INTRODUCTION TO ANIMAL HUSBANDRY

ANIMAL BREEDING & GENETICS

Animal breeding is the application of scientific knowledge to the genetic improvement of animals such as
cattle, buffalo, sheep, goat, camel and poultry etc. The science of genetics (the science that deals with the
transmission of characters from parents to offspring) provides founding principles for the science of
Animal Breeding and hence the name of the discipline is Animal Breeding and Genetics. The topics to be
covered are as follows.

BASIC CONCEPT AND ROLL IN ANIMAL BREEDING

Genetics is the science of heredity and variation and involves studying the structure and function of genes
and the way genes are passed from one generation to the next. The differences between organisms are the
result of differences in genes they carry which have resulted from the evolutionary process of mutation
(heritable change in the genetic material), recombination (exchange of genetic material between
chromosomes) and selection (favoring a particular combination of genes in a particular environment).
Genetics is the most interesting and fascinating area in the field of biology. This is not surprising because
an understanding of genetic processes is fundamental to the comprehension of life itself. Genetic
information directs cellular function, determines an organism’s external appearance and serves as the link
between generations in every species. Knowing how these processes occur is important in understanding
the living world. Knowledge of genetic concepts also helps us to understand other disciplines of biology.
The topics studied in genetics overlap directly with molecular biology, cell biology, physiology and
evolution etc. the study of each of these component is incomplete without the knowledge of the genetic
component underlying each of them. Genetics thus unifies biology and serves as its core. Although the
primary objective of genetics is to understand the fundamental processes of inheritance yet it is important
to many disciplines and has practical application in many fields.

All the cells in the body are descended from a single fertilized egg, which by successive divisions has
produced the vast number and various cell types that comprise the human body. The nucleus contains a
number of worm like or threadlike microscopic bodies, called chromosomes. Every species has a
characteristic number of chromosomes—a typical human cell has 46. In the formation of a sperm or egg,
the chromosome number is halved (fortunately, or otherwise each generation would have twice as many
chromosomes as the previous one). During the process of meiosis, the chromosomes are allocated so that
each gamete (sperm or egg) has one representative of each pair, for a total of 23.

The two members of a chromosome pair, as viewed through a microscope, are identical in shape and size,
with an important exception - the sex chromosomes. In the human cell, the Y chromosome is much
smaller than the X chromosome. A body cell from a female has two X chromosomes; a cell from a male
has an X and a Y. Through the process of meiosis, an egg ends up with a single X chromosome (in
addition to 22 other chromosomes, called autosomes, for a total of 23). A sperm has an X or a Y plus 22
autosornes. At fertilization, chance determines, whether the successful sperm carries an X or Y
chromosome, that is, determines whether the developing embryo will be female or male. The X and Y
chromosomes are not numbered, so the chromosomes of a gamete are numbered 1 through 22, plus X or
Y.

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A gene is a stretch of DNA from 1,000 to 100,000 or more base pairs in length that has a specific
function; usually a gene is responsible for a particular protein. Alternative forms of the gene are called
alleles.

The rules of inheritance can be deduced from the behavior of chromosomes in meiosis and fertilization.
However, before the mechanism of inheritance was understood, the rules were inferred by the Austrian
monk, Gregor Mendel, from his experiments breeding garden peas. Although his studies were reported in
I 65, they remained unknown until the principles were rediscovered in 1900. It was immediately obvious
that Mendel’s hereditary factors followed the same rules as chromosomes; hence the genes must be
carried by chromosomes.

Genes are ordinarily transmitted from generation to generation unchanged. Sometimes, however, the gene
is changed, a rare process called mutation. When a gene mutates, the mutant form is as stable and as
regularly transmitted as the original. Mutations come in all sizes. A mutation may be a substitution of one
base for another, or one or more bases may be gained or lost, or the order of a group of bases may be
changed, inverted for example.

The genes make up only a tiny fraction of the DNA. The rest, the great bulk—about 97 percent—has no
known function. It is sometimes referred to as “junk DNA.” Nevertheless, these non-genic regions show
the same genetic variability that genes do, in fact usually more. These differences are not overt, but can be
detected by laboratory tests. Regions of DNA that are used for forensic analysis are usually not genes, but
rather are located in those parts of the chromosomes without known functions, or if part of a gene, not in
the part that produces a detectable effect. (One reason for this choice has been to protect individual
privacy.) Nevertheless, the words commonly used for describing genes (e.g., allele, homozygous,
polymorphic) are carried over to DNA regions used for identification; It is customary to call the genotype
for the group of loci involved in a forensic analysis a profile.

ANIMAL BREEDING AND ITS CONTRIBUTION

Animal breeding has contributed much to the total improvement of livestock production. In certain
instances, where performance records have been available to direct selection and to assess change, the
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results have been dramatic. Combined genetic, nutritional, and other advances have led to remarkable
success in certain areas. A striking example is the increase in milk production over the past 90 years in
Holstein population of US (see Figure below).

Recognizing that many factors have contributed to this increase, performance records

Through Dairy Herd Improvement have provided unselected data to choose herd replacements and
particularly to guide sire selection. Analyses of production records have provided genetic parameters for
developing effective progeny testing and breeding plans. National programs of sire and cow evaluation
provide computerized listings of sires for use in artificial insemination and cows to be mated as dams of
young males in planned progeny-testing programs. Frozen semen has markedly extended the use of
outstanding sires, some of which have sired over 200,000 offspring. Embryo transfer has been perfected
to the point where outstanding females may now leave 100 or more progeny. For the past 20 years the
rate of increase in milk yield has been about 1 percent of the mean yield per year. Analyses indicate that
approximately half of this is due to genetic improvements: The highest production by an individual cow is
now 25,248 kg of milk in 365 days, milked twice daily.

Chicken used to be a delicacy that was relished primarily for specific occasions, but changes in broiler
production since the early 1930s have made poultry one of our most available meats. In fact, its
consumption per capita has been increasing more rapidly than any other meat in recent years. Dramatic
genetic changes m the broilers and in the systems of rearing and marketing have contributed to this
remarkable change. In the 1940s it took about 12 weeks to develop a broiler weighing 1.6 kilos; whereas,
today a 1.75-kilo broiler can be developed in only 6 weeks. Many nutritional and housing innovations
have contributed to this remarkable change. Feed requirements per kilo of gain have been reduced from
3.5 to 1.9 kilos, largely by improved genetic efficiency and ration formulation. Breeding improvements
from the early use of the available heavy egg-laying strains to the specialized highly selected cross-
combinations of Cornish males and White Rock females have been striking. Larger-breasted, faster-
growing, feed-efficient birds have made chicken one of our most readily available sources of animal
protein. Similarly, consumer preference for meat has changed towards lean meat and there has been
tremendous progress in the past few decades in the quality of mutton in this context.

Since livestock production is an economic enterprise, animal breeding practices and recommendations
must be sound economically as well as genetically. The ultimate goal is to increase productive efficiency
in order to raise the net return to the producer and to provide an abundant, economical supply of animal
products for the consumer. The task of the animal producer is to convert vegetable products (some edible
by humans, and some not) and inedible animal by-products into palatable, nutritious human fqod. Other
animal products important in our everyday life include fiber for clothing, leather, pharmaceuticals, and a
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wide array of other materials. In a world with constantly increasing human population and a consequent
narrowing of the margin of safety between world food needs and potential world production, it is essential
that the conversion of vegetable to animal products be achieved efficiently. The challenge continues.

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ANIMAL GENETIC RESOURCES OF PAKISTAN.
Pakistan is rich in Animal Genetic Resources (AnGR). For major species, breeds as listed below. Apart
from these recognized breeds, there are other strains yet to be documented. Also, few breeds are imported
continuously for raising as purebred or for crossbreeding. Examples are Holstein Friesian and Jersey
breeds of cattle.

Description of some selected breeds

a. Sahiwal

One of the famous tropical dairy cattle breeds is mainly found in central and southern irrigated Punjab
province. Colour is reddish brown which darkens towards the

extremities, such as the head, hump and hind quarters. Hump is very prominent and dewlap is very
voluminous. Its heat tolerance and tick-resistance qualities has been acknowledged throughout the world
as many new breeds have been developed using the genes of this breed. Cows produce about 1500 liters
of milk during a lactation period of 10 months with

4.5% butterfat. Oxen weigh around 500 kg and are generally docile and slow moving. Sahiwal breed has
been exported to many countries including Kenya and Australia. Currently it is under pressure of
crossbreeding and population is reducing. It needs to be conserved.

b. Dhanni

It is a compact bodied medium size draft type cattle breed found in northern and western Punjab province.
Animals usually have black or red/brown spots on a white coat. The average weight at maturity is 400 kg
for males and 300 kg for females. Hump is compact while dewlap is small and sheath is tight. Animals
are sturdy and agile which makes them suitable for draft work.

c. Nili-Ravi

It is world renowned breed of dairy buffaloes. Home-tract is central Punjab province but animals are
found all over Pakistan. Colour is black with white spots on the forehead, muzzle and legs including the
switch of tail ‘Panj-Kalian’ Horns are tightly curled. Milk production for a 10 month lactation period is
about 2000 litres or more with 6.5% butter fat.

d. Kajli

A thin tail sheep breed of Punjab province (Sargodha and Gujrat

districts) having white wool colour with black orbits, nose and ear tips. They have a typical roman nose.
Adult males weigh around 60 kg. A wool yield is 3.0 kg which medium course in quality (fibre diameter
38 micron).

e. Balkhi

A fat tail breed of NWFP having reddish brown or dark grey colour. Top may be white. Adult
body weight is similar to Kajli while ears are smaller. Fat tail is tucked up. Fibre density is low
and wool quality is course (fibre diameter of 44 micron).

f. Beetal

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A black and white spotted goat found in Punjab province. Brown and white spotted animals are also not
uncommon. Animals are leggy with small horns and short hair. Udder and teats are well developed in
females with average daily milk yield of 3 litres. Adults weigh around 50 kg but very heavy animals are
also common at sacrificial celebrations.

It may be pointed out here that these and other breeds and types have been producing and
reproducing to meet the human needs for centuries. Their presence in a certain territory indicates
that through the process of evolution and development they have been well suited to the climatic
conditions, disease prevalence and feed/grazing conditions in that area. Although, some of them
are getting less important due to changing socio-economic conditions, all need to be preserved
not because they have been part of the t but also because we might need them again if
circumstances change. It has also been aco’pted globally that animal diversity will be critical for
food security in future. Once a breed disappears, it cannot be brought back. The best way to
preserve a breed is through its sustainable use as a purebred.

TRAITS OF ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE

Examples of traits of economic importance in various species of farm animals along with the degree of
genetic control (heritability). Choice of any trait depends on the breeding objective.

Traits H(%) Traits H(%)

Dairy cattle Sheep

Milk yield 25-40 Birth weight 10-30

Fat yield 25-45 Weaning weight

Fat% 30-80 Greasy Fleece weight 30-40

SNF% 50-80 Staple Length 40-50

Protein% 45-80 Post weaning gains 30-40

Lactose% 35-60

Beef cattle Poultry

Birth weight 35-40 Body weight 25-65

Weaning weight 25-30 Hen-housed production (day 5-10

1st egg to 500 days

Yearling gain 50-55 Egg size 40-50

Pre-weaning gain Hatchability 10-15

Post weaning gain Age at sexual maturity 15-30

Fat depth 32 Shell thickness 25-60

Muscling score 26 Shank length 40-55

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PURE AND CROSSBREEDING FOR GENETIC IMPROVEMENT
Buffaloes

Buffaloes in Pakistan are part of the traditional small mixed farming system integrated w crop production
and are backbone of dairy industry. About 65% of milk produced in the country collies from buffaloes.
They also share about 2% of draught power. Buffaloes colonies, such as Landhi Cattle Colony Karachi,
are set up around all big cities for supply of fresh milk. Buffaloes are expected to continue to be the main
dairy animals of the country. This is because of liking of their milk and their suitability to perform
adequately both under subsistence or commercial set-ups.

Pure breeding is the only method of improvement in buffaloes. Progeny testing program of Nili-Ravi
buffaloes at field level was started in 1985 in the central Punjab. Initially, tile animals at Livestock
Production Research Institute, Bahadurnagar (Okara) and selected populations of the military farms, were
included in the programme. Currently about 10000 breeding buffaloes are registered. At the completion
of 14th batch, number of tested bulls will be 300. Milk recording is not practised at farmer level.
Identification/branding is, however, done in some of the breeds (for example, Nili) to identify it to a
farm/farmer but to a limited scale. Identification marks used are of different shape and locations on the
body of the animal (ears/cheeks/thighs) and are chosen differently by different tribes/farmers.

Cattle

About 1/4th of the milk produced in the country comes from cattle, though cattle have traditionally been
raised to produce bullocks for ploughing. Herd size is very small; 55% of cattle are raised in herds of size
1-6 animals. Cattle raising is generally under small farmer extensive production system. Progeny testing
program is underway for Sahiwal breed and is restricted to institutional herds only. There is no progeny
testing programme in other cattle breeds. At farmer level, recording is not practised as in case of
buffaloes. Identification/branding is, however, done in some of the breeds (for example, Cholistani) to
identify it to a farm/farmer.

Draught breeds are generally low milk producer. Crossbreds (of Friesian and Jersey) have a significant
population (15%) and are mainly dairy crossbreds with breeds such as Sahiwal. These crossbreds produce
2-3 thousand liters of milk per lactation with reduced age at first calving of 32 months. Performance is,
however, sensitive to management and severe summer makes the management more difficult.

Dairy breeds such as Holstein Friesian, Jersey, Illawara Shorthorn and Brown Swiss (recently imported
by multinationals) have been imported in the country for keeping both as purebred and for crossing with
the local breeds. But as the experimental work mainly used Sahiwal as the local breed, Sahiwal became
the most vulnerable breed for crossbreeding with the Friesian at farmer level as well. Crossbreeding of
cattle for dairy purpose is not new in the region and has history older than that of Pakistan. The Fl were
high priced and produced 100% more than the Sahiwal and calved a year earlier. Semen of crossbreds, for
getting further generations, has been produced in the past but at, a limited scale, This made it difficult to
keep the exotic level of inheritance between 50 and 75%. Friesian bulls have also been distributed to the
private farmers (for example in NWFP) but their survival has been very low. Private ventures, to maintain
Friesian/Jersey/Brown Swiss, still continue with progressive livestock farmers in Punjab and orchard
farmers in Balochistan but have not gained general acceptance because of high cost and dependency on
imported semen. Crossbreeding with other draught cattle breeds except with the nondescripts has not been
very common. Jersey semen (imported and locally produced) has also been used both in the irrigated and
(more) in the Barani areas. Semen from breeds such as Australian lllawara Shorthorn, Swedish Red and
White Chinese Black and White, Australian Friestan Sahiwal, Australian Milking Zebu and Brown Swiss
has been introduced for crossing but at a very limited scale. To locally produce, semen of Holstein and
Jersey, nucleus herds have also been established, in Punjab, Balochistan and NWFP provinces.
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Crossbreeding for beef has been limited. Semen of Charolais and Simmental has been used for
experimental purposes and crossbreeding for beef has been practised at a very limited scale. The attempt
to produce a local beef breed resulted in Narimaster (37.5% Bhagnari and 62.5% Australian
Droughtmaster) but population of the new breed has not exceeded beyond few hundreds and its adoption
by the farmers is yet to be tested. Growth rate in the synthetic has been reported to be much lower than
the standards of beef breed.

Sheep and Goats

All sheep breeds are kept for wool and mutton. Milk is important only in Damani breed. Most of the
sheep breeds produce coarse wool for carpet industry. All the indigenous breeds are well adapted to local
conditions. There has been some crossbreeding with Rambouillet and Awassi sheep to improve body size,
wool quality and twinning. Crossbreeding of K4ghani and Rambouillet (called as Ramghani) continues in
NWFP since 50’s (when Rambouillet was imported for the first time) with the objective to improve wool
quality (make it more finer) and body weight. Baghdale was developed using Hissardale, Darnani and
Rambouillet in Western Punjab for body size and finer wool quality. The Kachhi of Sindh has previously
been crossed with Awassi to produce Pak-Awassi, which is being maintained at one Government farm
each in Sindh and Punjab province. Lohi x Awassi crossbreds were produced and are now restricted to a
Government farm. Pak-Karakul (Karakul x Kachhi) was also developed in 60’s and is being maintained at
a Government farm in Punjab. Recently produced crossbreds are Salt Range x Afghani and Salt Range x
Awassi. A newly discovered breed of sheep in Chitral district (in NWFP), Kari, has been reported to
weigh 20 kg, on the average, but exhibits lambing interval of less than 5 months.

Primary purpose of goat raising is meat. Annual rate of increase in the population is about 3% (highest
among ruminants). Most of the local goats breed more than once a year. Kidding percentages vary
between 100 and 150%. Mortality is as high. as 25% in confined animals. Young males are sold at 10 to
20 kg live weight and adults at 18 kg for the Teddy breed and 50 kg or more for the Beetal and Kamori.
Coiimniercial feedlot fattening has started for flocks where mutton is exported. Among the newly
developed breeds include Pa k-Angora (Angora x Hairy): for the production of mohair, population of
which is currently limited to an experimental station in Punjab. Same is the case with Beetal x Hairy
cross.

Poultry

Poultry has developed as an industry in the last few decades in Pakistan. Yet, about 40% of. eggs and
25% of meat is contributed by rural poultry. Under rural poultry improvement projects, Fayoumi, Dokki
and Mini Red breeds have been successfully introduced. Crossbreeding of Fayounii arid Rhode Island
Red (RIR) has also been conducted for small-scale commercial set-ups. The Lyalipur Silver Black breed
of poultry, developed in the 60’s for rural set-ups is restricted to a research station (Poultry Research
Centre, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad) only. Commercial farmers use modern breeds with White
Leghorn the predominant layer and meat-type hybrids for meat production.

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THE GENETIC IMPROVEMENT
The performance of an individual is affected by environment and genetics. The environment includes
feeding, management and disease control while genetics means the gene combination which an animal
receives from its both parents at the time of zygote formation.

