraft-based augmentation (ABAS) approaches, such as

LNAV and LNAV/VNAV, the satellite alert functionality, called RAIM
(which requires at least five satellites), must be available. RAIM will verify
integrity and signal. Before each approach of this type, we will have to
check that RAIM will be available during the approach.
Within the PBN approaches, we will have the following types of

approaches:
• LNAV
• LNAV/VNAV
• LPV
• GLS
• RNP AR APCH
292
APPROACH
Figure 10.22.1. RNP approach chart.
293
HOW TO FLY
In Figure 10.22.1, we can see an RNP approach chart that

brings together LNAV, LNAV/VNAV, and LPV approaches. The chart for
PBN approaches is similar to conventional approach charts, but in the
descent minima section, we can see the different minimas for each
approach type.
LNAV
LNAV approaches are the first type of RNAV approach. It is a

type of 2D approach, which means it gives us only lateral guidance, with
a requirement of RNP 1 for the initial and intermediate segments, and a
precision requirement that increases to 0.3 NM in the final segment.
Instrument deviation is linear, which means that unlike

conventional approaches, where accuracy increases as we approach a
station, in LNAV approaches the instrument deviation will indicate a
distance deviation from our ideal course, creating a kind of corridor.
Figure 10.22.2. LNAV.
As it is a non-precision approach, we will follow the steps of a

conventional non-precision approach, configuring the aircraft at the
points defined in the configuration section.
For an LNAV approach with ABAS augmentation system, RAIM

must be available during the entire approach, so we have to check
before the approach that RAIM will be available.
As it is a non-precision approach, the minima will be based on

MDA/H, and we should do a calculated CDFA descent. Depending on
294
APPROACH
the country's regulations, we will have to add a margin of safety to the

MDA/H to make sure we don't go below it.
LNAV/VNAV
LNAV/VNAV approaches are the second type of RNAV

approach. It is a type of 3D approach, which means that we have both
lateral guidance and vertical guidance. Lateral guidance has a
requirement of RNP 1 for the initial and intermediate sections and an
accuracy requirement that increases to 0.3 NM in the final section.
Instrument deviation in the horizontal and vertical profile, as in

an LNAV approach, is linear. The distance indicated by the instrument
deviation remains constant during the approach.
Figure 10.22.3. LNAV/VNAV.
As it is a precision approach, the minimums will be based on

DA/H and we will follow the steps of a conventional precision approach,
configuring the aircraft at the points defined in the Configuration section.
295
HOW TO FLY
For an LNAV/VNAV approach with ABAS augmentation system,

RAIM must be available during the entire approach, so we have to check
before the approach that RAIM will be available.
The baro-VNAV system receives the information through the

airplane's barometric systems and will compute them with the on-board
computers to provide vertical guidance. Due to the error of indication
caused by low temperatures in the barometric system, the approaches
that use the baro-VNAV system will have a temperature limitation,
indicated on the chart. Below these temperatures, an approach using
baro-VNAV guidance is not allowed.
Figure 10.22.4 is an example of an approach that does not allow

the use of baro-VNAV below -20ºC.
Figure 10.22.4. LNAV/VNAV.
LPV
LPV approaches are the third type of RNAV approach. It is a

type of 3D approach, which means that we have both lateral and vertical
guidance. Lateral guidance has a requirement of RNP 1 for the initial
and intermediate sections and an accuracy requirement that increases
to 0.3 NM in the final section.
LPV was intentionally designed to be similar to ILS approaches,

with an instrument indication that becomes increasingly sensitive as you
approach the runway. It has angular deviation from both the localizer
296
APPROACH
and the glide slope, while the deviation of instrument in an LNAV/VNAV

is horizontal.
Figure 10.22.5. LNAV.

