AGUSAN DEL SUR STATE COLLEGE OF

AGRICULTRE AND TECHNOLOGY

INSTRUCTIONAL MANUAL
IN
COMPETENCY 1 and 2

(COMPETENCY 1 AND 2)

EMERSON JAY O. IBACARRA

Associate Professor III

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 CROP PROTECTION

Principles of Plant Pathology

Part I
Principles of Plant Pathology

A. Introduction

1. What is Plant Pathology?

Plant pathology is the study of the microorganisms and of the

environmental factors that cause disease in plants; of the mechanisms by which these factors induce
disease in plants; and of the methods of preventing or controlling disease and reducing the damage it
causes.

2. As a science, plant pathology tries to increase our knowledge of plant diseases and at the same time
it tries to develop methods, equipment, and materials through which plant diseases can be avoided or
controlled.

The art of plant pathology deals with the application of the knowledge gained from the science. This
includes: a) diagnosis b) disease assessment and forecasting c) recommendation of appropriate
control measures and d) field of application of suitable control measures.

3. Economic importance of plant diseases

Plant diseases are paramount importance to humans because they damage plants and plant products
on which humans depend for food, clothing, furniture, the environment and housing.

a. Uncontrolled plant diseases may result in less food and higher food prices, or in food of poor quality
and low nutrient value.
b. Toxins or poisons produced by disease on the commodity make it unfit for consumption.
c. Some diseases may wipe out entire plant species.
d. High cost of materials, equipment and labor incurred in controlling the disease result in high cost of
production and handling.
e. Sometimes the environment may be contaminated or affected by such toxic chemicals used to
control disease which include humans, animals, soil, beneficial organism, our water sources and
plants.
f. Harvested produce deteriorate during storage, marketing and transit.
g. Diseases predispose the commodity to attack by other pathogens.

The ultimate objective of plant pathology is to prevent or minimize plant diseases to increase food
production or reduce food looses while improving food quality and at the same time safeguarding our
environment. We also need to protect and preserve plants used for fibers, drugs and aesthetics.

4. Historical development of plant pathology

A. Pre-Scientific Period

1. (Old Testament (750 B.C.)- mentioned blights and mildews of cereals and vine
crops.
2. In many of the early references of Greeks and Hebrews (500 B.C.-280 B.C) plant
diseases were considered to be a curses and a punishment of the people by God for wrongs and sins they
had committed.
3. Greek philosopher Theophrastus (C. 300 B.C)- first to study and write about diseases
of trees, cereals and legumes.
4. Romans (320 B.C. 475 AD) who became painfully aware of the devastating effects of
the rusts on grain crops, stages a festival known as Robigalia to please gods Robigo
Robigus so they would stop sending rusts to their crop.
5. Phiny, the Elder (Roman philosopher) wrote about blights and rusts in his Historia
Naturalis, he recommended that early sowing of grains allowed wheat and barley to
escape rust infection.
6. Around 875 A.D. and for many years thereafter ergot epidemics in humans swept
through various parts of Europe.
7. Belief on spontaneous generation theory prevailed during these early times that is,
they believe that the mildews, rusts, decay or other symptoms observed on diseased
plants and any microorganisms found on or in diseased plants were the natural
products of diseases that just happened rather than the cost and effect of the diseases.

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8. Ancient writers Homer (C. 100 B.C.) mentioned about therapeutic properties of sulfur
on plant diseases and Democritus (c. 470 B.C.) recommended controlling plant blights
sprinkling plants with the olive grounds left after extraction of the olive oil.
9. Magnus in Germany (A.D. 1200) propose the role of mistletoe plant in disease of its
host plant and recommended pruning off the part carrying the mistletoe.

b. Beginning and advances in scientific studies

1. In 1590, Hans and Zaccharias Jansen invented the compound microscope which enabled scientists
like Hooke (1665) to see plant cells, and plant pathogenic microscopic fungus and Leeuwenhoek
(1683) to find bacteria, protozoa and the microorganisms in water.