Thus the task of livestock improvement can be achieved in two ways. The first approach is through
modifying the environment. This is the simplest way consisting of improving feeding, management and
disease control which may bring immediate improvement in the performance of animals. Yet, the
improvements are temporary and the animal reverts back to its previous less productive level if new and
improved methods are not continued year after year or generation after generation. The second approach
to livestock improvement is through modifying genotypes of animals. Such an improvement tends to be
permanent when attained, however, it is quite slow. The tools to improve the frequency of desirable genes
(genetic improvement) include selection and breeding systems.

PRINCIPLES OF SELECTION
The term selection may be defined as a force or process by which certain individuals in a population are
preferred over other for the production of next generation. This is an important tool for changing the
genotype of a flock/herd or population.

Selection is practiced at many stages in the life of the animals; some animals are not allowed to be born.
Culling may take place any stage from birth till individual reaches the breeding age. Others are kept for
several seasons but are culled king before reaching the old age. Still others are kept as long as they can
produce any offspring. The stage at which selection can be practised depends on economic factors and
convenience as well as when information needed for making choice become available. Selecting as early
as possible and selecting after having collected enough information may thus be a trade off for improved
genetic gain.

Kinds of selection

1. Mass selection: This kind of selection is based on individuals own phenotype, on single or
multiple records. It is an easy way of selection. Animals are ranked in descending order on the
basis of their performance and some of the animals that rank the lowest are culled from breeding
stock. This is used in selection for traits which are highly transmissible, e.g., growth rate. Yet
limitations include trait to have a high genetic control and can be measured in both the sexes.
Sometimes waiting for inure records to come is beneficial as single record does not indicate the
real potential of the individual. But waiting too long would increase the generation interval and
reduce the progress per unit of time.

2. Family selection

a. Pedigree selection: Selection of animals based, on performance of their ancestors is called pedigree
selection. It is likely to be used when individuals are young and have not yet expressed their own
performance. But even if the animal has recorded performance, information on the parents and other
ancestors can help to improve our confidence of selecting or rejecting them. It can also be used in case of
traits not expressed in one sex only. Problem however, is that sometimes pedigrees are not available or
performance of ancestors was not recorded or people are carried away with performance of some admired
ancestor while sampling nature of genes limits our ability to exactly know which genes were transmitted
to offspring.

b. Progeny testing; It is used in the selection of males especially when records can not be collected on
them for sex-limited traits such as milk yield. A bull or bulls, may for example, be tested are mated each
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to a random group of cows and their progeny is raised till it expresses its performance. As the semen
storage techniques allow the semen to be preserved for number of years, semen from candidate bulls is
stored and used after the results are available after few years when sufficient daughters have been
recorded, It can easily that waiting too long will increase the generation interval which is one of the major
limitations of this method. Also, recording daughters would require an infrastructure and computation
facilities for recorded information.

c. Selection on the basis of collateral relatives: The selection of individuals on basis of information on
other family members (other than offspring and ancestors) may be done on same lines as the pedigree
selection. The only precaution necessary is not to over emphasis distant relatives.

Now a day’s all the sources of information are being used for estimating breeding values (genetic worth)
of individuals and selecting them to be future parents. Computers have made it easier to store large
amount of information and process it at a very fast rate.

Selection for more than one trait

Almost always, animals are not selected for just one quality. For example, dairy cattle are selected to have
more milk having acceptable quality apart from other traits. Selection for more than one trait can be
practiced using following three methods;

a. Tandem selection: In this method selection is done for one trait at a time until satisfactory
improvements have been made in that trait. Selection efforts are then relaxed for this trait and directed
towards the second, then to third and so on. This is the least efficient method of selection.

b. Simultaneous but independent culling method: In this method selection may be done for more than
one traits at a time but for each trait a minimum standard is set which an individual must meet in order to
be saved for breeding purposes. Failure to meet the minimum standard for any one trait causes that animal
to be rejected for breeding purposes. This method of selection is mostly used for selection of animals for
show purposes. Problem is that animals exceptionally good in one trait but marginally poor in another get
rejected.

c. Selection index (or total score method): This involves separate determination of values of each of the
traits selected for and the addition of these values to get a total score for all the traits. The animals with
highest total scores are then kept for breeding purposes. The influence of each trait on the final index is
determined by how much weight that is given in r9la to other traits. The amount of weight given to each
trait depends upon its relative economic value. This is the most efficient method of selection because it
saves superior animals in some traits although, they may be slightly deficient in some other trait.

SYSTEMS OF BREEDING
After having decided which animals to breed from, it needs to be decided how these will be mated i.e.
whether to mate animals of the same breed (and whether to mate related or unrelated animals) or different
breeds. The major kinds include:

a. Random mating: This is the mating system in which every individual in the herd has equal
opportunity to mate with the individual of opposite sex. This is an easy way of mating and requires no
performance recording and may be used when no other choice. Sometimes while testing sires a large
number of mates are required and mating needs to be random to reduce chances of favor to a particular
sire.

b. Assortative mating: Mating involving similar individuals (positive assortative mating) or dissimilar
individuals (negative assortative mating). Similar here means having similar performance in a trait or a
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combination of traits i.e. lowest to lowest or best to best. It is of course difficult than random mating
because performance recording would be required. Positive assortative mating is used to produce extreme
individuals while negative assortative mating is used to produce intermediates. Mating designed to correct
in the progeny the faults in one or both parents is a kind of negative assortative mating (corrective
mating). An example would be mating of post legged stallion and a sickle-hocked mare.

c. Inbreeding: This is the mating system which involves mating of closely related individuals, e.g.,
mating of son and dam, daughter and father, full-sibs, half-sibs, first cousins, etc. This is a harmful system
if practised alone without selection and continued over long time as it exposes deleterious genes. On an
average it results in a moderate decrease in growth rate, productive and reproductive efficiency, viability
and vigour of the individuals. Yet, it can be used to select against a recessive gene and for the
development of inbred lines (e.g. in poultry).

Line breeding, a mild form of inbreeding, involves mating of animals in such a way that their descendants
are kept closely related to some admired individual. This is accomplished by using animals which are
both closely related to the admired ancestor but are less related to each other.

d. Out breeding: This is a mating system which involves mating of unrelated animals. It includes out
crossing, cross breeding and grading up.

i. Out crossing: This is a mating system which involves the mating of unrelated animals within the same
breed, e.g., Mating of a Sahiwal bull from one farm with Sahiwal cow from another farm.

ii. Crossbreeding: Mating of unrelated animals belonging to different breeds or even different species
e.g., mating of a Holstein Friesian bull with a non-descript/desi cow or mating of a donkey with mare to
get a mule. There are many kinds of crossbreeding systems and the success depends on breed choice,
selection within breed, simplicity and sustainability of the program.

In Pakistan, crossbreeding of local cattle with the exotics to improve qualities such as milk yield is being
carried out for the last few decades. National breeding policy allows selective breeding for the native
breeds (such as Sahiwal, Red Sindhi and Cholistàni) and upgradation of non descript cattle through the
use of Friesian (in the plain/irrigated areas) and Jersey (in hilly/rainfed areas) semen.

iii. Grading up: This term demotes the practice of breeding pure bred sires of a breed with less
productive females and their female offspring of another breed, generation after generation. First
generation offspring will carry 50% inheritance of pure breed and second generation will have 75%
inheritance of pure breed, and so on. In this way considerable improvement can be expected among
offspring as compared to their female parents. An example would be up gradation of local chicken to
White Leghorn breed.

The choice of the breeding system depends on the breeding objectives to be achieved and the genetic (and
other) resources available. Generally, inbreeding should be avoided because it has deleterious effects.
One way would be not to use bulls produced on one’s own farm. Similarly, crossbreeding has its
advantage of achieving the increased productivity in a very short period of time but should be used
carefully because well adapted local breeds can be endangered by its haphazard use. Animals need to be
recorded in order to benefit from selection or to execute any useful breeding system. Farmers generally
know what their animals are producing (which may even be difficult for larger herds) but how they are
performing in comparison with others’ animals is needed for proper execution of any genetic
improvement programme.

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INTRODUCTORY REPRODUCTION CONCEPTS
Puberty (sexual maturity)

It is the period in the life of a female when she becomes capable for production and when the
reproductive process begins to function. In males the age at which it can produce spermatozoa (capable of
fertilization) is called age at puberty. In females, puberty occurs before mature body size is attained and
she is capable of supplying nutrients for the growth and development of her own body as well as for the
growth and development of her young.

Puberty is controlled by certain physiological mechanisms involving the gonads and the anterior pituitary
gland, it is influenced by several factors of both a hereditary and an environmental nature e.g. season,
temperature, nutrition, etc.

Breeding season

Females of farm livestock have a continuous oestrus cycles throughout the year if they do not become
pregnant. Although, a tendency of seasonality occurs in sheep and to some extent in buffaloes as
occurrence of successive oestrus cycles in the non-pregnant female is more in a particular season of the
year.

During the breeding season the reproductive functions are the same as in females which are not sea’
breeders. Before and after the sexual season, however, the reproductive tract (see Figure 1 below) and the
ovaries of the seasonal breeding females are in a state of relative quiescence, this condition is known as
anoestrus.

The Reproductive Cycle

Oestrus cycle

Once puberty has been reached and the sexual season has been initiated, oestrus (see Figure 2 below)
occurs in the non-pregnant female in a characteristic rhythmic cycle. The interval between the onset of
one oestrus period and the onset of the next is known as the oestrus cycle. These intervals are
accompanied by a series of definite physiologic changes within the reproductive tract of the female.
Females of farm livestock are polyoestrus because oestrus occurs and reoccurs in a season or year.

The oestrus cycle in farm mammals can be divided into four different phases for the purpose of
understanding i.e., pro-oestrus, oestrus, metoestrus and dioestrus.

1. Pro-oestrus: Pro-oestrus is the phase of the cycle just before the occurrence of oestrus in which
the reproductive system is beginning preparations for the release of the ovum from the ovary.

2. Oestrus: During oestrus under the influence of estrogens, the reproductive tract and especially
the uterus and uterine horns become oedernatous and increase greatly in vascularity. During
oestrus, female show heat symptoms due to the oestrogen secretions. During this phase,
peristaltic movements of the uterus and oviducts occur which assist in the transport of the egg and
sperm. Synchronization of ovum and sperm is necessary for fertilization because the life of the
ovum after ovulation and that of the sperm in the female reproductive tract is limited to a few
hours. The length of oestrus varies a lot among species and may be between 12 to 48 hours in our
farm animals.

12
 3. Metoestrus: Metestrous is the period immediately following oestrus when the reproductive
system comes under the influence of progesterone which is secreted by the newly formed corpora
During metoestrus the uterus makes preparations to receive and nourish the embryos.

4. Dioestrus: If pregnancy does not occur, the uterus and the rest of the reproductive tract regress
toward a less active state similar to that before proestrus.

In the cow, buffalo, goat and mare, the length of the oestrus cycle is 20-21 days while ewes have a shorter
oestrus cycle averaging between 16 and 17 days in length.

Signs of oestrus:

The outward signs or symptoms of oestrus are somewhat similar in f of the different species of farm
mammals, although there are some variations of behaviour between and within species During oestrus a
cow becomes very restless, does not eat, spends little or no time ruminating and in some cases hauls and
search for the males. She attempts to mount other cows and will stand while they mount her. During
oestrus she will stand when the bull mounts and is receptive to the act of mating. The vulva of the cow
may become enlarged and congested and mucus secretions may be seen around the tail head or coming
from the vulva.

The duration of oestrus varies considerably between species and between individuals within a species.
Several factors affect the duration of oestrus in the cows, it ranges from 6 hours to 30 hours with a mean
of about 18 hours. Mostly cows in oestrus early in the morning seldom show oestrus by late in the
evening and cow in oestrus the first time in the evening tend to be silent the next morning. In buffaloes
signs might be less prominent at least in some cases because of silent heat problem. They sometimes go
unnoticed because such an activity occurs more at night than during the day.

Artificial insemination (AI):

Deposition of semen in the female reproductive tract by artificial method. Artificial insemination is one
o1 the most important techniques ever devised for the genetic improvement of farm animals. It has been
most widely used for breeding dairy cattle and buffaloes. However, methods have been developed for
inseminating sheep, goats, horses, dogs and variety of laboratory animals.

Advantages of Al:

1. The greatest advantage of Al is the opportunity to spread superior genetic material through the
extensive use of carefully tested and selected sires. On an average a bull can have 50000 services
a year as against 40-50 by natural mating.

2. It plays an important role in the reduction of various diseases, particularly the venereal diseases,
spread most often by natural mating.

3. It helps to provide more complete and accurate breeding records, which is helpful in better herd
management to over come infertility problems.

4. Bulls used in Al are more carefully and scientifically selected than ordinary bulls of most dairy
herds.

5. Al is more economical than natural mating.

6. It makes possible the mating of animals of great difference in size without any accidental injury.
13
 7. It extends the usefulness of sires which for some physical reason are unable to copulate normally;
it extends the usefulness of aged sires.

8. It is of value in experiments on hybridization where natural mating cannot take place.

9. It may be helpful when used in females who are in true oestrus but refuse to stand or accept the
males.

10. Breeding plan / breeding policy can be followed more precisely.

Limitations of Al:

When properly executed, the disadvantages of Al are few. The major limitation in some areas may be the
lack of sufficient trained personnel to provide proper service. Poor breeding efficiency may occur in herds
when owners do not watch their animals closely for oestrus (absence of bull requires more vigilant heat
detection) and the inseminator can not breed them at the proper time. Use of teaser bulk at herd level
might thus be required for heat detection. Inseminator, if not careful, may become a mein of spreading
infections from one herd to another. Improper semen storage (due to inefficient supply of liquid ni etc.)
may also cause

GESTATION
The period of gestation (pregnancy) begins with fertilization and terminates normally with the birth of a
living animal (see sketch on reproductive cycle). The union of a sperm and an ovum initiates complex
chemical and physical reactions starting in a single cell, which lead to a long series of cell divisions that
continue throughout the life of the individual but vary in rate or degree as the animal matures and ages. In
the first two weeks of pregnancy (period of the ovum) in the cow the zygote retains, its original shape.
The next four w (period of the embryo) are characterised largely by the first formation of most rgans and
body parts. The rest of the time (period of the foetus) is characterised by differential growth, bone and
hair formation and a number of other changes. Gestation lasts for 275-290 days in.. different cattle breeds
while in buffaloes it lasts for 305-315 days. In sheep and goat it varies from 140- 160 days.

BIOTECHNOLOGIES
Biotechnology can be broadly defined as the application of biological knowledge to practical needs. From
an animal breeding perspective, biotechnologies fall into two categories (with some potential overlap
between them). The first category is comprised of reproductive technologies such as AI insemination
(discussed above), embryo transfer, and sex control. The second category consists. of molecular
technologies, which can be used to locate, identify, compare, or otherwise manipulate genes. These
include such techniques as DNA fingerprinting, marker assisted selection, and gene transfer.

1. Artificial insemination

Various aspects of artificial insemination technology have been fairly standardized. It has now become a
practical technology in commercial dairy cattle programs in both developed and developing countries. Al
technology offers certain specific advantages discussed above. Long-term semen storage, without loss of
viability, for use in Al, is another valuable technology for promoting conservation of endangered breeds
of farm animal species, although this technology has the. Disadvantage of preserving only half genotypes
and requiring secure cryopreservation facilities.

2. Embryo Transfer

14
Embryo transfer involves the collection of embryos from donor females and the transfer of those embryos
to recipient females. Typically the donor is super ovulated given a hormone injection causing her to
develop and release more eggs than normal. She is then inseminated, and after an interval of time (the
length of which depends on species), embryos are collected and either transferred immediately to
recipients or frozen for transfer at a later date.

Embryo transfer is considerably more difficult and costly than artificial insemination. Donor and
recipients must be in good breeding condition and, if fresh (nonfrozen) embryos are transferred, ovulation
of recipients must be synchronized with that of the donor. Success rates are highly variable due primarily
to differences in response to superovulation. Some attempts produce many pregnancies. Others produce
none at all.

3. Sex Control

Now a days it is possible to determine the sex of an embryo by physically removing a few cells and
examining the chromosomes. It is also possible to sort sperm carrying a male sex chromosome from
sperm carrying a female sex chromosome, though sorting rates are currently too slow to make sexed
sperm commercially viable. Someday it may even be possible to develop males that are capable of siring
offspring of just on sex, or of whatever sex the breeder desires at the moment. Scientists have predicted
the imminent use of sex control for decades, yet practical sex control continues to elude us. Still, it may
not be far away.

4. Cloning

No reproductive technology has greater potential to change the way we breed animals than cloning, the
production of genetically identical individuals (clones). If cloning becomes feasible, the commercial
herds and flocks of today could be replaced by clonal lines, populations of individuals (presumably high l
selected ones) that are the genetic equivalent of identical twins.

15
Small-scale cloning is possible now in the developed world. Embryo splitting (bisection) is a relatively
simple mechanical technique for cutting an embryo in half to produce twin embryos which can then be
transferred to recipient females. Embryo splitting produces only two (or possibly a few) identical
offspring. It is therefore more a way of increasing the efficiency of embryo transfer than a method for
producing clones. Cloning by nuclear transplantation is entirely different from embryo splitting. Eggs are
matured in vitro and their nuclei are removed surgically. Individual cells from a multi-cell embryo are
then inserted in each egg, producing a number of identical embryos. The embryos can be transferred or
frozen, or can serve as cell donors for repeated cycles of cloning by nuclear transplantation. In theory, the
number of possible clones produced this method is unlimited.

5. Same sex mating

Another twist in reproductive technology with implications for animal breeding is same-sex mating, the
mating of individuals of the same sex. Using procedures for nuclear transplantation and embryo transfer,
and a laboratory technique known as nuclear fusion (a kind of artificial fertilization that combines the
nuclei of two gametes), it is theoretically possible to create individuals whose parents are both male or
both female. Same-sex mating is not currently feasible in mammals, and some scientists think it will
never .work. They believe that chromosomes from both male and female origins are necessary for normal
fetal development.