DA/H, and we will follow the steps of a conventional precision approach,
configuring the aircraft at the points defined in the configuration section.
The horizontal and vertical guidance is obtained thanks to the

RNP system and the SBAS satellite augmentation system. For that
reason, it is not necessary to do the RAIM check.
GLS
GLS approaches are the fourth and final type of RNAV

approach. It is a type of 3D approach, which means that we have both
lateral guidance and vertical guidance. Lateral guidance has a
297
HOW TO FLY
requirement of RNP 1 for the initial and intermediate sections and an

accuracy requirement that increases to 0.3 NM in the final section.
The instrument deviation in the horizontal and vertical profile

simulates an ILS, where the deviation of both the locator and the glide
slope is angular. The indications of the instruments will become
increasingly sensitive as we approach the landing point.

DA/H, and we will follow the steps of a conventional precision approach,
configuring the aircraft at the points defined in the Configuration section.
The horizontal and vertical guidance is obtained thanks to the

RNP system and the GBAS ground augmentation system. For that
reason, it is not necessary to do the RAIM check.
RNP AR APCH
RNP AR APCH operations are approaches used in demanding

environments. They require a special authorization for the aircrew, the
operator, and the aircraft.
This restriction allows you to fly with a level of precision as low

as 0.1NM.
Figure 10.22.6 shows us an RNAV AR approach at the BISHOP

airport.
298
APPROACH
Figure 10.22.6. RNP AR approach chart.
299
HOW TO FLY
OVERLAY METHOD
An aircraft is said to fly an overlay approach when it performs a

conventional procedure, such as a non-precision NDB approach, with
the help of RNAV systems.
In the FMS we can select the available airport approaches,

whether they are conventional approaches or RNAV approaches. If we
select a conventional approach, the RNAV system can guide us thanks
to the flight directors. As it would be a conventional approach, it will also
be necessary to configure the conventional instruments for the
approach.
Apart from the visualization of the reference points, we will have

the possibility of transforming practically any final descent into a
continuous final descent (CDFA) by means of RNAV system
calculations.
In some countries, converting a descent to MDA/H in the form

of CDFA requires a margin of safety to be added to the MDA/H, which
is generally of +50 ft.
MISSED APPROACH
If the approach does not go according to plan, we will have to

abort the approach.
Depending on when we abort the approach, we will have to act

more or less quickly, because it is much more dangerous to miss the
approach at 50 ft from the ground, than it is to miss the approach at 500
ft.
300
APPROACH
If we find ourselves in the most critical situation of aborting and

approach near the ground, we need to return to a climb as quickly and
safely as possible. For this, we need to do the following steps:
• Go to maximum power
• Pitch up
• Flaps 1 (if we have full flaps)
• Landing gear up (with positive climb)
If the flaps configuration was Flaps 1, which will be the next

configuration to Flaps 0, we will keep that configuration, since removing
the flaps will reduce the lift coefficient and cause an immediate slight
loss of altitude.
We're going to follow the normal takeoff procedures,

accelerating to VX, raising the flaps, and reducing power at 400 ft AGL.
If we abort above 400 ft AGL, we can do the described when it suits us
best, which will be approximately 400 ft above the minimum descent /
decision altitude.
Once we are in a controlled climb, we will follow the route

indicated in the chart and communicate with the same frequency, which
will probably be the tower:
“San Sebastián Tower, HTF22 missed approach.”
“HTF22, continue with the published missed approach procedure.”
“Continue with the published procedure. HTF22.”
301
HOW TO FLY
Figure 10.22.7. Missed approach profile.
If you have to make a turn, never do it before the point published

in the chart. This is a common error that can lead us to fly-over areas of
complicated orography while in clouds, which could cause an accident
with the ground.
302
APPROACH
303
HOW TO FLY
11. FINAL TAXI
After landing at the destination airport, you will be given

instructions to taxi. You need to be familiar with the taxiways of the
destination airport. In the case of Paris, the airport is so large the taxi
areas are divided into several charts; you will have to have all the charts
you are going to use at hand.
In this case, we are going to land on runway 08L. When we land,