2. French farmers around mid 1600s and Connecticut farmers in the early 1700s noted that wheat rust
was worse near barberry bushes and thus recommended eradication of these barberry to protect
wheat plants from rust coming from barberry.

3. In Italy, Pier Antonio Micheli (1725) described many new genera of fungi, illustrated their
reproductive structures and noted that fresh melon slices dusted with fungus spores resulted into
growth and reproduction of these structures. In short, fungi arose from their own spores.

4. In Fraance, Tillet (1755) actually showed that wheat smut is a contagious disease.

5. Targioni-Tozzetti (1766) and Fontana (1767) concluded that cereal rust was caused by the rust fungi
associated with it.

6. Provost (1807) in France reasoned that it was the fungus spores that caused the smut in wheat and
this can be controlled by copper sulfate treatment of seeds.

7. Person and Fries (1800) conducted numerous studies on the taxonomy of fungi.

8. Tulasne brothers made extensive morphological studies with excellent of illustrations rusts, smuts
and ascomycetous fungi and confirmed Pre hosts observation on spore germination and causal role
of fungi in plant disease.

9. Heinrich Anton de Barry (1853) published his conclusion that from all evidence made by previous
workers on the rusts and smuts of cereals, diseases were caused by parasitic agents which were
separate entities in themselves; clearly demonstrated that the fungi are the cause and not the result of
plant disease. For this, he is considered the “Father of Plant Pathology”

He showed that a fungus (Phytophthora infestans) was the cause of plant disease known as
late blight potato.

10. In 1860-1863, Louis Pasteur proved in his experiments that microorganisms and that fermentation
was a biological phenomenon not just a chemical one, this marked the beginning of the end of the
theory of spontaneous generation and provided the basis for the germ theory of disease.

11. Other contributions of de Bary proved and concluded involvement of smut and rust fungi in plant
disease, that some rust diseases require 2 alternate hosts, that sclerotinia induced rotting of
vegetables by producing substances that diffuse into plant tissues in advance of the fungus.

12. Kuhn contributed significantly to the studies of infection and development of smut wheat plants;
recommended seed treatment for cereals; wrote first book in plant pathology, Diseases of Cultivated
Crops, Their causes and their control; recognized involvement of either unfavorable environment or
by parasitic organisms disease.

13. Brefeld, Kolch, Petri and others (1875-1912) contributed greatly to plant pathology in the
development and introduction of techniques for growing microorganisms in pure culture. Kock
Postulates: set of 4 rules which must be satisfied before it can be accepted that a particular
microorganisms isolated from a diseased plant is the cause of the disease.

14. In the 1880’s German scientists demonstrated the role of pollutants in plant disease.

15. Thomas J. Burrill (1878-1883) of the US and J.H. Wakker (1883-1889) of Holland proved that
bacteria can incite diseases in plants. Burrill found that fire blight of apples and pears is caused by a
bacterium while Wakker-showed that yellow disease of hyacinth is due to a bacterium, E.F. Smith
studied more bacterial plant diseases: Crown gall disease.

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 16. Ivanowski (1892) and Beijerinck (1898)- diseased viruses as very small entities that could pass
through bacteria-proof filters.

17. Stanley (1935) crystallized the tobacco mosaic virus.

18. Kausche and colleagues (1939) saw virus particles using electron microscope.

19. Gierrer and Schramn (1956) found that virus particles are made up of protein and nucleic acid
component which is the infective component.

20. In 1743, Needham observed for the first time nematodes inside wheat galls.

21. Berkeley noted root knot nemas in cucumber root galls; Cobb conducted extensive studies in the
morphology and taxonomy of plant parasitic nemas (1913-1932)

22. Stahel (1931) found protozoa causing abnormal phloem formation and wilting of coffee trees
which was confirmed by vermerlen in 1963. Flagellates are also believed to cause heart rot disease of
coconut trees.

