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Summary
During a relatively short period, bridge technology in Korea has recognized outstanding
development. Owing to the governmental policy aiming to achieve balanced regional development,
unprecedented bridge construction activities are conducted in the peninsula, especially in the
southwestern coast to link some of the 3,000 islands with the mainland. Korean bridge engineers are
now designing and constructing bridges using domestic technology, which has today reached a level
enabling to realize the erection of numerous sea-crossing bridges counting among the longest in the
world like Incheon cable-stayed bridge (main span 800m) and Gwangyang suspension bridge (main
span 1545m). This paper reviews the evolution of modern bridge construction in Korea and presents
major bridges recently erected or to be built. R&D programs dedicated to the advancement of
bridge technology are also introduced.
1. Introduction
Despite of its short history of 40 years, the
Korean bridge technology recognized
outstanding development. The construction
of bridges was at first involved as social
infrastructure supporting the series of 5-year
plans of the governmental policy since 1962
aiming to boost the economy of the country.
As a result, the bridge stock of the peninsula
increased from 9,322 bridges in 1970 to
22,937 bridges in 2007 and the
corresponding developed length extended
Fig. 1 Number of bridges built by decades in Korea [1] from 268km to 1,987km [2].
It is noteworthy that even if the developed length of the bridges multiplied by 5 times, the bridge
stock only doubled. This means that Korean bridge engineering has realized remarkable progress in
the domain of long-span bridges such as cable-supported bridges. In a short delay, Korea will have
a cable-stayed bridge, Incheon Bridge (80+260+800+260+80m) that will rank at the fifth position
among the longest cable-stayed bridges in the world, and a suspension bridge, Gwangyang Bridge
(main span: 1545m), that will be the third longest bridge in the world at its completion in 2012.
The preference given to cable-supported bridge can be attributed to the topography of the Korean
peninsula. Seventy percent of the country is composed of mountainous areas and the coastal regions
are surrounded by 3,174 islands, which represent 3.80% of the territory with 0.65% of the
population. Most of these islands being inhabited, their connection with the mainland is of
primordial importance for the balanced regional development and preference is indeed given to
cable-supported bridges in order to secure navigational channels (Fig. 2).
The construction of bridges is thus a
necessity that will bring multiple
benefits. In a social point of view,
about 90% of the 3,174 islands of
Korea are gathered in the southern
and western coastal areas of the
peninsula, of which most are located
within a distance of 1km from the
continent. However, the aging and
emigration of the working population
to big cities and the poor accessibility
are accelerating their desertion. In an
economical point of view, it becomes
obviously necessary to prepare for the
future tourism inflow and economic
revitalization of remote areas through
Fig. 2 Overview of the islands of Korea by province the construction of seashore road belts
conducted by the governmental plan.
The scenes offered by the southern and western coasts will be a very profitable source of revenue
for these regions. The construction of bridges will also reduce significantly the large deviations
caused by the sawtooth coastline, and improve the accessibility and transportability of goods
fabricated in the neighbouring industrial complexes [2,3].
The bridge stock will grow
continuously through the restless
sea-crossing bridge construction
activities in the southwestern
coast, especially in the Province
of Jeollanamdo located in the
southwest of Korea and bounded
on the west by the Yellow Sea
and on the south by Jeju Strait.
Almost 2,000 islands of which
75% are inhabited are scattered
along the 6,100km of its
coastline. The plan of the
provincial government is to
provide a total of 103 bridges to
link major islands. Among these,
33 bridges have already been
completed, 21 are under
Fig. 3 Sea-crossing bridge construction activities in Jeollanamdo construction and 48 are under
Province project (Fig. 3).
At completion of these bridge projects, the southwestern coast of Korea will become a museum of
bridges with all types of structures from simple girder bridges to world-ranking suspension bridges.