we will leave the runway as soon as possible. If we don't already have
any indication to follow, we will communicate with the frequency in which
we are talking, saying we have cleared the runway. If we know where
we have cleared the runway from, we will also communicate it.
“Paris Tower, HTF22. Runway vacated via T9.”
“HTF22, continue until GE10. Then left through TL6 to stand L71.”
“Continue until GE10. Then left through TL6 to stand L71.”
Taxi communications usually have many instructions that we will

have to write down so as not to forget them, so be prepared with a paper
and pen before making contact.
If you do not understand the communication, do not hesitate to

ask them to repeat the information.
When you get to the parking lot assigned to you, stop the plane,
and follow the engine and equipment shutdown procedure.
304
FINAL NOTES
Figure 11.1.1. Taxi route at LFPG.
305
HOW TO FLY
Figure 11.1.2. Taxi route at LFPG.
When you finish the flight, your flight plan should be closed. In
controlled airports, the controller will close the flight plan for you without
being prompted, but in most uncontrolled airports, you will have to
communicate the finalization of the flight plan with the responsible unit
ICAO. Annex 2. p. 3-9 (3.3.5)
. We may have to call by phone or go in person to
communicate it. This is very important if you don’t want search and
rescue services to be deployed looking for you.
With the engine off and the flight plan closed, we would leave
the plane to complete the corresponding actions, such as covering the
sensors or putting the chocks on.
Finally, we will collect our belongings and leave the airport to

celebrate the success of a well-executed flight. Perhaps a good way to
get to know the destination where you have landed is on a terrace of a
local bar with a cold beer.
306
FINAL NOTES
If you would like to learn more or confirm any of the information

described in the book, you can go to the documents referenced
throughout the chapters and read the information from official sources.
307
HOW TO FLY
308
FINAL NOTES
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. INTRODUCTION
2. INSTRUMENTS
ICAO. Annex 10 to the Convention on International Civil Aviation,

Aeronautical Telecommunications. Volume I, Radio Navigational Aids.
(Seventh Edition, July 2018). pág. 3-34. (3.4.4.1).


(Seventh Edition, July 2018). pág. 3-33. (3.4.1).

(Seventh Edition, July 2018). pág. 3-29. (3.3.2).

(Seventh Edition, July 2018). pág. 3-5. (3.1.3.2.1).

309
HOW TO FLY



3. FLIGHT PLAN

Operation of Aircraft. Part I – International Commercial Air Transport –
Aeroplanes. (Eleventh Edition, July 2018). pág. 4-8. (4.3.4.1.2).
notampib.enaire.es. (2019). Icaro XXI. [online] Available at:

https://notampib.enaire.es/icaro [Accessed 6 Feb. 2019].
ais.enaire.es. (2019). AIPESPAÑA. [online] Available at:

https://ais.enaire.es/AIP/AIPS/AMDT_313_2019_AIRAC_03_2019/AIP .
html [Accessed 7 Apr. 2019].
EASA. AIR OPS. (Revision 11, July 2018). Annex IV – Part-CAT pág.
88. (CAT.OP.MPA.110).
310
FINAL NOTES
168. (CAT.OP.MPA.185).


Aeroplanes. (Eleventh Edition, July 2018). pág. 4-10. (4.3.5.2).
https://ais.enaire.es/AIP/AIPS/AMDT_327_2020_AIRAC_04_2020/AIP.
html [Accessed 17 May. 2020].

https://ais.enaire.es/AIP/AIPS/AMDT_327_2020_AIRAC_04_2020/AIP.
html [Accessed 17 May. 2020].

Aeroplanes. (Eleventh Edition, July 2018). pág. 4-11. (4.3.5.5).