23. Doi et al (1967) first reported mycoplasma-like organisms to infect aster yellows in Japan; other
diseases believed to be due to mycoplasma such as lethal yellowing of coconut palms, potato
witche’s broom, bunchy top of papaya, rice yellow dwarf, mulberry dwarf, mungbean witche’s
broom, and aster yellows.

24. Diener in 1971 determined that potato spindle tuber disease wasa caused by a viroid, infectious RNA
molecule. Cadang-cadang of coconut, citrus exocortis and potato spindle tuber are believed to be
caused by viroids.

25. Davis and Co-workers observed what they called a spiroplasma in 1972 causing corn stunt diseases.

26. Windsor and Black discovered club leaf disease of clover to be caused by rickettsia-like
microorganisms. Phony peach and Pierces disease of grapes may be caused by RLOs.

c. Development of Plant Pathology

1. Descriptive Phase
*increased awareness and familiarization with the existence of plant disease and with some causes
of the diseases

 Reports published in journals described numerous plant diseases

 Invention of microscopes, development and introduction of techniques for growing microorganisms,

development of Kochs’ postulate development of plant staining and histopathological techniques,
invention of electron microscope.

 Start of development of control measures, cultural and chemical and recognition of role off
environment in disease development.

2. Experimental Phase

 Scientists began to experiment in all areas of plant pathology

 They began to design experiments to answer questions about every aspect of disease development in
the host plant, survival of the pathogen, effect of the environment and variability among plant
species and varieties in disease expression and loss, and ways to control and reduce losses due to
diseases.

3. Etiological phase

Involved observations and experiments aimed at proving the causes of specific plant
diseases

Involved descriptions of the symptoms of mostly fungal plant diseases on all types of hosts,
isolation and culture of suspected pathogen, pathogenicity tests

Depend on and benefited from development of techniques and instrumentation such as

electron microscope, special nutrient media, electrophorosis, polymerase chain reaction, etc.

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d. Development of plant pathology in the Philippines

1. The first diseases to be studied in the country are coffee rust caused by Hemileia vastatrix and
coconut bud rot caused by Phytophthroa palmivora Butler. Coffee rust was first noted in 1885 in
Batangas and coconut bud rot was initially observed before 1908 in Laguna and later spread to
Quezon province.

1. Hemileia vastatrix causing coffee rust- one of the diseases first studied destroyed coffee trees in
Batangas in 1885.

2. Phytophthora palmivora Butler causing coconut and rot-another disease first observed in Laguna
around 1908 and spread to Quezon province.

3. Dr. E.B. Copeland- first dean of UP College of Agriculture (1908) investigated coconut bud rot
control

4. Corn leaf blight- reported by C.B. Robinson in 1911

5. Downy mildew of corn- observed by C. Baker in 1912

6. “Lower fungi of the Philippine Islands”-published by Baker in 1914

7. Botany 4 (“Diseases of Plants) was first taught at Department of Agronomy 1910

8. In 1917-Department of Plant Pathology at UP College of Agriculture was put up with Otto A.

Reinking as first department head.

9. Prof. Reinking published “Philippine Economic Plant Diseases” in 1918. he also put up herbarium of
plant diseases which was lost during World War II

10. G.O. Ocfermia-was department head in 1933-1955

-studied abaca bunchy top, the casual virus and its insect vector
- Dean of Filipino Plant Pathologists

11. Corn downy mildew studies by Weston (1920-23)

12. bunchy top of abaca and fiji disease of sugarcane (1920-1940)

13. studies in etiology and control of leaf and seedling diseases (19500-1960)

14. In 1950-1960, CA supported scholars on masteral and doctoral degree programs here and abroad;
Philippine Phytopathological Society was established in 1963; Philippine Phtopathological scientific
journal was created in 1965.

15. In 1970s, a Surveillance and Early Warning System for Plant Epidemics was established by the
bureau of Plant Idustry.