6. DNA Finger Printing for Animal Identification

16
DNA fingerprinting is a laboratory method for graphically characterizing an individual’s DNA, creating a
genetic “fingerprint” unique to each individual. The process begins with a small sample of blood or other
tissue. Specific regions of extracted DNA that are polymorphic (i.e., that have at least two alternative
forms or alleles occurring in the population) are chemically copied and placed on a gel where they are
sorted using an electric current. The resulting pattern resembles a product bar code. The pattern of bands
represents the presence of. specific alleles at a number of loci. Although we often know little about the
chromosomal location or function of the DNA fragments indicated by the bands, their combinations are
unique for every individual (except identical twins). The banding pattern is then the DNA equivalent of a
conventional fingerprint, accurately identifying individual animals.

7. Marker Assisted Selection for Simply-Inherited Traits

The key to selecting for simply-inherited traits is knowing the genotypes of prospective parents.
Sometimes that is easy. We know, for example, that a chocolate Labrador has the genotype hh at the locus
affecting black/chocolate coat colour. But at other times we can only guess an animal’s genotype. A black
Labrador can have either a BB or Bh genotype, and unless one of its parents is known to be chocolate, we
cannot know which genotype it has until it produces offspring. The best we can do is assign it a probable
genotype based on what is known about the coat colour genotypes of its ancestors. The less certain, we
are about a prospective parent’s probable genotype, the more difficult selection becomes. Selection for or
against a specific allele, particularly When dominance is complete, would be much easier if we had a
method for fetreting out the genotypes of individuals before mating them. Marker assisted selection is one
such method.

Marker assisted selection is ‘possible (at least in theory) for polygenic traits, including economically.
important quantitative traits -such as conformation, growth rate, litter size, racing ability, milk production
But it is likely to be more-difficult than marker assisted selection for simply-inherited traits.

8. Gene Transfer

Gene transfer is transplantation of specific genes from one individual to another using laboratory
techniques. Much of the gene transfer workdone with animals involves the transfer of genes codin
economically important proteins from domestic animals to bacteria. The genetically altered bacteria then
produce the proteins very cheaply. It is also possible to transfer genes within and across species of doni
animals. The most common method of doing this entails the physical insertion of foreign DNA into the
nucleus of a newly fertilized egg.

17
BASIC TERMS OF NUTRITION
Nutrition

This is the science of the use of feed. It includes all the processes by which an animal ingests,
digests, absorbs and uses the nutrients in feed for maintenance, growth, work and reproduction.

Nutrients

The chemical substances found in the feed material that can be used and are necessary for growth,
maintenance, production and health of animals. These include water, carbohydrates, proteins, lipids,
minerals and vitamins.

Feed:

Any naturally occurring ingredient or material, fed to animals for purpose of sustaining them.

Ingredient:

A constituent of feed material.

Forage:

The vegetative protein of plants in a fresh, dried or ensiled state, which is fed to livestock (as
pasture, hay, or silage)

Fodder:

Cultivated forage, such as corn, sorghum, berseem etc.

Diet:

Feed ingredient or mixture of ingredients including water that is consumed by animals.

Roughages:

A coarse bulky feeds, high in fiber contents (more than 18%) and low in total digestible nutrients
(less than 60%).

Concentrates:

Feeds which are low in fiber contents (less than 18%) and high in total digestible nutrients (more
than 60%)

Ration:

Feed allowance given to the animal in 24 hours.

Balanced ration:

One which provides an animal the proper amounts and proportions of all the required nutrients.

Graze:

To consume standing vegetation, as by livestock or wild animals.

18
Browse:

The forage of shrubs and trees eaten by animals.

Carbohydrates:

Polyhydroxy aldehydes and ketones and their derivates. Compounds of carbon, hydrogen and
oxygen.

Crude Protein (CP):

This is a mixture of true protein and nonprotien nitrogen.

Crude fiber:

Fibrous portion of feed containing cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin.

Crude fat:

The part of feed which is soluble in ether. Also referred as ether extract.

Ash:

The mineral matter of a feed. The residue that remains after complete burning of the organic
matter.

Energy:

The capacity to perform work.

Total digestible nutrient (TDN):

A term which indicate the energy value of a feedstuff. TDN is equal to percentage of digestible
carbohydrates plus percentage of digestible crude protein plus (percentage of digestible crude fat X 2.25)

Volatile fatty acids (VFA):

Commonly use in reference to acetic, propionic and butyric acids found especially in rumen
contents or silage.

Meal:

A feed ingredient having a particle size some what greater than flour.

Pellets:

Ground feed compacted by steaming and forcing the material through die openings.

Crumbles:

Pelleted feed reduced to irregular mixture or ingredient in meal form.

Minerals:

The inorganic elements of animals and plants determined by burning of organic matter. (1)
Macro minerals are Ca, P, Cl, Na, K, S, Mg etc (2) Micro minerals are Fe, Cu, Mn, Zn, Se, Co, I etc.

19
Metabolism:

Refers to all changes that take place in nutrients after they are absorbed from the digestive tract.
Building up processes: nutrients used for the formation or repair of tissues. Breaking up processes:
nutrients are oxidized to for the production of work and heat.

Vitamins:

Complex organic compounds, required in minute amount, that function as parts of enzyme system
essential for the transformation energy and the regulation of metabolism of the body.

Maintenance:

The feed cost of keeping the animal alive and carrying out its basic functions.

Supplements:

A feed of feed mixture used to improve the nutritional value of basal feeds. Supplements are
usually rich in protein, minerals, vitamins, antibiotics or a combination of part or all of these, and they are
usually combined with basal feeds to produce complete feed.

Additive:

An ingredients or combination of ingredients added to basic mix to help fulfill a specific need.

Legumes:

A green plant which is the number of family leguminous, having the characteristics of nodules in
the roots, seed in pods and can fix the atmospheric nitrogen in the soil.

Straw:

The plant residue remaining after separation of the seeds in threshing, e.g. wheat straw, rice
straw.

Feedlot:

Large scale facility for intensive feeding of ruminants for fattening prior to slaughtering.

Fermentation:

Chemical changes brought about by enzyme produced by various microorganisms.

Ad libitum:

Free choice access to feed.

Antioxidant:

A compound that prevents oxidative rancidity of polyunsaturated fats. Antioxidants are used to
prevent rancidity in feeds and foods.

Feed efficiency:

20
 The ration expressing the number of units of feed required for one unit of production (meat, milk,
egg) by an animal.

21
NUTRIENTS THEIR NATURE AND FUNCTION
The chemical substances found in the feed material that can be used and are necessary for growth,
maintenance, production and health of animals. These include water, carbohydrates, proteins, lipids,
minerals and vitamins.

WATER

Water is the most abundant and the cheapest nutrient in nature, it is the most essential nutrient,
because life cannot exist without it. The percentage of water in the body of a new born varies between 60-
70% whereas it decreases with increasing age i.e. mature animal body contains 45-55% water. Blood
contains 90% and eggs contain 66% of it.

Similarly, water is also present in plants. Water percentage varies with different parts of the plant,
leaves are the richest one containing about 85% water. Grains or seeds have 20% water on fresh basis.

Function of Water Animals

1. Transportation of nutrients.
2. Helps in digestion, absorption and excretion.
3. Regulates body temperature in warm blooded animals.
4. Lubricates and cushions joints and organs.
5. Chemical solvent for biochemical reactions.
6. Maintains shape of the body cells.
7. |Help in respiration by moistening alveoli.
Source of Water in Animals

1. Drinking water
2. water contained in feed
3. metabolic water (which is produced during various metabolic reactions).
Water Intake (drinking water under normal conditions)

Poultry: 2 parts of water of each 1 part of dry feed

Sheep: 1-3 gal/head/day

Cattle and horse: 10-14 gal/head/days

However, water intake is variable depending upon following factors.

1. Environmental temperature (water intake increases with increasing temperature)

2. Humidity (low humidity results in an increased water intake)
3. Type of feed (high moisture feeds results in decreased water intake and higher protein or salt
level may result in increase water intake)
4. Function of the animals (animals in production i.e. lactating cows, egg laying hens etc have
higher water intake as compared to the same weight of non lactating cows or non laying hens,
respectively).
Water losses from the animal body

1. Urine
2. Faces
3. Insensible losses i.e vaporization from the lungs and dissipation through the skin.
4. Sweat from the sweat glands.

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Water Absorptions

Water is absorbed readily from most sections of gastrointestinal tract. In all species water is
absorbed from the large intestine but the amount of water absorbed varies considerably from species to
species i.e. sheep and camel show excellent water absorption which is evident from their low faecal
moisture content. Net absorption in ruminants takes place in the rumen and omasum.

CARBOHYDRATES

Carbohydrates are a group of organic compounds containing the elements carbon, hydrogen and oxygen
generally in the ratio of 1:2:1. However the above criteria for this group has been widened to include
compound containing nitrogen and sulphur and the compounds that do not conform to a strict 1: 1 ratio of
carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. Because of this, carbohydrates are no longer exclusively thought as
“hydrates of carbon”, but are grouped in a more general category as polyhydroxoyaldehydes of
ployhydroxyketones and their derivatives.

The carbohydrates may be divided into the following large groups:

(1) Monosaccharides: Monosaccharides are the least complex of the carbohydres and do not
yield simpler carbohydrates on hydrolysis. They are the building units for the more complex
oligosaccharides and polysaccharides. Monosaccharides are simple sugar. The important
members of this carbohydrates are Glucose, fructose and glactose.
(2) Saccharides or oligosaccharides: The disaccharides are also relatively simple, being made
up to two or more monosaccharides held together by glycocide linkage. They yield two
monosaccharide molecules upon hydrolysis. Disaccharides are compound sugars composed
of two monosaccharides. The important numbers of this carbohydrates are lactose, sucrose
and maltose.
(3) Polysaccharides: The polysaccharides are complex molecules of high molecular weight
composed of many monosaccharides joined through glyosidic linkage. They yield many
monosaccharide molecules upon hydrolysis. These are the most abundant carbohydrates
found in nature and they serve as reserve food substances and as structural components of
plants. The most important members of this carbohydrates are starch, glycogen, cellulose,
dextrin and insulin.
Source of Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates are available from cereals and by-product of cereal crops. The abundance of carbohydrates
in nature is relatively more. The sources of different types of carbohydrates are as follows:

Starch : Rice, wheat, maize, bajra, potato, ediblearum, beet, carrot etc.

Glucose : Apple, grape, sugarcane juice, date palm juice etc.

Sucrose : Sugar, sugar beet etc.

Cellulose : Vegetables, water melon, custard apple etc.

Lactose : Milk etc.

Glycogen : Liver of bucks, muscles of animal etc.

Importance in Nutrition of Function

(i) The primary function of carbohydrates is structural support of living plants.

23
 (ii) Carbohydrates acts as a fuel of living body i.e. heat and energy is produced on its
combustion.
(iii) When the intake of carbohydrates is more than what is required by the body, the excess is
utilized for the transformation of fats or even for the carbon skeleton of proteins.
(iv) Carbohydrates provide the energy of the body.
(v) The carbohydrates having cellulose remove the constipation. On gram carbohydrate produces
4.2 k cal heat energy.

PROTEIN
The term protein is taken from Greek word proteus whose meaning is first. The terminology was
suggested in 1840 by Mulder, who clearly recognized that protein was necessary for life in a more
fundamental way than could be attributed to either carbohydrates or lipid: “Without it no life is possible”.
Protein are high-molecular weight substances made up of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and
sulpure. Proteins are made of the combination of 20 naturally occurring amino acids in unique manner.
The common amino acid has a general structure as follow.

R C COOH

NH2

Proteins are classified into three groups according to their chemical composition:

(i) Simple protein: The proteins which yield only amino acids on hydrolysis are called simple
proteins. Albumin, globulin, prolamine, glutelin, protamine, histone, scleroprotein etc. are the
important simple protein.
(ii) Conjugated protein: The proteins which yield amino acids and other chemical substances on
hydrolysis are called conjugated protein. Nucleoprotein, lipoprotein, mucoprotein,
cromoprotein, phosphor protein, glycoprotein, metalloprotein etc. are the important
conjugated protein.
(iii) Derived protein: The intermediate proteins that are developed bythe partial analysis of
simple or conjugated proteins are called derived proteins. Peptone, polypeptides, proteose,
metaprotein, coagulated protein etc. are the important derived protein.
Amino Acid

The amino acid constitutes the protein. Unlike plants, animals cannot synthesize all 20 amino acids.
Accordingly amino acids are of two types:

(i) Essential or indispensable amino acids: The amino acids which are not shythesized in
animal body are called “essential or indispensable amino acids” and they are needed to be
supplied through feed for optimum growth and well being of animals.
(ii) Non-essential or dispensable amino acid: The amino acids which are synthesized in animal
body are called non-essential or dispensable amino acid.
The complex protein is converted to simple and liquid amino acid.

The complex protein is converted to simple and liquid amino acid by the action of enzymes.

The proteins that contains the essential amino acid are termed “First class protein”. Such as fish, meat,
milk, egg and other animal protein. The proteins in which one or more essential amino acid remains
absent are termed second class protein or incomplete protein. Such as plant protein. Generally lysine and
methionine is absent in cereals and pulse crops respectively.

24
IMPORTANCE IN NUTRITION OR FUNCTION

(i) Proteins are essential for both structure and function of every living cells.
(ii) Protein replenished the losses of the body and enhances growth of living beings. Protein is
essential for formation of muscles and albumin of eggs of poultry birds.
(iii) Protein acts as a partial fuel in respiration as a result heat energy is produced.
(iv) Protein meets the amino acid requirement of the body.
(v) Any excess protein consumed by the bird can be burned in the body to yield energy in some
what the same manner as carbohydrates and fats.
One gram protein produces 4.2 kcal heat energy.

FATS or LIPIDS

Fats are really the Easter of fatty acids and glycerol. Fats are rich in energy and gross energy value of
pure fat or oil is about 9.4 kcal per gram, approximately 2.25 times that of starch. The fat contain the
elements carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. Fat produce much more heat than carbohydrates or protein. Fat is
solid and oil is liquid at room temperature. Fat and oil are generally of animal and plant origin
respectively. The term lipids is used for all other soluble materials. Excess of both carbohydrates and
proteins are also converted to fat in the body. Generally the inclusion of fat as true fats or oils in the ration
is seldom practiced. It is due to its high cost and risk of rancidity which develop on prolong exposure to
air, heat and sunlight etc. The fat requirement of poultry birds can be meet up by the inclusion of other
feed ingredients (e.g. rice bran, wheat, barley (maize etc.) as they contain 2-5 percent fat. The carcass of
poultry bird contain 9 percent fat and egg contain 10 percent fat.

Plant source: Mustard, Seasame, Linseed, Ground nut, coconut oil, Corn oil and other vegetable oil.

Animal source: Animal tallow (beef), butter, ghee etc.

IMPORTANCE OF NUTRITION FUNCTION

(i) Fat are the concentrated forms of stored energy in animal kingdom. Energy in the body can
be stored mainly in the form of fat.
(ii) Fat supply concentrated form of energy. It supply 2.25 times more energy than that of
carbohydrate and protein.
(iii) Fats provide insulation for the vital organs, protecting them from mechanical shock and
maintaining optimum body temperature.
(iv) Fat that are stored in the body, can be utilized in future.
(v) Fat improves the palability of feed for all classes of animals.
(vi) Fat acts dissolvent of some vitamin (i.e. vitamin A, D, E, K etc.) and help their absorption.
One gram fat produces 9.3 Kcal heat energy.

VITAMINS

Vitamins are organic compound which are essential for development of normal tissue and for normal
health, growth and maintenance. “No animal can live upon a mixture of pure protein, fat and
carbohydrate, and even when the necessary inorganic material is carefully supplied, the animal still
can not flourish” (Hopkin, 1906). Frank established the term ‘vitamin’ in 1911 according to
Rosenberg’s definition, vitamins can be defined as organic compounds required in very minute
amounts for normal growth and maintenance do not themselves supply energy to the body. The
vitamins are generally divided into major groups as follows:

25
 (a) Fat soluble vitamins: The fat soluble vitamins which are usually found associated with the lipid
of natural foods, vitamin A, D, E and K are the fat soluble vitamin.
(b) Water soluble vitamins: Vitamin C and vitamin B complex comprise the water soluble group.
The members of vitamin B complex are B1 (Thiamine), B2 (Riboflavin), B6 (Pyridoxine),
Nicotinic acid, pantothenic acid, biotin folic acid, choline and B12 (Cyanocobalamine).
MINERALS

There are about 40 inorganic elements found to exist in various parts of the animal. Out of these, 14
elements have been observed to have specific function in animal body and the metabolic roles of the rest
is not fully established.

(a) Macro or major minerals

(1) Calcium (Ca++, at wt. 40): Calcium is present in body especially skeleton and teeth in large amounts
than any other cations. Skeleton contain 99 percent of calcium.

Source: wheat, cereals, vegetables, milk, channa, fishmeal, oyster shell, limestone, dicalcium phosphate,
fiard water, bone meal.

Function and importance

(i) Calcium is required for growth, bone formation, blood clotting, and egg shell formation.
(ii) Calcium regulates the heart beat and working on muscles.
(iii) Calcium maintains acid-base balance.
(iv) Calcium controls the irritability of neuromuscular system.
(2) Phosphrous (P+++, at wt. 31): Phosphorus is found in every cell of the body but most of it (about 80
percent of the total) is combined with calcium in bones and teath.

Source: Wheat, soybean, fishmeal, meat meal, dicalcium phosphate, steamed bone meal, phosphoric acid,
monosodium phosphate, defluorinate phosphate.

Functions or importance

(i) Phosphorus have a role of bone and teeth formation.

(ii) Phosphorus is a component of all living cells.
(iii)Phosphorus regulates the metabolism of carbohydrates and fats.
(iv) Phosphorus maintains the acid-base balance of the body and calcium transport in egg
formation
(3) Sodium: (Na+ at wt. 23): Sodium is present in the extracellular fluid.