Aeroplanes. (Eleventh Edition, July 2018). pág. 4-11 – 4-13. (4.3.6.3).
ICAO. Doc 8168, Aircraft Operations, Vol. I, Flight Procedures. (Fifth

Edition, 2006). pág. I-3-1-3 (1.5.2).
244. (CAT.POL.A.305).
311
HOW TO FLY
255. (CAT.POL.A.305).
ICAO. Annex 2 to the Convention on International Civil Aviation, Rules

of the Air. (Tenth Edition, July 2005). pág. 3-7. (3.3.1.3).
of the Air. (Tenth Edition, July 2005). pág. 3-7. (3.3.1.4).
ICAO. Doc 4444, Procedures for Air Navigation Services, Air Traffic
Management. (Sixteenth Edition, 2016). pág. 4-4. (4.4.2.1.1).
Management. (Sixteenth Edition, 2016). pág. 4-4. (4.4.2.1.2).
Management. (Sixteenth Edition, 2016). pág. A2-3 – A2-16.
4. GROUND OPERATION

Edition, 2006). pág. III-5-3-2. (3.4.2).

Edition, 2006). pág. III-5-3-2. (3.5).

Edition, 2006). pág. III-5-3-3. (3.5.3).
Management. (Sixteenth Edition, 2016). pág. 7-3. (7.3).
312
FINAL NOTES
Management. (Sixteenth Edition, 2016). pág. 7-4. (7.4.1.2).

Edition, 2006). pág. III-1-3-2. (3.2).
5. DEPARTURE

Edition, 2006). pág. I-3-1-3. (1.5.2).

Edition, 2006). pág. I-3-2-2. (2.3).

Edition, 2006). pág. I-3-3-1. (3.2).

Edition, 2006). pág. I-3-2-3.
6. AIRWAY
313
HOW TO FLY
7. PBN
8. INSTRUMENTAL MANEUVERS
Management. (Sixteenth Edition, 2016). pág. 4-15. (4.11.2).
9. DESCENT
Management. (Sixteenth Edition, 2016). pág. 4-14. (4.10.4).

Edition, 2006). pág. I-6-1-1. (1.3.2).

Edition, 2006). pág. I-6-1-6.

Edition, 2006). pág. I-6-1-5. (1.4.9).

Edition, 2006). pág. I-6-1-1. (1.3.3).
314
FINAL NOTES

Edition, 2006). pág. I-6-2-2.

Edition, 2006). pág. I-6-1-2. (1.4.1).

Edition, 2006). pág. I-6-1-2. (1.3.4).
10. APPROACH

Edition, 2006). pág. I-4-3-6.

Edition, 2006). pág. I-4-3-7.
215. (CAT.OP.MPA.305).

Edition, 2006). pág. I-4-3-4. (3.3.4).

Edition, 2006). pág. III-4-3-1. (3.3).

Edition, 2006). pág. I-4-7-1. (7.3).

Edition, 2006). pág. I-4-3-5.
315
HOW TO FLY
11. FINAL TAXI

of the Air. (Tenth Edition, July 2005). pág. 3-9. (3.3.5).
316
FINAL NOTES
317
LIST OF ACRONYMS
ADF Automatic Direction Finding
AFM Airplane Flight Manual
AGL Above Ground Level
AIP Aeronautical Information Publication
ATA Actual Time of Arrival
ATC Air Traffic Control
ATE Actual Time Enroute
ATIS Automatic Terminal Information Service
CDFA Continious Descent Final Approach
CDI Course Deviation Indicator
CHT Cylinder Head Temperature
DA/H Decision Altitude/Height
DME Distance Measuring Equipment
EASA European Union Aviation Safety Agency
EFIS Electronic Flight Instrument System
EHSI Electronig Horizontal Situation Indicator
ETA Estimated Time of Arrival
FAF Final Approach Fix
GS Ground Speed
GS Glide Slope
HSI Horizontal Situation Indicator
IAF Initial Approach Fix
IAS Indicated Air Speed
ICAO International Civil Aviation Organisation
IF Intermediate Fix
IFR Instrumental Flight Rules
ILS Instrument Landing System
IMC Instrument Meteorological conditions
MAPT Missed Approach Point
MDA/H Minimum Descent Altitude/Height
MEA Minimum Enroute Altitude
METAR Meteorological Aerodrome Report
MHA Minimum Holding Altitude
MOCA Minimum Obstacle Clearance Altitude
MORA Minimum Off-Route Altitude
MSA Minimum Sector Altitude
NDB Non Directional Beacon
NM Nautical Miles
NOTAM Notice to Air Men
NPA Non Precision Approach
OBI Omni Bearing Indicator
PFD Primary Flight Display
POH Pilot Operating Handbook
RBI Relative Bearing Indicator
RMI Relative Magnetic Indicator
RVR Runway Visual Range
RWY Runway
SID Standard Instrumental Departure
STAR Standard Terminal Arrival Route
STBY Standby
TAFOR Terminal Aerodrome Forecast
TAS True Air Speed
TOC Top Of Climb
TOD Top Of Descent
UTC Universal Time Coordinated
VFR Visual Flight Rules
VIS Visibility
VMC Visual Meteorological Conditions
VOR Very High Frequency Omnidirectional Radio
VHF Very High Frequency