The following intends to review briefly the 40 years of the history of bridge in Korea with focus on
sea-crossing bridges so as to highlight major recent bridges that have been or are being constructed
all over the country. Recent national R&D programs of the Ministry of Land, Transport and
Maritime Affairs (MLTM) and in-house programs dedicated to the advancement of bridge
engineering and design are also introduced.
Fig. 4 Views of Namhae Bridge, Jindo Bridge (front: 1st Jindo Bridge, rear: 2nd Jindo Bridge) and
Dolsan Bridge
Together with the increase of the bridge stock, Korea experienced also tremendous increase of
traffic. The number of vehicles registered in Korea today has already exceeded 16 million units.
From 1970 to early 2000s, the total number of vehicles multiplied by 120 and the number of trucks
mutiplied by 60. To worsen the situation, the dimensions and weight of trucks increased
dramatically. However, even if the bridges designed at the time were applying truck design load
DB-18 (total weight of 34tonf) with consideration of the future increase of traffic volume and
vehicle loads, design could not predict such exceptional increase of vehicle. For example, the traffic
load of Namhae Bridge has been controlled and limited to 32.4t since 2003 after 30 years of
operation due to the appearance of fatigue cracks in the girder generated by the incessant crossing
of heavy trucks [4]. The first Jindo Bridge, the first cable-stayed bridge in Korea and also the
longest cable-stay span outside Europe at its completion in 1984, was also designed with respect to
design live load DB-18. Similarly to Namhae Bridge, the bridge was subjected to truck loads
exceeding the design load and the governmental authorities decided to improve the load carrying
capacity of the existing bridge while erecting a twin bridge (Fig. 4) designed for vehicle load of
DB-24 and DL-24.
Fig. 5 Views of Onnam Bridge (1996), Seonammun Bridge (1996) and Anmyeon Bridge (1997)
As mentioned above, the collapse of Sungsu Bridge happened in 1994. This accident emphasized
the significance and necessity of maintenance system for bridges to prevent both human and
economical losses. Accordingly, in 1995, the governmental authorities issued more stringent
requirements on bridge management and operational programs including systematic visual
inspection, instrumentation, load capacity tests and field measurements. This started structural
health monitoring of bridges in Korea with stand-alone field system consisting of sensors, field
hardware and online signal transmission. Such stand-alone systems were installed on existing
bridges like Namhae and Jindo bridges in order to collect field data by full scale load capacity test
and evaluate their structural health [2,3,5,6].
The site being directly exposed to the South Sea, the design of the cable-stayed bridges has to
accommodate harsh environmental conditions like typhoons and high tides. The first bridge is a
three-pylon cable-stayed bridge with two main spans of 230m and the second bridge is a two-pylon
cable-stayed bridge with main span of 475m for total lengths of 2,363.5m and 1,856m, respectively
(Fig. 9). Both cable-stayed bridges are founded on caissons fully prefabricated offsite and
transported to the site. The concrete pylons are designed with slightly inward curving legs. The
curvature of the legs is limited by a “no tension” criteria for dead load and the use of standard
climbing form equipment. The bridge deck is a traditional steel-concrete composite girder. The
approach bridges are composite girder arranged with 90m spans. All elements of the approaches are
prefabricated offsite in three elements, caisson, pier shaft and deck and will be transported on site
using a 3000t floating crane. AASHTO LRFD (Load and Resistance Factor Design) is applied as
design codes [14]. The project is being implemented along the lines of the privately financed BOT
model and executed through Fast Track together with PMIS (Project Management Information
System).
Fig. 9 Overview of Busan-Geoje fixed link and construction sites of the cable-stayed bridges
Reducing the self-weight and construction costs, securing aerodynamic stability and introducing
innovative construction methods were the foremost issues for the conception of this bridge.
Accordingly, twin box girder is adopted since it enables to improve the aerodynamic stability of the
whole structure and reduce the amount of steel. Connection with the approach sections is handled
by gradual change of the girder from twin box into single box along a length of 150m. During
preliminary design, the cross-sectional shape of the girder was optimized to maximize the
aerodynamic stability and to minimize the drag force. Iterative tests led to a twin box girder section
with gap of 4.3m for the central span of the bridge [18].