Source: Vegetables water, fishmeal, common salt (Nacl) etc.

Functions and Importance

(i) Sodium is involved in the functioning of muscles.

(ii) Sodium is essential for the hydrochloric acid formation in the stomach.
(iii)Sodium promotes growth and improves appetite.
(iv) Sodium helps to regulate the body fluid pH.
4. Potassium (K+, at wt. 39): Potassium occurs in blood cells in higher concentration than in
plasma. Never and muscle cells are specially rich in potassium.

Source: Cereals, corn, vegetables, meat meal etc.

26
Function and Importance

(i) Potassium is involved in maintenance of osmotic pressure and acid-base equilibrium.

(ii) Potassium ion is necessary for carbohydrate and protein metabolism.
(iii)Potassium activities certain enzyme.
(iv) Potassium regulates the muscle activity.
5. Magnesium (Mg++, at wt. 24): About 70 percent of the total magnesium is present in skeleton
and the remainder being distributed in soft tissues and fluids.

Source: Wheat bran, dried yeast, cotton seed cake, linseed cake, magnesium oxide or magnesium
sulphate etc. Limestone is a principle source of magnesium for laying hens.

Functions and Importance

(i) Magnesium is closely associated with sodium and potassium metabolism.

(ii) Magnesium is an essential component of bones.
(iii)Magnesium is involved in the activation of several enzymes, usually in the form of metal
enzyme complex.
(iv) Magnesium controls the irritability of neuromuscular system.
(v) Magnesium is needed for normal growth.
6. Chlorine (Cl-, at wt. 35.46): Chloride is evenly distributed in all cells and extracellular fluids.

Source: Vegetable, common salt

Function and Importance

(i) Chloride is essential for hydrochloric acid formation in the stomach.

(ii) Chloride promotes normal growth.
7. Sulphur (S++, at wt. 32): Sulphur is present in all cells of the body. The hormone insulin and the
two vitamins biotin and thiamine contain sulphur. The intake of sulphur is mainly done in the form of
protein sulphur is a constituent of enzyme and some vitamins.

Source: Vegetables, fish meal, meat meal, egg etc.

Function and Importance

(i) Sulphur makes the cartilage, feather and nail hard.

(ii) Sulphur eliminates the Poisonous effect of the body and takes part in various organic
oxidation process.
(iii) Sulphur resists the blood clotting.

(b) Micro minerals or trace minerals

1. Manganese (Mn++ at wt. 55): Kemmerer, Elvehjem and Het (1931) wee probably the first to
demonstrate that manganese to be an essential element in nutrition.

Source: Rice, wheat bran, alfalfa meal, grain by-product, distillers’ solubles. In practice poultry feed is
always supplemented through inorganic sources like manganese sulphate, manganese chloride,
manganese carbonate.

27
Function and Importance

(i) Manganese is necessary for growth, bone formation and reproduction.

(ii) Manganese is involved with several enzyme like orginase, eysteine, desulphydrase etc.
(iii) Manganese is related with amino acids transport across the gut.
2. Iron (Fe++ at wt. 56): Major protein of body iron is present in the hemoglobin in blood.

Source: Meat meet, liver meal, fish meal, green fooders, pericarp of cereals grains, rice bran, wheat bran,
cotton seed cake, linseed cake, alfalfa meal etc.

Functions and Importance:

(i) Iron is necessary for formation of haemoglobin, an iron containing compound which enables
the blood to carry oxygen.
(ii) Iron is also important for maintenance of oxidative enzyme system within the tissue cells.
3. Copper (Cu++, at wt. 64): Copper is necessary for haemoglobin, formation (Hart et al., 1982).

Source: Liver and glandular meal, dried whey, peanut meal, fish meal, cottonseed meal, etc. In poultry
feed copper sulphate, copper carbonate, and copper oxide are about equally effective.

Functions and Importance

(i) Copper is necessary for synthesizing haemoglobin and preventing nutritional anemia.
(ii) Copper is an essential elements in a number of enzyme system.
(iii) The relation of copper with the growth of born is noteworthy.
4. Iodine (I, at wt. 127): Iodine is recommended as a remedy for goiter, a disease result in a
swelling of the thyroid gland (J. Francois, Coinder, 1920).

Source: Fishmeal, meat and bone meal, molasses, stabilized iodized salt etc.

Function and Importance

(i) Most of the iodine is concentrated in the thyroid gland as a component of thyroxin. Thyroxin
is an iodine containing hormone which control the rate of body metabolism or heat
production.
(ii) Iodine influences physical mental growth and metabolism of food nutrients, including various
minerals and water.
(iii) Thyroxin has an effect on integument and its outgrowth, hair, fur and feathers.
5. Zinc (Zn++, at wt. 65): Zinc has been found in every tissue, specially in bones in animal body.
Most of the zinc in the blood is present in erythrocytes.

Source: Safflower seed oil meal, fish meal, wheat standard middlings, etc. Poultry feed is supplemented
through Zinc, Carbonate or Zinc sulphate.

Functions and Importance

(i) Zinc is a component of several enzyme system, including peptidases and carbonic anhydrase.
(ii) Zinc is required for normal protein synthesis and metabolism.
(iii) Zinc is a component of insulin.
6. Cobalt (CO++, at wt. 59): Cobalt is also an essential mineral nutrient.

Sources: Vegetables, legnumenous fodder, liver meal etc.

28
Functions and Importance

(i) Cobalt acts as anti-pernicious anemia factor in liver.

(ii) Cobalt acts as the activating ion in certain enzyme reaction.
7. Selenium (Se+++, at wt. 79): Selenium was reported in 1957 as an essential eliments at low
levels, despite its toxicity in large intake.

Source: Fish meal, brewers’ dried yeast etc. Poultry feed is supplemented through sodium selenite or
sodium selenate.

Functions and Importance

(i) Selenium is involved in vitamin-E absorption and/or retention.

(ii) Selenium plays primary role in the prevention of exudative diathesis in chicks.
(iii) Selenium is also involved in the destriction of peroxides within the cell as a constituent of
glutathione peroxidase.
(iv) Selenium has also been reported to reduce the incidence of encephalomalacia in chicks (Sing,
1985).
BASIC PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING ANIMALS
DAIRY CATTLE:

The dairy cow used feed for maintenance, milk production, growth, pregnancy and work for
which energy, protein, minerals and vitamins must be provided in adequate amount for profitable
production. The ration of the animals must, therefore, contain all the essential nutrients in right quality
and quantity as needed by the animal from time to time. Since not a single food can supply all the
essential nutrients in the right proportion, hence, the animal has to depend upon variety of plats and other
living being for their supply.

Feeding of animals has been regarded as important art from old days which developed with the
practical experience of animal owners. Scientific feeding of livestock came into practice about 100 years
ago. Since then according to the body weight of the animal maintenance ration and for production and
work the nutritive requirement the amount of fed offered to an animal with twenty four hours was called
ration. It can be classified as follows:

1. MAINTENANCE RATION:

The amount of balanced ration which is required to fulfill the maintenance need of particular
animals is called maintenance ratio, maintenance requirement or maintenance allowance. This helps the
body weight of such an animal stationary, which is not growing, not yielding milk and not is working
condition. The maintenance ration has the following functions to be perform in the body:

a) To supply heat for the proper maintenance of body temperature.

b) To supply energy for the proper functioning of heart liver, lungs and other parts of the
body.
c) To repair the daily wear and tear of the body tissue.
d) To compensate the loss of mineral from the body.
e) To provide essential nutrients, particularly the vitamins, for maintenance of life and well-
being.
2. BALANCE RATION

It is that feed or mixture which contains all the essential nutrients in right quality and quantity as
needed by the animals for maintenance, growth, work and production.
29
3. PRODUCTION RATIO

The amount of food or feed mixture which is given to growing, working or producing animals
over ad above its maintenance need, is known as ration for production. This need is mostly met by
feeding concentrate mixture to the animals.

4. AN IDEAL RATION

That feed or feed mixture containing all the essential components of a balance ration which has
got ability to fulfill all the needs of a particular animal when given according to his body weight is called
an ideal ration. It should posses the following.

CHARACTERISTICS:

a) It should contain all the essential nutrients like protein, fats, carbohydrates, minerals and
vitamins in a right proportion as needed by the body.
b) It should be well-balanced.
c) It should contain enough amount of crude fiber in order to stimulate the wall of the
gastro-intestinal tract for maximum secretion and action of digestive juice.
d) It should be non-toxic and easily available in the locality.
e) It should be easily digestible and palatable to animals.
f) Ration should be economical and efficient.
For rationing the livestock for better growth, production and work following general

PRINCIPLES HAVE BEEN FOLLOWED:

1. The ration of the animals should be well-balanced and the feeding should be done at
regular intervals in order to avoid digestive disturbances. The animals should be fed twice
a day in the period of 24 hours. The interval between two feedings should not be less than
8-10 hours.
2. The food material should always be offered clean, digestible, palatable and nutritious
economic fodders.
3. The food materials should contain straw, greens and concentrates so that the animal may
get all the essential nutrients according to his body need.
4. to make the food more digestible and palatable, the coarse fodder like juar and maize
should be chaffed off in small edible pieces while the grains may be crushed well and
soaked in water before offering to the animals. This not only increases the palatability of
food but also the digestibility and reduces the dustiness of food.
5. Avoid sudden change in the diet because it upsets whole of the gastro-intestinal tract
resulting in digestive disturbances and reduction to milk yield.
6. In order to meet the vitamin and protein requirement every milch animals should at least
be provided with 3-5 kg of green feed daily.
7. the food requirement of the animal is calculated on dry matter basis. Cattle consume 2-
2.5 kg dry matter per 100 kg body weight.
8. Out of the total dry matter requirement of the animal, 2/3 rd should be met by roughages
(both dry and green) and rest 1/3rd by the concentrates.

30
 9. if green feed in included in the diet of an animals the concentrate mixture should contain
11-12% DCP. On the other hand, if greens are not available the DCP content of
concentrate mixture should be between 16-18%.
10. If growing and producing animals are not sent for grazing, the 1/3 rd dry matter
requirements of total roughage should be met by non-leguminous fodder/silage or 1/4 th
dry matter requirement should be met through leguminous fodder.
11. To avoid mineral deficiency in the body, the animals should be offered 30-60 g mineral
mixture ad 40-50% g comm0n salt daily.
12. The animal should be fed according to their body need. Feeding less or increases, both
are detrimental to their health.
13. Feeding managers should be thoroughly cleaned before offering the ration to the animals.
14. For maximum milk yield the lactating females should be subjected to individual feeding.
15. Over and above the maintenance requirement, the bull should get 20-30 per cent more
ration for breeding purpose.
16. To make the food more palatable and useful occasionally molasses or Gur may be added
to the ration of farm animals.
17. The animal should get ad labium clean fresh supply of drinking water.
18. In lactating females 1.0 to 1.5 kg of good concentrate mixture is sufficient for
maintenance. For milk production the cow should be given 1 g concentrate mixture/3 kg
milk yield.

FEEDING OF ADULT CATTLE

For the purpose of computation of ration, adult cattle are grouped into several categories
depending upon the body functions and rations are calculated for the following purposes:

1. Maintenance ration
2. Production rations
(a) For milk production
(b) For support of pregnancy
(c) For breeding bulls
(d) For working bullocks
For the convenience of feeding and supply of required nutrients is desired proportion it is
customary to prepare a balanced concentrate mixture incorporating different sources of energy, protein,
minerals and vitamins.

BALANCED CONCENTRATE MIXTURE OR DAIRY MIXTURE.

A balanced concentrate mixture is usually prepared in such a manner that 3.5 to 4.0 kg of it may
support 10 kg milk production. Normally in cattle this mixture is fed at the rat 1/3 of the milk yield (one
kg of concentrate for every three kg of milk) when the maintenance part of the ration is provided
separately.

Balanced concentrate mixture feeding is essential for dairy animal because single concentrate like
maize, barely or oat and oilseed cake alone can not meet the requirement probably. Cereals are poor in
proteins whereas, oil cakes contain very high percentage of protein. If a single concentrate like maize,
31
juar or barely is considered for the feeding of a 400 kg lactating cow yielding 10 litre milk, about 7 kg
grain will be needed to provide the protein requirement (0.07 X 7 = 0.49); when inferior quality hay or
straw constitute the basic roughage; which is not only costly but harmful. Similarly, when high protein oil
cake like groundnut and til are used as a single concentrate, the excess of protein is wasted and the ratio
between protein and carbohydrates is also distributed which appear to affect milk production. There are of
course, certain feed stuff like pulses, gram and cotton seed that may also be classed as a self-balanced
concentrates, when fed tat the rate of half the milk yield specially to low yielding cows.

Limited quantity of energy rich cereal grains is available for feeding of farm animals and a major
portion of this is diverted for the preparation of poultry rations. The oil cake supply is also much less than
the requirement. Under such conditions concentrate mixture of cattle contains larger proportion of by-
products like brans, pulses and some unconventional feeds. Most of the concentrate mixture fed to
lactating cows at various organized forms in different parts of the country contain a cereal grain, a bran
and an oil cake, and it supplies about 14-16 per cent DCP, 68-70 percent TDN or 60-65 per cent SE. All
the concentrate mixtures are fortified with 2% mineral mixture and 1% common salt. This is done since
concentrates are poor sources of calcium and other micro-minerals. With straw feeding as basal roughage,
vitamin A is supplied through a vitamin supplement of fish liver oil. Properly balanced concentrate
mixture, however, is rich in phosphorus, 1 kg of concentrate mixture may contain as much as 4-5g of
phosphorus and 1.5 to 2.0 grams of calcium.

PREPARATION OF CONCENTRATE MIXTURE

Concentrate mixtures are normally prepared with oil cakes, brans, barely, gram cotton seed etc.

Ingredients Parts DCP SE TDN ME

1. Groundnut cake (42% DCP, 70% SE,

20 8.4 14.0 15.0 54.0
75% TDN and 270 m cal)

2. Wheat bran (8% DCP, 60% Se, 65%

30 2.4 18.0 19.5 70.2
TDN and 234 M cal)

3. Barely (7% DCP, 75% SE, 78% TDN and

30 2.1 22.5 23.4 84.2
270 M Cal)

4. Gram (11% DCP, 75% SE, 80% TDN,

20 2.2 15.0 16.9 57.6
228 M Cal)

100 15.1 69.5 74.8 266.0

Thus 100 kg of this mixture contains 15.1 kg DCP, 69.5 kg SE and 74.8 TDN, 266.0 M Cal of
ME, or in other words, 1 kg of mixture is equivalent to about 0.15 kg DCP, 0.07 kg SE and 0.74 kg TDN
and 2.66 M Cal of ME. The ingredients of the mixture can be altered according to the cost and availability
of concentrates.

ANOTHER WAY OF PREPARING THE SAME MIXTURE IS SHOWN BELOW:

32
 S. Feed stuff Parts DCP SE TDN ME
No.
(kg) (kg) (kg) (kg) (M
cal)

1. Mustard (DCP 28%, SE 70%, TDN

100 28.0 70.0 75.0 270.0
75%, ME 270 M Cal)

2. Wheat bran (DCP 10%, SE 60%, TDN

100 10.0 60.0 65.0 234.0
65%, ME 234 M Cal)

3. Barely (DCP 7%, SE 75%, TDN 80%,

100 7.0 75.0 80.0 280.0
ME 280 M Cal)

300 45.0 205.0 220.0 784.0

OR
1 kg mustard cake
1 0.28 0.70 0.75 2.70
1 kg wheat bran
1 0.10 0.60 0.65 2.34
1 kg barely
1 0.07 0.75 0.80 2.80

3 0.45 2.05 2.20 7.84

Three parts of 300 kg contain 45 kg DCP, 205 kg SE, 220 kg TDN and 784 M Cal of ME.
Therefore, one kg equivalent to 0.15 kg DCP, 0.7 kg SE, 0.73 TDN and 2.6 M Ca ME. Similarly, 3 kg of
the mixture contains 0.45 kg DCP, 2.05 kg SE, 2.20 kg TDN and 7.84 M Cal ME.

Several concentrate mixture can be worked out where the content of DCP per kg may vary from
0.13 to 0.2 kg, SE from 0.06 to 0.7 kg, TDN from 0.65 to 0.75 and ME 2.3 to 2.6 M Cal.

When minimum value of 0.13 kg DCP per kg is considered abut 4 kg will be needed to satisfy the
nutrient requirements for 10 kg of milk (4 X 0.13 = 0.52). When, however, a concentrate mixture of 0.2
kg DCP is taken, 4 kg should provide 4 X 0.2 = 0.8 kg DCP instead of 0.52 kg.

FEEDING PREGNANT BOVINES:

For good cows, it is very important that an extra allowance, over and above maintenance should
be given during the last 2-3 months of their pregnancy. The calculated requirement of pregnant cows is
advanced stage of pregnancy are given in Table. The values have been calculated providing the extra
nutrients for gestation of two different classes of bovines. In class A, female expected to produce more
than 1000 kg milk per lactation and in class B, those with a potential of less 1000 kg per lactation have
been considered. The quantity of concentrate mixture should be fixed on the basis of the feeding value of
forage and milk yield of cow and ca be calculated at the rate of 0.1 per cent of expected lactation nal yield
e.g., a cow expected to yield 2000 kg milk during a lactation period should be fed 2 kg concentrate
mixture daily over and above the maintenance requirements.

33
Table. 6 Nutrient requirements of pregnant cow during the last quarter of pregnancy (by sent et al.,
1978)

Body weight More than 1000 kg Less than 1000 kg

DM DCP TDN DM DCP TDN

Kg (kg) (kg) (kg) (kg) (kg) (kg)

150 3-3.5 0.342 2.62 2.5-3 0.222 1.97

200 3-4 0.388 3.06 3-0.3.5 0.268 2.36

250 4-5 0.408 3.42 3.5-4 0.288 2.72

300 5-6 0.737 3.76 4.0-5 0.317 3.06

400 7-8 0.494 4.43 6.0-7 0.374 3.73

500 8-10 0.536 5.09 7.0-8 0.416 4.39

An American recommendation as given by Morrison for pregnancy over and above maintenance
allowance are shown below:

34
 DM TDN Ca P Carotene

(kg) (kg) (g) (g) (Mg)

1. Small cow 0.23-2.25 2.3-2.5 10.4 6.4 24.0

2. 450 kg cow 0.25-0.27 2.5-2.7 13.0 8.0 30.0

3. Large cow 0.30-0.32 3.2-3.5 15.61 9.6 36.0

In various dairy farm of this country, an allowance of about 1.5 to 2.0 kg of concentrate mixture
is provided to cow over and above maintenance, depending on their body condition anticipated milk yield
in the lactation to follow.