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HOW TO FLY

Ales Aranburu Juaristi

Second edition (October 2020)

There are discounts for purchases in large quantities or for purchases

Book design: Ales Aranburu

All rights reserved.

And to everyone that have made

The 17th of December 1903,

As pilots, we often face having to study from numerous sources,

I have had the opportunity to receive a very complete and

As a brief introduction to instrumental flight rules, the aircraft

But not everything is navigation, in fact, it is only a small part of

Aviation is a form of transport that carries a very high risk, neither

Operations with engine failure and operations at isolated

Figure 1.1.1. Representation of a visual flight.

Figure 1.1.2. Radio Station.

Figure 1.1.3. Representation of an instrumental flight.

Conventional navigation systems such as LORAN, ADF, VOR,

Figure 1.1.4. Route of a conventional instrument flight.

This type of navigation is impractical and limits resources to

To solve this problem, area navigation, or random navigation

Figure 1.1.5. Route of a RNAV flight.

Area navigation was first launched using sensors such as the

Figure 1.1.6. Satellite.

The biggest advance in area navigation came with the creation

In modern aircrafts, all conventional procedures such as very

Flying a conventional procedure does not require an on-board

Required navigation performance (RNP) is a series of

Future developments will likely include 4D navigation, which will

Figure 1.1.7. Flight management system.

Instrumental flights are divided into phases: departure, airway,

Figure 1.1.8. shows the planning of a flight from Madrid to Paris,

Figure 1.1.8. Flight from Madrid to Paris.

The cockpit of a conventional instrument aircraft will look like

Figure 2.1.1. Cockpit of a conventional instrumental aircraft.

Figure 2.1.2 illustrates a cockpit with electronic flight instrument

The screen on the right is the electronic horizontal situation

Figure 2.1.2. PFD (left) and EHSI/ND (right).

As in Figure 2.1.1, we will have a space to select the

All airplanes are different, and each manufacturer organizes the

If the aircraft we are flying is authorized to complete RNAV/RNP

Figure 2.1.3. Flight management system.

The main characteristics of the navigation display are that it can

Figure 2.2.1. ADF.

The charts illustrate an NDB station, as in Figure 2.2.2. Radio

Figure 2.2.2. Illustration of a NDB on the charts.

When selecting a frequency, you must identify it by listening to

When the frequency is active and identified, we will see the

Figure 2.2.3. RBI (left) and RMI (right).

Figure 2.2.4. Operation of a RMI.

As we can see in the first image, the aircraft is on heading 150º

The RMI indications are relatively easy to decipher. If we only

In Figure 2.2.5, the five upper representations express how the

Figure 2.2.5. Operation of a RMI on a map.

In the vertical direction to the NDB there is the so-called “cone

Figure 2.2.6. Cone of silence.

The ADF mode is used to monitor conventional NDBs. Stations

VERY HIGH FRECUENCY

Unlike an NDB station, a VOR produces 360 radials/courses

VOR stations operate in a frequency range between 108 to

There are two pieces of NAV equipment, which will resemble

Figure 2.3.1. NAV equipment.

Most of the radio aids used to define airways and approaches