The H-shaped concrete towers will rise at a height of 270m, the tallest concrete towers in the world.
Trapezoid shape is adopted for the section of the towers owing to its aerodynamic stability. The
outer shape combines curved and straight lines to achieve consistency with the streamline-shaped
twin box stiffening girder. Moreover, floating girder system without expansion of the joints is
adopted to provide better performance in longitudinal movements and avoid the installation of soffit
cross beam under the stiffening girder at the towers. The height from sea level to the underside of
the deck is in the order of 85 metres to allow for the largest container ships to pass safely beneath
the bridge [19].
High-strength steel of 1,860MPa will be applied for the main cable for the first time in the world. This
choice makes it possible to reduce the self-weight of the main cable and decrease the drag force by
minimizing the area of the cable. High cable sag ratio of 1/9 is selected. Rectangular arrangement has
been chosen for the strands so as to reduce the required number of strands. This choice enables to
realize slim saddle and anchorage together with enhanced air spinning (A/S) speed.
Innovative construction methods are also planned to overcome the difficulties expected in installing
the main cable, erecting the towers and twin box girder. An improved free hanging A/S method will
be applied. In this innovated method, the strand is formed by pulling out with a tension smaller than
free-hand tension while the cable former is supporting partially the weight of the wire. The towers
will be erected by auto-climbing form method using automatic climbing form with scaffolding
system. The plan of verticality of the towers is secured by integrating real-time GPS system and
laser measurement system. Swing method is adopted to erect the twin box girder using a lifting
device running on the main cable and hanger rope with fixation to the hanger rope, which allows
the navigable channel of 500m to be opened all along the construction [17]. The devised structural
systems and construction methods chosen for Gwangyang Bridge will undoubtedly constitute future
standards for the design of long-span suspension bridges.
This choice was conducted considering optimal bridge alignment, safety of navigation, preservation
of natural environment and economy of construction [20].
The 203m high pylons are plane frame reinforced concrete structures with inclined legs and 3
transverse beams exhibiting rectangular hollowed section with rounded edges. The length of the
main cables will be approximately 2,000m from anchorage to anchorage with distance of 23.5m
between the cables and sag ratio of 1/9. High-strength galvanized steel wires of 1,960MPa and
diameter of 5.35mm will be applied. The main cables will be erected using the same method of
Gwangyang Bridge. The stiffening girder is a 25.6m wide streamlined steel box girder with depth of
3.5m. The girder will be erected by segments of 15m using lifting devices mounted on the main
cables. This bridge having been designed after Gwangyang Bridge will apply all the new standards
considered for Gwangyang Bridge.
5. Conclusions
During a short period, bridge technology in Korea has recognized outstanding development. Owing
to the governmental policy aiming to achieve balanced regional development, unprecedented bridge
construction activities are conducted throughout the peninsula, especially, in the southwestern coast
to link some of the 3,000 islands with the mainland. Korean bridge engineers are now designing and
constructing bridges using domestic and self-reliant technology, which has today reached a level
enabling to realize the erection of numerous sea-crossing bridges counting among the longest in the
world like Incheon Bridge and Gwangyang Bridge.
On the other hand, in the years to come, bridge design and maintenance will be driven by
requirements to keep traffic moving, increase capacity and reduce delays, respect ecological
exigencies and keep both initial and long-term costs as low as possible. Therefore, in the future,
creating sustainable and maintenance-free bridges will be the foremost challenge for bridge
designers and engineers.
Accordingly, this paper presented the evolution of bridge technology in Korea and national R&D
programs aiming the preparation for the next generation of bridge technology. Past and current
bridge construction activities have been reviewed to highlight the technical achievements of the
Korean bridge engineering community and the ambitious programs launched in a context of
unprecedented bridge construction projects and technological accomplishments.
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