It is advisable to administer a mild purgative when the time of calving seems at hand and to feed
only a light ration during the first few days after calving.

FEEDING OF COW AFTER CALVING:

High protein feed; especially oil cakes may be avoided within the next few days after calving.
Feeds that tend to stimulate milk secretion at this stage is considered harmful. However, when this period
is over the cow should be fed accordingly to her requirement. During this period they should be increase
day by day to conform to milk yield and since the milk flow increases steadily during the first 3-5 weeks
after calving, it is of advantage to feed 1-2 kg of concentrate beyond the daily amount calculated on the
basis of actual yield.

FEED FORMULATION (Practical)

Sample Techniques in ration formulation

The techniques presented here will allow formulation of simple mixtures on the basis of a single
nutrient (protein). These techniques can also be used with other procedures to accomplish more complex
formulation of complete rations. Our approach shall be to first learn the techniques as applied to simple
formulations and then apply variations which will allow their application to more complex formulations.

A. Using two protein sources

Formulate 100 lb of a ration for calves containing 16% crude protein (CP). The feeds to be used
are corn (9% CP) and cotton seed meal (CSM) containing 40% crude protein.

Person square another technique to accomplish the same objective

a. Place the percent protein desired in the combination of the two fees in the center of a
square and the percent protein content of each feed at the left corner.
Corn% 9 24 parts of corn

35
 16%

C.S.M. % 40 7 parts of C.S.M.

_______________

31 Total Parts

b. Subtract diagonally across the square, the smaller number from the larger without regard
to sign.
c. The parts of each feed can be expressed as a % age of the total and these percents can be
applied to any quantity.
24 parts corn X 100 = 77.4% corn and

------------------------

31 total parts

7.0 part C.S.M. X 100 = 22.6 C.S.M

---------------------------

31 total parts

Percent of corn in said ration = 77.4 lb

Percent of C.S.M in ration = 22.6 lb

d. Check the Protein

77.4 lb corn X 9% CP = 6.96 lb CP

22.6 lb CSM X 40% = 9.04 lb CP

Total = 16.00 lb CP

36
FORMULATION OF RATION

The ration should be 1) Balanced 2) Economical and 3) Efficient 4) Palatable.

1. For Balanced Ration

The daily maintenance requirement is met with roughages. The protein content of green fooder is
sufficient to provide need of protein in ruminants. When the animal is in production state then the
requirement of protein should be met by feeding concentrates (lactating cow/buffalo).

2. Economical

Economics of ration plays a vital role in animal production. For the preparation of economical
ration, the cheap sources like wheat straw, molasses, and rice polishing etc. should be used.

3. Efficient

If the animal is producing maximum and is consuming relatively lesser feed, it is called as an
efficient ration.

4. Palatable

Feed intake is positive correlated with the palatability of ration.

37
EXAMPLE

Formulate a balanced ration for a new lactating 20 Lbs of milk daily with butter fat 4.5%. The
data for feed ingredients and the requirement of cow is as under:

DP% TDN%

Maintenance Requirement 0.66 7.05

Production requirement/lb of milk 0.054 0.36

Chemical Composition

Available ingredients DP% TDN%

Green Berseem 2.2 10.0

Wheat Straw - 45.0

Cottonseed cake 18.0 70.0

Molasses - 69.5

METHODS

1. Calculate the quantity of green berseem to meet the protein requirement of maintenance.
Requirement of Animal ®

Quantity (Q) = ----------------------------------------------------- X 100

Chemical composition of feedstuff (CC)

6.6 X 100

Q of Berseem = ------------------------- = 30 lbs

2.2

2. Subtract the TDN from the total maintenance requirement of TDN.

Total Maintenance requirement of TDN = 7.05 TDN

100 lbs green berseem = 10 TDN

30 lbs green berseem = 3.0 TDN

7.05-3 = 4.05 (to be met by wheat straw)

3. Q = R/CC X 100

38
 Quantity of wheat straw = 4.05/45 X 100 = 9.0 Lbs

4. For production multiply the amount of milk with the requirement of production
DP = (0.054 X 20 Lbs milk = 1.08) meet the requirement by cottonseed cake.

5. Quantity of cottonseed Cake = 1.08/18 X 100 = 6.0 Lbs.

Quantity of TDN of cottonseed cake = 6 X 70 = 4.2.

6. Total production requirement of TDN = (0.036 X 20 Lbs milk = 7.2)

Subtract from total TDN (7.2 – 4.2) = 3.0 (meet the requirement of molasses).

7. Quantity of molasses = 3/69.5 X 100 = 4.32 Lbs.

ANSWER

Green = 30 Lbs.

Wheat straw = 9.0 Lbs.

Cottonseed Cake = 6.0 Lbs.

Molasses = 4.32 Lbs.

39
NUTRIENT REQUIREMENTS OF DIFFERENT CLASSES OF LIVESTOCK

Class Live D.P TDN Ca P Carotene

St. lbs lbs lbs mg/lb
lbs Lb

Dairy Cows (Maintenance) 700 0.48 5.8 0.015 0.015 42

750 0.51 6.2 0.017 0.017 42

800 0.51 6.5 0.018 0.018 51

850 0.56 6.9 0.019 0.019 54

900 0.60 7.2 0.020 0.020 57

950 0.65 7.6 0.021 0.021 60

1000 0.65 7.9 0.022 0.022

Buffaloes (Maintenance) 700 0.623 7.20 0.015 0.015 42

800 0.687 7.93 0.015 0.015 42

900 0.749 8.65 0.020 0.020 54

1000 0.800 9.31 0.022 0.022 60

1100 0.872 10.05 0.024 0.024 66

1200 0.935 10.76 0.026 0.026 72

1300 0.998 11.47 0.029 0.029 78

1400 1.061 12.18 0.31 0.31 84

Dairy Cows / Buffaloes B.F. 3.0 0.045 0.30 0.0022 0.0017 -

% (per lb of milk)
3.5 0.048 0.32 0.0022 0.0017 -

4.0 0.052 0.35 0.0022 0.0017 -

4.5 0.054 0.37 - - -

5.0 0.058 0.40 - - -

5.5 0.062 0.42 - - -

6.0 0.064 0.44 - - -

40
Additional Allowances for 800 0.55 5.5 0.023 0.014 24
Last 2-3 months of
Pregnancy 1000 0.60 6.0 0.029 0.018 30

1200 0.70 7.0 0.031 0.021 36

Working Buffaloes B.P. 600 0.80 8.30 0.021 0.041 24

(Production/lb)
700 0.85 9.00 0.014 0.016 28

800 0.90 9.80 0.016 0.018 32

900 0.95 10.50 0.018 0.020 36

1000 1.00 11.30 0.020 0.022 40

1100 1.05 12.00 0.022 0.024 44

1200 1.10 12.80 0.024 0.026 48

Fattening Calves 400 1.15 8.60 0.044 0.033 25

500 1.26 10.20 - 0.035 30

600 1.37 11.80 - 0.037 35

700 1.52 13.20 - 0.40 48

800 1.68 14.40 - 0.40 48

900 1.82 15.50 - 0.40 50

1000 1.91 18.00 - 0.044 55

Fattening Lambs 50 0.19 1.50 0.005 0.005 3.0

60 0.21 1.80 0.006 - 3.6

70 0.23 2.00 - - 4.2

80 0.24 2.10 - - 4.8

90 0.25 2.20 - - 5.4

100 0.26 2.30 - - 5.0

Horses (Medium work) 600 0.70 8.80 0.022 0.024 30

800 0.80 11.00 0.027 0.030 40

1000 1.00 13.00 0.030 0.34 50

1200 1.10 14.00 0.35 0.39 60

41
FEEDING STANDARDS

Feeding standards and nutritional allowances are tables, showing the amounts of food and
specific nutrients which should be provided to different species for various purpose such as growth,
fattening, reproduction, lactation, or strenuous exercise. Thy survey as guides in feeding animals and in
estimating the adequacy of feed intakes and of feed supplies for groups of animals or people.

Salient features of different feeding standards

Type of Feeding Standard Year Salient features

1. Bohimia 1725 Mentioned comparison of hay. His opinion

is associated with Thaer.

2. Einhof 1808 Efforts to determine nutritive value of feeds

treated with water, dilute acids and alkali,
alcohol were made. He isolated the fiber
from straw, barely, Lentils and Bean.

3. Albrecht Taer (Concept of
hay equivalence on
extraction of feed material
with water and other
solvent was given)
1810 100 lbs of medow hay = 91 lbs dry berseem
= 200 lbs of potato. Medow hay was used
as unit for comparison with no information
of chemical value of feeds.

4. Scandinavian (common
grain like maize,
where/barely were used as a
unit of comparison)
1984 One feed unit for 150 lbs of body weight
and additional 1 unit for every 3 lbs of
milk. 100 lbs of body wt: requires 0.65 lbs
crude protein (CP) and add 0.05 lbs CP for
one lb. of milk production

5. Gruven’s (Total amount of 1859 Cow of 100 lbs body wt. needs dry matter
protein, CHO, fats (DM) 28.7, crude protein 2.67, crude fibre
measured by analysis) 0.86 & crude carbo 14.55 lbs.

6. Woiff’s (Ratio of dig. 1864 Cow of 1000 lbs body weight needs DM.
Protein, carbo, Measured as 24.5, Digestible crude protein (DCP) 2.5,
“Albuminoid ratio” i.e. Digestible crude fiber (CF) 0.4 and Dig.
Nutritive ratio Carbohydrates 12.5 lbs.

7. Kuhn’s 1867 Separate requirement for growth

maintenance, production and work were
given.

8. Julius Kubus 1887 Based DM of ration needed for

maintenance, production and work were
42
 given.

9. Wolff’s lehmann (Based
1896 on milk prod. And fat
percentage of milk)
1896 A cow for 1000 lbs body wt. requires DM.
18, DCP. 0.7, CF. 0.1, carbohydrate, 8 lbs.
For maintenance purpose: but for
maintenance = production needs DM. 25,
DCP, 1.6 CF. 0.3 and carbohydrates 1 lbs.

10. Haecker’s (Based on milk 1903 A cow of 900 lbs requires DCP. 0.07, CF.
1903 prod. And fat percent 0.1, carbohydrates 10 lbs.
of milk)

11. Kellner’s 1907 Based on such equivalent, 1 lb DCP, 0.63,

Dig. Carbo. 6.3, Fat. 0.09 and TDN. 7.132
for maintenance and for production of milk,
4% Dig. Carbo and 0.314 TDN are
required.

12. Savage (Suggested 1912 1000 lbs of body weight needs, 0.7 lbs DCP
modification in Haecker’s) and 7.925 lbs TDN.

13. Armsby 1917 Based on Dig. True Protein and net energy
value.

14. Morrison (Based on size of 1915 Publish feeding standards in his book
animal. Also include Ca, P, entitled “Feeds and Feeding” 1st Ed.
Carotene and Vit. D.
Requirement.

1936 Revised feeding standard.

1956 Revised feeding standards.

1945 Requirements of Nutrient were based on

modified Morrison’s feeding standard on
DCP and TDN.

15. NRC (Based on size of 1970 Revised feeding standard.

animal. Also include Ca, P,
carotene and Vit. D.
requirement

16. Agric. Res. Council (ARC) 1965-67 Based on starch equivalent and net energy
values.

ADVANTAGES OF FEEDING STANDARDS:

1. Serves as a general guide of feeding of livestock.

2. Useful for practical feeding purpose.

43
 3. Gives an idea about total feed and nutrient requirement of energy specific for physiological
functions.
4. Useful in planning the experiments and interpreting the result depending upon nature and
objective of the investigation.
5. Useful for calculation of total requirement of herd and thus helps in planning of feeding
standards schedule for future.
6. Being flexible feeding standards can be modified as per demands, availability and cost of
feeding stuffs.

LIMITATION OF FEEDING STANDARDS:

1. Can not give exact needs to individual animals.

2. Unable to indicate whether or not the animals are fed properly.
3. Cannot become complete guide to feeding of animals and hence difficult to use as a rule.
4. May not be useful under the situation where palatability and physical nature of fed alters
in voluntary intake and thus it’s requirement.
5. Environment and climate changes can alter the nutrient metabolism and therefore, these
can not be useful in all such conditions.
6. It may change according to genetic make up.
7. No useful measures of food energy is given.
8. Factors such as biological value amino acid composition, available minerals and vitamins
etc. are not taken into account.
9. Modifications are needed according to availability of feeds and also as per economic
factors.

44
INTRODUCTION TO POULTRY SCIENCE

POULTRY

The term poultry is designated to those species of birds, which are economical and can reproduce
freely under human care. It includes chickens, ducks, turkeys, pheasants, pigeons, guinea fowl and
partridges etc.

POULTRY SCIENCE

Poultry science is the study of principles and practices involved in the production and marketing of
poultry and its products. It includes breeding, housing, incubation, brooding, rearing, feeding, disease
control and marketing but generally term “Poultry” is used only for chickens, which serve as most
economical source of animal protein food and zoologically are named as Gallus domesticus.

BROILER

Broilers are those fast growing poultry birds of young age which are kept and used only for meat
purpose and produce tender meat with soft pliable and flexible breast bone cartilage. They attain live
body weight of 1.5 kg or more by consuming 3-4 kg of feed in 6 weeks.

LAYER

Which lay table quality egg (for food of human consumption). Laying starts from 20-21 weeks
and may lay 150 to 300 eggs per year.

BREEDERS

Birds of both sexes which are kept for breeding purpose to obtain fertilized eggs for hatching to
get chicks i.e. broilers or layers.

IMPORTANCE OF POULTRY FARMING

1. It provides egg and meat, which are highly nutritive supplementing foods and have high
quality protein.
2. It provides source of income and opportunities of employment at poultry farms,
hatcheries, poultry processing units, equipments manufactures, meat and egg marketing
channels etc.
3. In rural areas, since less investment is required to start the enterprises, it has attained a
status of “Cottage Industry”.
4. Quick returns can be expected from the investment.
5. Poultry manure is extremely rich source of nitrogen and organic matter. It contains 1.0-
1.8% nitrogen. 1.4-1.8% P2O2 and 0.8-0.9% K2O hence is very good fertilizers.
6. In animal and medical research, birds are used as experimental unit.

45
PREFERENCE OF POULTRY FARMING OVER LIVESTOCK AND AGRICULTURAL
SECTION

The poultry farming is preferred over other sectors like livestock and agriculture due to following
reasons.

1. Size of bird is smaller than other larger animals.

2. Physiology of birds is simpler.
3. Birds have shorter maturity period.
4. Fertility rate is high.
5. Life span is short which can be extended in layers and breeders.
6. Balanced feed for birds can be easily managed.
7. They have simple digestive system.
8. Less land is required due to less space requirement per bird.
9. Poultry is quick and efficient converter of inputs into out puts.
10. Birds have the best feed conversion ratio (FCR) and feed efficiency.
11. Embryo development takes place outside rather than inside the body of dam through placenta.
12. Incubation period of chicken is shorter (21 days) while large animals have long gestation
period.
13. There is a continuous return of income while in case of land, seasons, labor, seeds etc.
required in fairly high amount and income return is based on yearly basis while, poultry
farming makes the least demand of land than crop production and give maximum yield per
unit area.
14. Dressing percentage is more (60%) in poultry as compared to large animals (50-55%).
15. Several crop by-products and agricultural wastes are used in poultry feeding.
16. Poultry farming is within the reach of small farmers and offer good opportunity for investors
with limited financial resources.

ADVANTAGES OF POULTRY FARMING

Essential food items

The poultry meat and eggs are essential foods. The demand of poultry meat and eggs is quite
permanent. The poultry meat is appetizing and popular food. The eggs are highly digestible, nutritious
and taste. In future the demand for high quality poultry meat and eggs seem to be very bright.

Quick return of high quality protein

There is a quick return of high quality protein. One and a half kilogram live-body weight broiler
can be produced in 6 weeks time. The layer chicks start laying eggs at about 20 weeks of age and lays
more than 270 eggs in a year.

Efficient source of high quality protein

Poultry farming is an efficient source getting good-quality food, rich in nutrition.

One and a half kilogram broiler can be produced by feeding 3 kilogram of feed. No other meat product
can be produced so efficiently on the farm. A dozen of eggs can be produced on 1.75 kilograms of feed.

46
Income throughout the year

The income from both broiler farms and layers flock is distributed throughout the year.

Quick turn-over of capital

There is quick turn-over of capital invested in poultry business. The capital invested in broiler
production returns in about two months and the capital invested in laying flock starts coming back in
about 20 weeks.

Part time as well as full time occupation

Poultry farming may be adopted as a large and small scale business. Broilers and layers may be
reared in the backyards in cities and small towns and on farms as a commercial enterprise.

The poultry farming on small farms and at home may be a part time job while the owner has other
employment or business. It may be a full time occupation on large commercial and specialized farms.

Managed by Ladies and Children

Poultry farming can be successfully managed by women, children and elderly men because the
work is not strenuous. It does not require high skill. These groups of people may be very successful in
poultry farming.

DEVELOPMENT OF POULTRY

Birds were used first not for the food purpose but for entertainment e.g. cockfighting. They had
got also religious importance. But now there is a gradual improvement in keeping these birds.

 Cock fighting banned due to cruelty.

 Birds were kept for exhibition purpose
 Specialized birds as food purpose.
 Small birds (Bantam) i.e. fancy birds
 Pure lines evolve.
American poultry Association started it's work in 1873 with an aim to maintain pure bred breeding
stock and before that people thought about the birds which were beautiful, having same body
confirmation, uniform in their type and plumage colour. In this way they introduced breeds and varieties.

CLASSIFICATION OF POULTRY

A group of standard breeds which have been develop in a certain region or geographical area.
There are four classes based on this definition:

1. Asiatic
2. English
3. American
4. Mediterranean

47
Breed

The group of birds belongs to same living place and having similar characteristics including body
shape, size and skin colour, e.g., Leghorn, Minorca.

Variety

Within a breed the group of birds differentiated (division) either by plumage colour or shape of
comb or feather pattern, e.g. Single comb WLH. Rose comb leghorn.

Strain

A specific chicken breeding flock bearing a given name and produced by a breeder through at
least five generations of closed flock mating and selected for certain characteristics e.g. Babcock

Classification based on regions

i. Asiatic Class

ii. Mediterranean class

iii. American Class

iv. English Class

These classes have following few distinguishing characteristics

Characteristic American English Mediterranean Asiatic

1. Body size Medium Medium Light Heavy

2. Purpose Dual Dual Egg Meat

3. Shell colour Brown Brown White Brown

4. Ear lobe colour Red Red White Red

5. Skin colour Yellow White Yellow Yellow

6. Feathers on Shank No No No Yes

Lyallpur Silver Black (LSB)

Lyallpur Silver Black breed is well adopted to our local conditions having good disease resistance and
produces about double the number of eggs in a year and 50% more meat than desi birds in 12 weeks. LSB
breed was evolved by crossing 4 breeds (WLH X Desi & White Cornish x New Hampshire) at University
of Agriculture, Faisalabad.

White leghorn breed was used to enhance the egg productive potential of Desi bird whereas White
Cornish and New Hampshire breeds were used to improve the meat production capacity of desi birds.
48
 Production Parameters Desi LSB

Egg production/year 73 150

Egg weight (g) 45 54

Body weight (g) 950 1350

Age at maturity (days) 212 180

Heat tolerance (0C) 43.3 43.3

Livability (%) 90 90

Incubation:

The process during which in a period of three weeks microscopic germ is developed into a chick
capable of waling and eating etc. the period during which this process is completed is called incubation
period. Different species of birds have different incubation period e.g., chicken egg hatch in 21 days,
whereas the eggs of quails, ducks, pheasants have 17, 28-30 and 28 days incubation period, respectively.
During this period suitable conditions are provided to the hatching eggs for best hatching results. The
incubation is of two type, namely, natural incubation and ratification incubation.

1) Natural Incubation

This is commonly used for backyard poultry keeping in villages in most of the tropical countries
of the world. In this method eggs are incubated with the help of broody hens. It is a primitive method. But
it is most effective methods to get a high percentage of success. Natural hatching or hatching of eggs by
hen is still popular with small poultry keepers in remote rural areas in many part of our country. The most
important thing in this method is the selection of a broody hen. It should be of medium body size to
accommodate fair number of eggs and should be a good-sitter, quiet and free from ectoparasites. A nest
bedded with clean, dry and comfortable litter is prepared for this purpose. Usually the nest is a saucer like
shape where the hatching eggs are placed with brooder end slightly upside. The nest is usually placed in a
dark area of the house with minimum disturbance. During incubation hen should not be disturbed. The
hens should be taken out at least twice a day for about 30 minutes for feeding and watering. The hen
should be well taken care of and protected from predators.

Depending on the size of hen, 10-15 eggs can be placed under one bird. The best time of set hen
is at a night as at this time she is more likely to settle down to her job. Besides, when eggs are put under
the hens at night, the chicken are more likely to appear on the night of 21 st day and will have the whole
night to rest and gain strength.

2) Artificial Incubation:

In this method of incubation, the requirements of incubation are fulfilled by a machine called
incubator. This method uses high modern and sophisticated technology with automation for maximum
hatchability. This method of incubation has many advantages over natural incubation which are as under:

49
 1. Large no. of eggs even up to lacs at a time can be incubated to meet high commercial demand
of chicks.
2. Incubation can be practiced throughout the year as there is no need for a broody hen for this
purpose.
3. The risk of disease transfer from hen to chicks is eliminated because of no contact of the hen
with eggs after laying.
4. The essential incubation requirements are provided with their optimum levels to get
maximum hatchability with quality hygienic care and minimum chances of infections.
5. Automation of incubators saves time and labour.

Types of Incubators

Principally there are two types of incubators viz. Small or still air incubators and Mammoth or
forced draft incubators. The mammoth incubators can have setters and Hatcher separately, whereas the
small incubators are usually a small combined like. In case of chicken eggs setters are used to incubate
eggs for first 18 days while chicks actively hatch out for final 3 days in hatchers. A brief discussion about
the incubators is as under.

1. Small or still air incubators:

It is usually of small capacity, from 50 to 500 eggs, with only single layer incubation, where the
eggs lying flat in the machine. These incubators are heated by kerosene oil or electricity. Ventilation is
affected by changes of internal temperature. These are also called still air incubators because the air inside
the incubator circulates under natural way of circulation without any mechanical devices for air
circulation. In these incubators, the eggs are placed in the egg tray in natural position. The turning of the
eggs is manual and individual, twice or thrice daily.

2. Cabinet Type (mammoth or forced draft) incubators:

The incubators are very capacious and generally cabinet like in shape. It enables the breeder to
incubate several thousand eggs with greater economy to develop his business by selling baby chicks.
These incubators are usually run by electricity. Eggs are placed in the egg trays with broader end up, from
the top to be bottom in the machine. The eggs are turned either manually but collectively with the help of
a handle, or automatically with a time-controlled motor where the position of all the eggs can be changed
collectively. The temperature is evenly distributed in the entire machine by either pads or fans which also
control the ventilation process hence the name give ‘forced draft machine’. Moister is usual provided
from flat trays which have large evaporating surfaces or by some farm of water spray injection arranged
in conjunction with the ventilation system or by injection of stream he incubator may be of a shape in
which setting and hatching is done in the same compartment or it may have separate setting or hatching
compartments. These incubators have been further improved by various companies as detailed below.

a) Walk-in Incubators:

50
 A walk-in incubator is infect a room into which it is possible to walk or to wheel trolleys and in
which staff can work. It may be cabinet type construction and capable of being erected and operated in an
existing building or it may be of a built-in type in which the shell of the incubator room forms an integral
part of the hatchery structure and walls of the room have to bear loads over and above their functional
requirements of rigidity and insulation. In both types, the arrangements of setting, turning and hatching
equipment are similar to those of the large cabinet incubators, but the heating and ventilation are much
more fully automatic than cabinet type incubator. These type of incubators provide grate economy of
floor space and consequent reduction in capital costs, and in time and labour for maintenance and
oppression of the hatchery.

b) Drive in Incubator:

Some walk-in machine involves the transfer of eggs from the trolleys to setting racks and trays
may be set in blocks or alternately. Other machines allow the eggs to be wheeled into the incubator or in
and trolley, with the same trolley remaining in the machines as the frame holding the trays of eggs during
incubation. In the latter methods eggs are obviously in blocks according to stage of development and
different manufactures of incubators have the trolleys positioned in different ways. As opposed to walk-in
these machines may be described as drive-in incubators.

INCUBATION REQUIREMENTS

For best hatchability results, each of the following environmental conditions must be controlled
and kept within definite limits.

1. Temperature: it is the most critical factor for the successful hatching of the chicks because
developing chicks are very sentience to the temperature of the environment. Low temperature slows down
the development process and therefore results in late hatching with low hatchability. A continuous high
incubation temperature results in early in hatching results due to an increase in crippled and deformed
chicks and mortality of chicks. Therefore, the suitable temperature should be maintained as under:

A. Small Incubators:

First week 102.5 – 103 °F

2nd and 3rd week 102°F

18th day to end of hatch 100 – 101 °F

B. Mammoth Incubator:

Setter : 99.5°F (For 1st 18 days)

Hatcher : 99.0°F (For the last 3 days)

2. Relative humidity: Hatchability of eggs is definitely affected by moisture conditions inside the
incubators. The relative humidity for best hatching results should be 55-60% during first 18 days and
should be increased 5-10% after that up to hatching of chicks. High relative humidity results in the
production of wet chicks and abnormal growth of the embryo. Whereas, low humidity causes stickiness of
the chicks with the shell membrane resulting into poor hatching results. It also increases the production of

51
deformed and weak chicks. Normally 11 to 13% inherent water content may be lost during incubation
without harmful results.

3. Ventilation: Incoming of the fresh air into incubator and outgoing of the foul air from the
incubator is also a key to the success of hatching results. Because the chick embryos being living
organism require oxygen for their development and give off carbon dioxide. Therefore optimum level of
oxygen (21%) and carbon dioxide (0.4%) are very much essential for good hatching results. If the amount
of carbon dioxide exceeds 1.0% limit the hatching results will be adversely affected whereas, the increase
in carbon dioxide upto 2% will cause drastic reduction in hatchability. When carbon dioxide
concentration in the incubator reaches upto 5% level, the hatching results would be zero. Therefore, for
successful optimum level of oxygen and carbon dioxide are required in the incubator. Still air machine
need more ventilation near the end of the hatch, while there is no such problem in forced draft incubators
normally.

4. Position of the Hatching Eggs and Turning:

Eggs are normally incubated broader end up or by placing in the natural position. Under these
conditions, the head of the embryo develops within the broader and near the air-cell. However, when the
eggs are incubated small and up the majority of the embryos develop with their head in the small end of
the egg and frequently these embryos do not hatch.

Frequent turning of eggs is essential for movement of embryo in the eggs during first phase of
incubation to avoid sticking and setting of embryos to the shell. Turning also facilities uniform heating of
the egg content in auto-operated incubators. Usually, the eggs are turned through an angle of 40-45° on
both sides for 5 or 7 times a day in the setter, leading to maximum hatchability. Whereas turning is not
required in hatcher. However, if the eggs are left in a single position throughout the incubation period the
hatching results ill be very poor. Turning must be gentle and on both sides.

52
BROODING:

Special care and management during first 5 to 6 weeks of a chick’s life until they do not required
artificial heat is termed as brooding.

Types of Brooders:

Brooders are different types:

1) Drum type 2) Coal burning 3) Wood burning

4) Electric brooder 5) Gas brooder

1) Drum Type

Heat is radiated from drum towards chicks on floor. Temperature is controlled by thermostat that
regulates flow of oil to brooder.

2) Coal Burning

Commonly used where fuel (coal) is comparatively cheaper. Temperature is controlled by

thermostat.

3) Wood Burning

Wood burning brooders are commonly used in Pakistan especially where wood is in plenty and
available at cheaper rate.

4) Electric Brooders

Mostly used in cold and mild weather. They have advantages

i) Temperature can be accurately controlled.

ii) They require little attention.

iii) Thermostat control is possible.

iv) Electric brooder relatively easier to run.

5) Gas Brooder

Similar to electric brooders it also requires little attention. Gas brooders are more economical &
dependable than electric brooders because chance of breakdown of supply is very rare.

DIFFERENT MANAGEMENTAL PRACTICES DURING BROODING

The following are the materials/practices, which are required during brooding.

1. Litter materials

2. Chick Guard

3. Proper floor space

4. Sanitation

53
 5. Flushing

6. Feeding

7. Broad spectrum antibiotics

8. Vaccination

9. Debeaking

10. Avoid predators and pilfering

1. Litter Materials

Type and condition of litter material is very important during brooding. Many types of litter
material such as sawdust, rice hulls, wood shaving is being used Sawdust makes a good litter material
because of its high absorbing property. Softwood saw dust is preferred over the hard wood sawdust
because of lower tannin contents.

Properties of Good Litter Material

1. More absorbent
2. Light in weight
3. Medium size particles
4. Inexpensive
A litter that has been treated with an insecticide, herbicide or other chemicals may not be used.
Paper is spread on the litter for early 2-3 days to reduce picking by birds.

2. Brooder Guards

Brooder guards are necessary to confine day-old chicks to the heated area and to concentrate the
feeders and waters within small areas. They are also helpful to keep out draft and cold air. A guard made
of cardboard, wood or metal sheet with 15 to 18 inches height should be placed around the hover. The
distance of guard from the stove should be about 30 inches (76 cm) in winter and 36 inches (91 cm) is
summer.

Once the chicks learn the source of supplementary heat, the guard must be expanded to allow a
greater area inside them. Guards could be used for 6 to 9 days.

3. Floor Space Requirement

Growth and feed conversion are related to floor space per requirement bird, over crowding due to
less floor space results decreased feed consumption, growth rate and feed efficiency and it increases the
chances of cannibalism and mortality. The amount of floor space necessary for each chick during the first
5 or 6 weeks of its life is given in table.

Types of bird Floor space per bird

ft2 M2 Birds/m2

Broiler 0.50 0.05 20.0

Leghorn egg type pullet 0.758 0.070 14.3

54
 Leghorn egg breeder pullet 0.85 0.079 12.7

Leghorn egg type cockerels 0.00 0.093 10.8

Meat type breeder pullet 1.00 0.093 10.8

Meat type breeder cockerels 1.25 0.116 8.6

4. Sanitation

During brooding care should be taken regarding sanitation because chicks are very sensitive to
diseases. A brooder house should be thoroughly cleaned and well disinfected at least one week before the
arrival of chicks. Spray formalin 40% (1:12 i.e. formalin : water) to the brooding room. Keep separate
attendants in the brooder houses and do not allow them to move in other sheds. Keep visitors away from
the brooder house and take care of your address when you visit the brooder house.

Damp litter and sick birds cause the spreading of disease; keep the litter dry of frequent stirring of
litter. Using super phosphate on litter not only acts as absorbent but also act as preservative for making a
good fertilizer after mixing with droppings. Frequent change of waterers place will help to keep the litter
dry.

Sick birds should be isolated and treated properly. Dead birds should be disposed off by using
disposal pit or burning. Adult birds should not be mixed with young chicks.

5. Flushing

Flushing with 3% sucrose solution is done to provide readily available source of energy to the
bird. This practices also clears the digestive tract chicks.

6. Feeding

First feeding should be done 4-5 hours after flushing. Pure good quality ground maize should be
given first day alone then for 2-3 days as a part of feed. It provides good source of energy and it contains
high fibre contents which prevent pasting.

1st day ----------- Pure Ground maize

2nd daynn ----------- 50% GM + 50% Feed

3rd day ----------- 25% GM + 75% Feed

4th day ----------- 100% Feed

Ground maize due to higher fibre contents prevents pasting.

7. Broad Spectrum Antibiotics

During 1st week, using any of the following broad-spectrum antibiotic may helps in reducing the
chances of infections.

 Furazolidone 15-20 g/bag feed for seven days

 Furazole 80 g/bag for seven days
 Furasole 1 teaspoon/gallon water
55
  Tribersin 1 cc/gallon water
 Trimodin 1 teaspoon/gallon water
 Erythro FZ 1 teaspoon/litre water
In winter medicine is used usually through feed and in summer mostly through water.

8. Vaccination

To reduce chances of disease outbreaks following vaccines must be used in addition to other
vaccines.

From 7-10 days ND eye drops

From 10-14 days Gumboro eye drops

From 22-25 days ND 1/2 CC (sub-cut)

From 30-32 days Gumboro in drinking water

From 6-8 weeks Fowl pox (wing web)

9. Debeaking

Debeaking not only prevents cannibalism, toe picking, vent picking and feather picking, it also
increase the feed efficiency of the birds. Besides it make the flock uniform and improve the live ability.
Debeaking is doen at the age of 10-15 days, it involves cutting of 1/3 of the upper beak by an electric
debeaker.

10. Avoid Predators and Pilfering

Predators like the mice, managoose, dog and cat etc. can be controlled by traps and using
chemicals. Their control is necessary because they can waste the feed and transmit many diseases.
Pilfering at the farm could be avoided by sudden visits and through checking the record.

POULTRY HOUSING

Poultry housing permits the organization and concentration of the flock into a manageable unit
and it provides a physical environment conductive to optimal egg, or poultry meat production. Some of
the important considerations in poultry house construction are given below.

1. The site of the farm should be marshy, water logged or flood affected.
2. Farm should away from man city but approachable.
3. Water supply, gas and electricity should be available at the site.
4. Construction should be well managed according to the type of the birds that are planned to be
reared.
5. Direction of the shed should be east to west.
6. Length of the shed may vary from 100 to 300ft.
7. Width of the shed should be 30ft. in open side house and it may very up to 50ft. in case of
environment control house.
8. Height of the shed may vary from 10-12 ft.
9. Shed to shed distance should be 50ft.
10. Farm to farm distance should be 1 to 3 km.

56
HOUSING REQUIREMENTS

1. Length

100 ft of one shed, if 300-400 ft. then partition after each 100 ft.

2. Width

Normally 30 ft. if more than 30ft. there is ventilation problem. In environmental control house it may be
40-50 ft.

3. Height

In hot areas 12-14 ft. but in cold areas 8-10 ft.

4. Distance

It should be 50fl. between two poultry sheds. 100 ft. from road. 1km.between two farms and for breeder
forms it should be 3km.

5. Floor Space

1 sq ft area =1 broiler, 1.5 sq ft area =1 layer, 2 sq ft area = 1 breeder (egg type), 3.5 sq ft area= I breeder
(meat type).

6. Ventilation

Proper ventilation (not drought) to carry in fresh air is needed. It also maintains normal humidity. More
the distance between inlets and outlets more will be ventilation.

7. Humidity

For hatching purpose 70-80% and for poultry house it should be 60-65%. Low humidity causes dry, dusty
litter, respiratory problems and poor hatching, where as very high humidity causes growth of fungus,
mould and parasitic infections. For proper humidity level provide adequate ventilation.

8. Temperature

For storage of eggs 55°F, for hatching (eggs) 99.25-99.75°F. For brooding of day old chicks 95 °F at start
and for poultry house 70-75°F.

9. Sunshine

In cold climate, raising curtains from side walls brings spring like conditions by exposing poultry house
to more and more sunshine. In hot areas, curtains from front are raised to have good ventilation and
sunshine and down when temperature starts to rise than normal.

10. Dryness

Dampness causes discomfort to birds and also give rise to problems like colds, pneumonia etc. Dampness
in poultry house is caused by moisture rinsing through leaky floors or walls, rain or snow entering
through windows and leaky water container of birds and from bird’s droppings, so proper ventilation to
keep proper dryness is required. Use good quality litter, which have more adsorption of moisture.

57
EQUIPMENTS

Equipments Capacity Required Unit Cost Total Cost

(Rs.) (R*.)

(A) Equipments 1, 000 Broilers

for

Brooder l/500 Chicks 2 500 1000

Chick Guard 1/250 Chicks 4 200 800

Litter Bags 15 Bags/500 Chicks 30 60/Bag 1800

Paper 1 kg/200 5kg 20/kg 100

Feeders

Trough feeder (in) 1/40 Birds 25 35 875

Tube feeder (38cm) 1/32 Birds 31 50 1550

Automatic drinker 1/100 Birds 10 300 3000

Round Waterer (5L) 1/30 Birds 33 65 2145

(B) Equipments for 1000 Layers

Brooding Period

58
Brooder l/500Chicks 2 500 1000

Chick Guard 1/250 Chicks 4 200 800

Tube feeder 1/50 Chicks 20 50 1000

Trough feeder 1/50 Chicks 20 35 700

Drinker (2L) 1/25 Chicks 40 20 800

Paper 1 kg/200 Chicks 5kg 20 100

Rearing Period

Tube feeder (38cm) 1/40 Birds 25 50 1250

Automatic drinker 1/100 Birds 10 300 3000

Waterer 1/25 Birds 40 65 2600

Laying Period

Tube feeder 1/30 Birds 11 50 1650

Waterer 1/25 Birds 40 65 2600

Automatic Drinker 1/100 Birds 10 300 3000

Nests 1/5 Hens 17 Units 1 500 25500

59
60
LIVESTOCK MANAGEMENT
Taking proper care of animals according to modern husbandry practices. It includes breeding, feeding,
housing, management and development.

IMPORTANCE OF LIVESTOCK

Livestock Provide

(a) Food of biological value such as meat, milk and eggs.

(b) Market for pasturage and other unmarketable roughages.

(c) Home market for marketable roughage and grains.

(d) Valuable commercial goods for domestic consumption as wel1 as export such as skin, wool and
bones.

(e) Motive power about 85 % for Agricultural operations and means of transportations.

(f) Farmyard manure for soil fertility and control of soil erosion.

DOMESTICATION/HISTORY OF

LIVESTOCK

The domestication of livestock was a great success of man in controlling over his environment.
Domestication of food producing animal was the great source protein for him and these animals were also
the consumer of that food which were useless for men. These animals converted those useless foods in to
useful products for men. The domestication of’ some animals like horse bull also provided the speed and
power to men.

1. The goats were probably domesticated 8000-9000 years ago, and cattle, sheep sometime thereafter.

2. There is fairly definite proof’ that cattle had been domesticated by about 3000.-4000 B.C; or about
5000-6000 years ago.

In past. domestication was centered in that area’s or communities where village- farming was practiced
like hilly, grassy, open forested flanks of the near Eastern mountain ranges. i.e. in the Palestinian,
Labanese and Zagros mountains. From these primary centers of’ domestication, the village farming and
raring of basic food producing animals spread in all direction of’ the world. In Egypt. Baluchistan, the
Indus valley and almost in China or at least in Northern China, village-farming life began later. Pakistan
is the lucky country in reference of’ domestication of livestock; the best cattle species Bos indicus found
in sub-continent which is commonly known as Zebu or Hump cattle.

CATEGORIES OF LIVE STOCK

1. MILCH ANIMALS

a. Buffaloes Nil Ravi & Kundi breeds,

b. Cows Sahiwali & Red Sindhi breeds.

61
c. Goats Dera Din. Pariah and Beetal

2. DRAUGHT ANIMALS

a. Cattle breeds like Bhagnari. Dajal, Dhani and Rojhan etc.

b. Buffaloes particularly in the rice growing tract.

c. Horse, Camel, Donkeys, Mules etc.

3. MUTTON, WOOL AND MEAT PRODUCTION

a. Different breeds of sheep at least 23 breeds are fond in Pakistan.

b. Different breeds of goats.

c. Cattle/ Buffaloes.

d. Camels.

e. Poultry

LIVE STOCK POPULATION

The world human population is more than three times greater than livestock population i.e. ratio is 3:1 but
in major livestock countries like Argentina and New Zealand this ratio is 2.5: I. But in Pakistan, Burma,
Thailand, have ratio 5: 1. Pakistan has following livestock population figures.

Species MILLION NUMBERS (2009-10)

a. Buffaloes 30.8

b. Cattle 34.3

c. Goats 59.9

d. Sheep 27.8

e. Camels 1.0

f. Donkeys 4.6

g. Mules 0.2

h. Horses 0.4

ROLE OF LIVESTOCK IN NATIONAL ECONOMY

Share of L/s in Gross domestic products (GDP) = 8%

Total contribution of Agriculture in GDP = 30%.

In 30% total contribution of Agri, livestock contribute = 8%

Share of L/s in Agri. = 39%

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10 years ago draught power in Agri = 70%

Milk production = 17.12 rn.T

From buffaloes = 70-71%

From Cows = 20%

Other animals = 5%

Consumption by man = 80%

Meat production = 1.7million

From Beef = 50%

From Mutton = 50%

Per Capita Availability of Major Livestock Products

Milk = 114 Litter/head/annum

Meat =12.5 kg/head/ annum

Eggs = 60 No./head/ annum

CARE & MANAGEMENT OF LIVESTOCK

MANAGEMENT OF DAIRY COW/BUFFALO

1. Handling Cows.

I. Handle cows carefully and gain their confidence at all times.

2. It is necessary that cows learn to like all individuals working with them.

3. If cows are handled roughly during milking, they will not let down their milk completely and results in
decreased production.

4. Rough handling makes it more difficult to get cows to go in to their stalls, to milk them and to handle
them in general.

2. Maintaining Regularity

1. Always maintain regularity in the feeding, milking and general handling of cows.

2. Milking time must be at the same time each day, otherwise the cows will decrease milk
production.

3. On most farms it is practical to milk cows twice a day at 12 hours intervals. Milking at unequal
intervals, such as at II or 13 hrs, causes decreased milk production and fat percentage.

4. Feeding to cows. at the same time of day and in the same order is necessary for maximum
production.

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 5. The same individuals should care for the cows as much as possible. The changing of milkers may
cause large decrease in milk production.

6. Try to keep cows in the same stalls. Moving cows from one stall to another may be quite
disturbing and cause the cows to decrease in milk production.

3. Preventing Excitement

Prevent cows from becoming excited because excitement causes decreased production. Following are the
instruction through which we can prevent animals from excitement.

1. Handle cows quietly but firmly at all times.

2. No stranger should present in the stall or near the cow.

3. Never talk loudly near the COW

4. Grooming

Clipping of hairs and removing dust from the body of an animal is called grooming.

Grooming has the following advantages.

I. Well groomed cow give the better appearance.

2. We can get clear milk.

3. Animal remains safe from skin diseases.

4. Blood circulation is increased.

5. Manure can remove from tanks & udder by grooming.

5. Exercising Cows

Heavy exercise is not necessary for dairy cows. It has been found that cows may he kept in box stalk for
long periods of time without ill effects.

Very little exercise is needed to keep cows in good health and production. Heavy exercise results in
decrease of milk production.

6. Trimming Hoofs

Keep cows hoofs trimmed because

1 Long hook can be the cause of teat cuts.

2 A very awkward appearance.

3. Lameness may develop from long hoofs or form cracks in them which may cause infection and
decrease in milk production.

4. Larger hoofs can he trimmed oil with the help of chisels or rasp.

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CARE ON DIFFERENT STAGES OF LIFE

(COW/BUFFALO)

a. Care of dry/pregnant cow.

b. Care of cow at calving.

c. Care of cow after calving

d. Care of newly born calf.

e. Weaning & calf management

f. Young stock management.

g. Bull management.

h. Milking herd management.

a. CARE OF DRY/PREGNANT COWS

Dry Period

The period In which cow/buffalo is not milked. We have to dry the animal at least 6 weeks before
parturition.

Benefits of Dry Period

Dry period is necessary as:

a. To give rest to the udder.

b. Lot of nutrients arc excreted in the milk these nutrient are stored in the body during the period
and serve as reservoir for next lactation.

c. For the develop neat of fetus

1. Provide Selected Feed

Since the main objective of the dry period is to build body reserve to the next lactation. The cow should
be fed liberally with well selected feeds.

2. Exercise

Tile dry COWS should be let out daily for exercise.

3. Handle Carefully

The cows in advanced pregnancy should not be chased by dogs or handled roughly.

4. Give Extra Ration

Heifers should be given extra ration for their maintenance, growth and pregnancy stress.

65
5. Regular Vaccination

Regular Vaccination should be done according to schedule.

b. CARE OF COW AT CALVING

For the first time, the pregnant animal needs extra attention. The nutrients which are preset due to dry
period are utilized for foetus.

We have to provide 1 kg – 1.5kg of grains daily to animal as pregnancy allowance.

Before I week of parturition. Pregnant animal should be shifted in to separate moms called Calving Box
or pen due to folioing reasons:

1. Fighting of animals.

2. Overcrowding which may cause accidents.

3. No disturbance to pregnant animals.

Environment of calving box/stall/pen

I. Calving box should be clean.

2. Calving box should be well ventilated.

3. There should be present clean bedding material to save animal from slipping.

Signs of parturition:

1. By knowing the date of parturition from breeding record.

Pregnancy period in buffaloes =310 ± 10 days

Cow = 280 ± 10 days

Sheep/Goat =149 ± 03 days

2. Dropping of ligaments around the tail head or pit formation 2-3 days before calving.

3. Filling (swelling) of udder with milk, and body temp. increases due to disease.

4. Restlessness in animal, animal may become uneasy.

5. Water bag appears about 12 hours before calving, later on its burst.

6. The fore—feet put appears first then the head of calf resting on from feet appears.

7. With the contraction and relaxation of muscles the calf is pushed our.

Normally cow/buffalo need no help in this process. But if position of the calf is not right and
calving does not take place even after 4-6 hours of showing symptoms calving and animal is continuously
straining symptoms, call for veterinarian.

66
 After some time the cow/buffalo will expel the placenta (after birth). Take the placenta away and
dispose it, properly. If placenta is not expelled. even after 24 hours passed. call for veterinarian. He will
remove it manually or by some other means.

c. CARE OF COW AFTER CALVING

1. Washing

Wash the hind legs including gentilia with water.

2. Provide Energy Source

Provide energy source to animal by giving gur and molasses after wheat bran also. It has laxatine effect.

3. Milking Of Animal

Milking of animal within an hour of parturition is necessary for calf and the animal. Do not wait for
expulsion of after-birth. There are delicate smooth muscles in the udder. The effect of Oxytocine
(hormone) contract smooth muscles in the uterus and any material present here come out and placenta
materials expel out. After-birth should be removed quickly so that animal could not eat and got digestive
upsets.

After parturition three imp. diseases are

 Digestive upsets.
 Milk fever. (Do not milk the cow completely for 4-5 clay)
 Mastitis.
d. CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF A NEWLY BORN CALF

1. Breathing

Be sure that calf is breathing If it is not breathing then artificial breathing should be provided by
compressing and relaxing the chest walls with the hands.

2. Cleaning

Remove all the mucous from natural holes like mouth, ear with the help of a clean cloth or a piece of
towel. This is specially necessary during winter to prevent from chill or cold.

3. Disinfect the naval

Dip it in tincture iodine. Tie the naval with clean thread at about 1-1.5 from the body. Again apply
tincture iodine or any other antiseptic lotion.

4. Weight & Mark of identification

Before removing from the dam, the calf should be weight and given some mark of identification. Any one
of many methods may he used, such as to tattooing (skin marking). ear tagging or a tag fastened to a strap
around the neck,

5. Dehorn early

Dehorn the calf at 3—10 days of age. Clip hair around The horn button. Secure the calf properly. Apply
Vaseline around the horn button. Then apply caustic potash stick in circular fashion vigorously till all the
button is burnt. Apply some antiseptic
67
Electric dehoruer may be used for this purpose.

6. Feeding

Feed the calf 30-45 minutes after birth. Colostrums feeding is very important during the first hour of
newly born calf. Colostrums should be feed at the rate of 10% of body wt. but not exceeding more than
4.6 Kg per day.

Importance of’ Colostrums Feeding

Colostrums

“It is the normal physiological secretions of mammary glands of class Mammalian just after parturition to
fourth day of milking”.

1. It contain 2-3 time more proteins, some of these proteins are immunoglobulin which provide immunity
against various disease.

2. It contains 2-3 times more fats. Fats are responsible for flushing of digestive tract of calf. It removes
mucous (meconium) an form the alimentary canal.

3. Colostrums is a rich source of energy.

4. It contains to times more vitamin A and 2-3 times other. vitamins.

5. It contains more minerals for the development of body and bones,

E7. Weaning

Some times calf is removed from the mother. It is a process of removing newly horn calf from the darn or
mother by direct settling. -

Type: It is of two types:

1. To prevent sucking directly from first day.

2. No giving of any kind of milk after the age of 3rd. month.

Benefits of Weaning

Weaning is necessary on commercial dairy forms. It has following advantages:

1. ‘Labour is saved due to weaning.

2. Over feeding and wider-feeding of milk is prevented with weaning. Over feeding causes diarrohea and
under-feeding causes reduced growth rate.

f. YOUNG STOCK MANAGEMENT

1. Feeding

Male and females are kept separate after 1 year. Their growth should be. maintained with good ration.
Allow concentrates 1-2 lbs per head per day with ad-libitum green fodder and, free access to water during
growing age. Mineral mixture should also be given.
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2. De-Worming

It is the removal of internal parasites. We should provide dewormers e.g. Oxafax (Wel come). Nilzan
(ICI) to calf after 6 months interval or when necessary

3. Cleaning

The calf should be clean to prevent ectoparasites like tick and mites. Bathed twice daily and watered more
frequently, depending upon the season. To kill ectoparasites the calves must be dipped regularly in
medicated solution.,

4. Vaccination

Regular protective vacillation against Rinderpest, Haemorrhagic Septicaemia, Black quarter, Anthrax or
any other prevalent disease.

5. Exercise

To keep the animal healthy, proper daily exercise is needed.

6. Breeding

Periodic regular veterinary inspection should be made. Any heifer nor Coming I heat should he given
veterinary care or hormonal treatment.

g. BULLS MANAGEMENT

1. Provision Of’ Separate Box.

Keep each animal separately in single box or pen with separate enclosure.

2. Feeding

Free water and green fodder 40-60 kg. or according to their weight and size should he made available all
day and night. Concentrate ration 3-4 kg/daily of’ high proteins value (cotton seed cakes, gram, corn and
barn equal part mixture is needed). Wheat straw 3-5 kg is also needed, especially when they are with
active work.

3. Regular Exercise

Provide exercise daily to keep tile animal healthy.

4. Grooming

Grooming must he done twice daily, with usual clipping and bathing buffalo bulls.

5 Special Care Of Their Service Records

Special care for servicing is needed. Check up results of covering for fertility ratio. Other veterinary care
is also needed.

6. Ringing

When the animal is of one year. the ring is worn ill the nose to control rile animal.
69
7. Trimming

After a proper time, tile hoofs of the animal should be trimmed off because of these elongated hoof
animal may injure it self or other animal, the infection may also take place.

8. DISEASE CONTROL

Animal should be vaccinated against major disease like

(1) H.S. (Haemorrhegic Septicalmia)

(2) FMD (Foot and Mouth Disease)

(3) Rinder pest (diarrehea)

(4) Black Quarter (Swelling in hind limbs) etc. regularly.

h. MILKING HERD MANAGEMENT

1. The milking herd requires special care they must be offered green fodder ad libitum and concentrates
of at the rate of I kg for each 3 liters milk produces. Wheat straw 3-4 kg per day is required. Salt or
mineral mixture lick must he available m the manager. Fresh clean water be available all the time.

2. They should by milked re at the same time with intervals in a day.

3. If any sick or suspected animal is found immediately segregate and veterinary care should be provided.

4. Keeps all record of abortion, calving date, calving record, service date hull used. milk record etc for
future planning.

5. Provide ample protection against inclement weather to maintain productivity.

SHEEP/GOAT MANAGEMENT

The sheep also occupies special place and is used for mutton and wool production. At present we have 27
breeds of sheep.

CARE OF SHEEP AT BREEDING TIME

1. Selection

Breeding ewes should be properly selected. They should be healthy and vigorous and should conform to
the breed characters.

2. Breeding Age

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Young ewes I to. 1-1/2 year of age should be mated depending upon their maternity, size and condition.
Females may breed 2-3 months earlier. If they are not yet fully grown. when mated, they will remain
stunted and productivity adversely affected.

4. Fleece/Wool Yield

Large ewes produce large healthy lambs, which are easy to rear and are economical producers of wool
and mutton, Fleece of the selected ewes should be uni-colour, white, long, dense and free from kemp as
for as possible.

5. Ratio of Male and Female

One male can breed forty females. So ratio between male and female should be 1:4.

CARE AT LAMBING

Before lambing season begins all pregnant ewes should be clipped, around the udder, tail and hindlegs.
Floor should be warm, clean and dry. Following birth:

1. Clean the nostril •and mouth of the newly born lamb.

2. Disinfect the naval by dipping it in to tincture of iodine.

3. Help the young one to suckle to check the flow of milk and remove the plugs present in the teats
of ewes. In case of multiple birth artificial feeding may became necessary. Milk should be warm
for this purpose. A nurse ewe may be provided for such lambs. .

4. Allow special ration to lambs as soon as they are able to eat grass and should be allowed to graze
separately after 3 weeks or 6 weeks.

5. Wean the lamb after 120 days.

GENERAL CARE OF FLOCK:

1. To keep the animal free from internal parasites, they should be drenched with some de-wormers
like nil worm etc. phenothiazine can also used in salt such salt should be available in the barns
round the clock
2. To control the external parasites animal’s should be dipped periodically.

3. Males and females should be grazed separately.

4. Fresh clean water should always be available in their grazing areas
5. Record should be maintained as to description and pedigree weaning weighs wool weights etc.
DAILY SHEEP BARA ROUTINE

MORNING ROUTINE

1. Provide water with the roughages & pick out sick and lame animals.

2. Herd them together and clean their droppings and dry the floor.

3. Count and let them go in the fields for grazing till afternoon.

4. All sick cases should be treated accordingly.

5. Provide hay, grain or grass to lambs at home.

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Evening Routine

1. On returning home in evening put them in bara and count.

2. Provide first aid to any sick or lame.

3. Provide food, water and salt etc. and also lambs ration in the creeps.

4. Ensure security against predators e.g. dog, wolves and provide light and night watch.

SOME IMPORTANT DEFINITIONS

Lamb Creep

a. These are the special arrangement which prevent the entry of adult animals but allow the entry and exit
of young lamb.

b. Creeps are made of wooden barns and fixed in such a manner that only the entry of young is possible
lamb creeps are meant for special feeding areas for lambs.

Flushing

It is the provision of extra grains or lush green fodder to the ewes with normal feeding. It increases the
ovulation rate in ewes and there by increasing twinning %age up to 10-15% e.g. there is a T.P. 30% in
Lohi Sheep.

Castration

“It is the process of making males infective for breeding”

Advantages

o Avoid random mating.

o Increase growth rate.

o Increase quality of meat.

Docking

“It is the process of cutting or removal of tail of an animal”.

Clashing, docking all are known as Iamb marking.

Parturition: It is a process of giving birth to a young one by animals.

Calving: For baffoloas and cattle’s it is called Calving.

Kiding: The same process in goats is called Kiding.

Lambing: The same process in sheep is called Lambing.

Maturity: It is the age. in which animal attain mature body weight.

Puberty: It is the age in which starting of estrous cycle takes place.

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73
CHAPTER NO.3.

HOUSING OF LIVESTOCK

(Sites, types, dimensions & ventilation)

Management of livestock cannot be complete without the provision of planned and economical housing
facilities for them. ill-planned and improper housing may result iii additional labour charges, decreasing
thus the profit of owner. Comfortable accommodation, durability and arrangements for the production of
hygienic’ and wholesome milk etc. are the important pre requisites for proper housing of animals.

The following are the points which may help in deciding about site and location for all type of livestock.

1.WATER SUPPLY

Plenty of clean water should be available at the f premises (area), for washing, cleaning and for
consumption by human as well as livestock.

2. TOPOGRAPHY AND DRAINAGE

It should be high and level with no abrupt (sudden) slopes. The soil should be porous and the slope gentle.
It helps in keeping the building well drained and thus animal health is easily maintained.

3. SUN EXPOSURE AND WIND PROTECTION

The location of the buildings should be such that the maximum exposure in North and minimum in South
is obtained. Also prevent from prevailing strong winds whether hot or cold.

4 EASY ACCESSIBILITY

The farm building should be located about 100 metre away from the road keeping in view the possibility
of easy approach to farm

5. MARKETING. FACILITIES

The farm should be possibly located in an area where the producer can sell his ,,products profitably and
regularly, Roadlinks with surrounding markets and consumption centres are highly desirable.

6. DURABILITY

Although construction of elaborate and, expensive building for animals should be avoided yet durability
of farm structure is always desired.

The availability of service facilities like electricity etc., are day. by day. assuming great importance. A
modern farm should therefore, have access Of power line.

HOUSING TYPE, DIMENSION AND VENTILATION OF

DAIRY ANIMALS

(Buffalo, Cows etc.)

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There are two types of housing systems

1. Conventional Dairy Houses .

 It this system animals are kept under the sheds. it also have two types. .

 Single row system: If No. of animals are 16 or less than 16.

 Double row system: If more than 16.

 The double row system has also further two types of arrangements.

 Face to face: It head of animals facing inside.

 Tail to tail: If head of animals facing outside.

ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES OF BOTH ARRANGEMENTS

FACE TO FACE

Advantages

a. Easier feeding.

b. More light for making

c. Good appearance.

Disadvantages

a. Difficulty in milking.

b. Ignorance from disease of udders

c. Cleaning difficulties.

TAIL TO TAIL

Advantages

a. Cow can use only one gateway.

b. Milking is easy due to common passage.

c. Cleaning is much easier.

d. Manure spreader (tractor) could be driven in central passage.

Disadvantage

a. Difficult feeding Dimensions

Outer wall = 3.ôm high

Interior wall = I .5rn high

Single Row System

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T. Width = 6.5ni in which

Feeding passage = 1.5 in

Width for manager = 0.75 in

Length for stall = 2.2 in

Rear Channel = 0.3 in

Manure/Milking passage = 1.75 in

2 THE LOOSE HOUSING SYSTEM

The system in which animals are kept loose except at

economical system. Its some feature are

a. Low cost o construction. .

b. Possibility in further expansion in area without much alternation.

c. Animal get optimum exercise which results in better health and production.

d. Detection of animals in heat is facilitated.

VENTILATION IN HOUSINGS

Suitable ventilation is necessary to maintain purity level of atmospheric air. Abundant sunlight is an
absolute necessity for the health of livestock. This sun-light possess growth promoting properties and also
have the effect of germicidal action. This sun-light destroy the bacteria by decreasing their efficiency and.
intensity. So the size of door and windows should be large enough to allow sufficient light from out side.

SHEEP HOUSING

Sheep do best under natural condition. Intensive housing is injurious to their health under the prevalent
climatic condition. . it may also be determinantal to the growth and quality of wool. For breeding purpose
it is convenient to. pen 40-SQ ewes during night in a single enclosure. Enclosure or pen with sufficiently
high walls to prevent interference from wild animals provide satisfactory housing for sheep. Temporarily,
such an enclosure can be made of through bushes and topping of trees.

A pen of 15 m X 15. m is adequate to hold 40 to 50 ewes.

Thatched shed of 5.5m X 3.5m size, however, is required to protect animals from wind. cold and rain. .

Segregation Sheds

A small segregation shed measuring 3.5m X 5.Om may be provide in case the flock size is large. This
shed be built in farthest corner of the farm divided into two or three

sections with provision of well-fenced yard. Each stall as well as the yard should have separate watering
arrangement.

76
 GLOSSARY LIVESTOCK AND POULTRY

Addled egg: An egg which has begun to go bad.

Ark: A small house with ridged roof, often used for grazing for a small number of poultry or rabbits.

Baffles: Pieces of material, usually wood or plastic, which are placed in an air vent to prevent direct
draught without impeding the air flow.

Bantam: Strictly speaking, a naturally occurring, small-sized fowl which has not large counterpart, but
as there has been so much selective breeding to scale down standard-sized birds, the term is
generally taken to mean any small-sized fowl.

Blocky A horse with blocky foot has a noticeably more upright slope to the hoof than is normal.

Bran mash: A feed prepared by pouring boiling water over bran and then covering the bucket with a sack
of half an hour. It is fed whilst still warm.

Breast collar: An alternative to a neck collar for a house. The breast collar is a wide horizontal strap around
the lower part or the neck to which traces are attached for traction.

Breech: Presentation of a foetus at birth with hindquarters foremost.

Breeching: A strap similar to the breast collar which is hung around the gorse’s hindquarters. It is attached
by straps or chains to the shafts and prevents the vehicle over-running the horse.

Broiler: A young bird specifically raised for meat.

Broken mouth: A condition where a sheep has lost one or mote teeth.

Brooding: Raising newly-hatched chicks in a protected environment.

Broody: A bird manifesting a desire to sit on a clutch of egg.

Buck: Male goat over two years of age.

Buckling: Male goat between one and two years of age.

Bulling: Presenting signs of being ready for mating (heifers and cows).

Cage battery: System of keeping livestock in cages in a controlled environment.

Calf nuts: Nutritive food mixture supplied by merchants in pellet form.

Candling: Examination an egg against a bright light in order to see the internal structure.

Capon: A neutered cockerel.

Cell count: A laboratory method of examining milk for health protection. Normal milk contains a number
of cells from the cow’s tissues. If the cell count increases above normal levels, that is an
indication of disease and the farmer is informed.

Cloaca: End section of a hen’s food canal, from which waste matter is ejected.
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Closed Breed: A breed where registration is restricted to progeny of animals themselves registered in that
breed.

Coccidiostat: An additive sometimes added to proprietary food as a means of protecting livestock against the
disease coccidiosis.

Cock: A male bird that has completed one breading season (American rooster).

Cockerel. A male bird in its first breeding season.

Colostrum: The milk secreted by the udder for forty-eight hours after birth of the young. It contains a
concentration of antibodies which are passed to the young and act as a valuable protection
against a number of infectious conditions. The young animal can only absorb these antibodies
for a matter of hours (possibly only twenty-four) so it is crucial that it should suckle
colostrums from its mother frequently during that short period.

Concentrates: Highly nutritious cereal food, fed in order to maintain milk or meat production at a profitable
level.

Conformation: The shape of an animal’s frame which only varies with growth, as distinct from its general
condition (i.e. whether it is fat or thin).

Convection Downwards movement of cold air in a building caused by warm air rising by convection and
downdraught: being cooled by contact with un-insulated surfaces.

Creep: Area where young piglets spend most of their time, and which has opening to small to allow
the sow to enter.

Crop: Portion of the hen’s food canal where food is stored until it is ready for moving on into the
stomach.

Cross-bred: Progeny resulting from the mating of two different breeds.

Cuddling: Chewing over the small portions of food that have been regurgitated from the cow’s rumen.
(See rumination).

Culling: Killing any surplus or diseased stock; maintaining good health or productivity in a herd by
killing such animals.

Deadweight: The weight of an animal after slaughter and when all the offal has been removed (virtually the
weight of all the saleable meat).

Deep-litter: Floor covering in indoor poultry houses, made up of a build-up of successive layers.

Dewlap: A loose pouch of skin on a duck’s throat.

Dip bath. A bath containing insecticide in which sheep are dipped to kill external parasites.

Doe A mature female goat.

Drafting race: A race through which sheep can be driven in order to divide them into two or three groups.

78
Draining pen: Pen is which sheep dry off after being dipped.

Drench: Liquid medication poured down the throat from a bottle.

Drying-off: The gradual cessation of milk production by the mother after her young have been weaned.

Elastrator: Implement used to apply rubber rings for castrating lambs.

Entropion: A condition where the eyelids are turned in, usually at birth.

Feed Conversion The amount of feed consumed in order to produce a given body weight.
ratio:

Feed hopper: A container which allows food to drop down gradually as more is consumed.

Fetlock: The obvious joint between a horse’s knee (or hock) and foot.

Finishing: The last few weeks before an animal goes to slaughter, during which period it is given the best
attention so that it will arrive for slaughter in the peak of condition.

Flushing: Improving the condition of ewes before mating:

Fold unit: A small house, complete with covered-in run, for the controlled grazing of poultry.

Forage: Feed that is growing (e.g. grass, leaves, kale, etc.) as opposed to manufactured feed (e.g. meal).

Fore-milk cup: A metal cup fitted with a dark shelf. The first milk at each milking is drawn into the cup. If
there is udder trouble (mastitis) clots of milk will be seen on the dark shelf.

Free-marten: A female calf that was twin to a male calf. In the majority of cases, the shared pregnancy so
affects here that she is unable to conceive.

Free-range: Traditional method of allowing birds to graze over a wide area of land.

Gander: Adult male goose.

Gizzard: A strong, muscular bag within the hen’s digestive system, for grinding up food.

Goatling: Female goat between one and two years of age that has not borne a kid.

Grading up: The process where, by the successive use of pedigree sires, the ultimate progeny of
unregistered stock become eligible for registration in an open breed.

Green hide: Skin that has been cleaned, scraped and dried, but has not yet been permanently tanned
(rabbits).

Heat: The period when the female is ovulating and is ready to receive the male. It is the only time
that she can become pregnant.

Heavy breed: Bird which has a high meat to bone ration and is therefore suitable for the table.

Heifer: A young female cow that has not yet produced a calf.

Hinny: The offspring of a horse father and a donkey mother.

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Hock: The large joint half way down the hind leg of a horse.

Hogg: A young yearling sheep before shearing.

Holding pen: A large pen in which sheep are held prior to being handled.

Hybrid: Offspring produced by breeding from tow or more distinct lines.

Hypochlorite: Sodium hypochlorite solution used for sterilizing milking equipment by release of free
chlorine.

Immunoglobulin: Protein-like materials produced in the body which inactivate or destroy antigens.

Inbreeding: Mating of closely related animals.

Incubation: The process of development of a fertile poultry egg within the shell.

Jack: An entire male donkey.

Keet: Young guinea fowl.

Kibbled grain: Grain that has been chopped into pieces rather than ground.

Kid: A male or female goat from birth to one year of age.

Killing-out- The percentage of saleable or edible carcass after slaughter and butchering. This varies
percentage: between 70-77% of the liveweight.

Kindling: Giving birth to young (rabbits)

Lactation: The period of milk production after the female has given birth.

Lamb bar: Apparatus for communal feeding of lambs and kids consisting of a container for milk with
several teats set into it.

Lambing The number of lambs produced per 100 ewes.

percentage:

Let-down: Release of milk from the udder.

Light breed: A hen which is less suitable for the table, but usually has a tendency to lay more eggs, then a
heavy breed.

Litter: Any material used as flooring, e.g. straw, woodshavings.

Mash feed: Food, such as bran and boiled barley, mixed with hot water.

Meconium: Brown black material passed from an animal’s bowel shortly after birth.

Mite: Minute parasite related to the spider.

Musk glands: Glands which secrete an odour as a secondary sexual characteristic, and in the male goat are
mainly situated just in front of the horns.

Mule: The offspring of a donkey father and horse mother.

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Notifiable Any disease that must be reported to the government health authorities.
(reportable)
disease:

Nursling: A calf that is still suckling the cow.

Oestrus: The period during which the female shows desire for the male.

Open breed: A breed in which entry is not restricted to progeny of animals registered in that breed (i.e.
opposite of closed breed).

Overshot jaw: A condition where the lower jaw protrudes beyond the upper one.

Oviduct: Passage from the hen’s ovary to the vent.

Pastern: A small join in a horse’s leg between the fetlock and the foot.

Pelt: Skin.

Pipping: The process of breaking the egg shell by a chick before hatching.

Point of Lay: Age at which pullets begin to lay, usually between 20 and 200 weeks.

Polled: Naturally hornless.

Poult: Young turkey.

Poultice: A hot, wet dressing applied to an injury or swelling for its softening and soothing properties.

Primary feathers: Main flight feathers.

Pullet: A young hen which has not started to lay.

Raddle: The colouring smeared on the chest of a ram to mark ewes when they are mated.

Rearer or grower Mash formulated for young stock where rapid growth for the table is required.
ration:

Ridge ventilation Gaps left at the apex of the roof to assist ventilation.

Rooster: American equivalent of cock.

Rumination: The process of digestion in cattle whereby food is swallowed to the first stomach, the rumen.
Later it is regurgitated into the mouth and chewed over again to be swallowed for further
processing by the second, third and fourth stomachs.

Running through: Lactation extended beyond 365 days.

Scouring: Diarrhea.

Separator: Mechanical device for separating cream from milk by centrifugal force.

Service: The act of mating.

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Shearling: A sheep after being shorn for the first time.

Shelly: Fine-boned and thin fleshed (of sheep).

Shelter belt: A small plantation sited to provide shelter from the prevailing wind.

Silage: An alternative to hay as a means of preserving summer food for winter use. It is made from
grass and other green crops such as clover, kale, peas and green corn, which are cut while
young and are compacted in airtight concrete towers (soils), or in stacks, or pits covered with
plastic sheeting, so that they undergo a controlled fermentation to a readily digestible and
nutritious feed.

Sitting breed: A breed of poultry which retains the natural tendency to become broody once or twice a year.

Slurry: The thick liquid formed by the mixing of dung and urine.

Solids-not-fat: The solids dissolved or suspended in milk other than butterfat, composed principally of protein
(casein) lactose and minerals.

Space-boarding: Narrow gaps left between vertical boards on the sides of a building to assist ventilation.

Sport: A random mutation.

Springing: Applied to a heifer or cow showing sings of approaching calving.

Squab. Young pigeon raised for meat.

Stag: Adult male turkey (Britain).

Stall-feeding: A system of management where animals are housed more or less continuously (except for
exercise) and forager crops are cut and carried to them.

Staring coat: Hairs standing on end indicative of illness or poor condition.

Starter crumbs: Mash formulated for young poultry and made into a crumb structure.

Steaming up: Increased feeding, particularly of concentrates during the latter part of pregnancy.

Steer: Castrated male cattle being reared for beef.

Store: An animal not yet ready for slaughter.

Strain: Type of stock which will produce the same characteristics from one generation to another.

Stratification: A method of cross-breeding sheep of different types.

Stripping out: Removing the final amount of milk from the udder.

Thriftiness: The capacity to make good use of food.

Tom: Adult male turkey (USA).

Tongue-and-groove Boarding where the panels interlock with each other.

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boarding:

Traces: Two straps, chains or ropes, one on each side of the horse, attached to the collar in front and
the vehicle behind, by which the horse draws the vehicle.

Trocar and An instrument used to relieve cattle suffering from indigestion with accumulations of wind
Cannula: (gas)

Tubbing: Standing horse’s foot in a bucket of hot water with washing soda dissolved in it to soften the
hoof.

Urinari calculi: Stones or concretions containing salts found in the urinary system.

Veal: Calf meat.

Vermifuge: Drug or other preparation for killing parasitic worms.

Wattle hurdle: Hurdle constructed of woven, split hazel.

Weanling: A calf weaned from suckling.

Wether: Castrated sheep.

Wool blindness: A condition where wool on the face impedes the vision.

Yearling: A calf between one and two years of age.

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