16. In 1978, O.R. Exconde and Co-workers controlled downy mildew of corn by seed treatment in 1978.
A plant Pest and Disease Clinic is available in the Dept. of Plant Pathology at UPLB.

17. Through the 80s the volume of articles published in technical journals, bulletins and other extension
materials have been increasing every year. State colleges and government and international
agencies, have plant pathology department or sections that are involved in plant disease control
etiological studies and researches on integrated disease management.

18. In the 90s knowledge in biotechnology and molecular plant pathology began to prosper and now play
a major role in diagnosis of plant diseases and development of new resistant varieties of crops.

B. Concepts of Plant Diseases, Terminology, Diagnosis, and Classification of Plant

Disease

1. Concept of Disease in Plants

a. A plant is healthy or normal when it can carry out its physiological functions to the best of its genetic
potential.
b. Disease in plants can be defined as a senses of invisible and visible responses of plant cells and
tissues to a pathogenic microorganisms or environmental factor that result in adverse changes in the
form, function or integrity of the plant and may lead to partial impairment or death of the plant or its
parts (Agrios, 1997).

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2. Definitions and Terminology in Plant Pathology

1. Pathogen- an entity, usually microorganisms that can incite disease.

2. Parasite- an organisms living on or in another living organism (host) and obtaining its food
to the latter.
3. Saprophyte- an organisms that uses organic material for food.
4. Obligate parasite- is an organism that in nature can grow and multiply only or in living
organisms.
5. Facultative parasite- is ordinarily a saprophyte but has the ability to be a parasite.
6. Facultative saprophyte- is ordinarily a parasite but has the ability to be a saprophyte.
7. Host- a plant that is invaded by a parasite and from which the parasite obtain its nutrients.
8. Suspect- any plant that can be attacked by the pathogen; a host plant
9. Pathogenicity-the capability of a pathogen to cause disease.
10. Pathogenesis- disease development in plant
11. Disease cycle- the chains of events involved in disease development, including thee stages of
development of the pathogen and the effect of the disease on the host.
12. Inoculation- the arrival or transfer of a pathogen onto a host
13. Inoculum- the pathogen or its part that can cause infection; that portion of individual
pathogens that are brought into contact with the host.
14. Infection- the establishment of a parasite within a host plant.
15. Infested- containing great numbers of insects, mites, nematodes, etc. as applied to an area or
field. Also applied to plant surface, soil container, or tool contaminated with bacteria, fungi,
etc.
16. Disinfectant- a physical or chemical agent that frees a plant; organ; or tissue from infection.
17. Disinfestant- an agent that kills or inactivates pathogens in the environment or on the surface
of a plant organ before infection takes place.
18. Symptoms- the external and internal reactions or alterations of a plant as a result of disease.
19. Signs- the pathogen or its parts or products seen on a host plant.

3. Symptoms of plant diseases- expressions by the host f a pathologic condition by which a particular disease
may be distinguished from other diseases.

1.1 Primary symptoms- are those that are the immediate and direct results of the casual agent’s activities
on the invaded tissues.
1.2 Localized symptoms- are the effects on the distant and uninvaded plant parts.
1.3 Secondary symptoms- are characterized by distinct and very limited structural changes usually in the
form of lesions such as canker, leafspot and gall.
1.4 Systemic symptoms- are more generalized pathological conditions such as mottle, mosaic, and
writing.
1.5 Histological symptom- is essentially internal and can be seen only when the affected part is dissected
and examined under microscope.
1.6 Morphological symptoms- are those malformations and other changes that are visible to the naked
eye; example: tumor, leafspot

1.7 Classification of symptoms based on the effect on the host tissues

1.7.1. Necrotic symptoms- involve death of protoplast, cells or tissues

Ex. Spot, blight, scorch, canker, die-back

1.7.2. hypoplastic symptoms- appear when there is an inhibition or failure in the

Differentiation or development of some aspect of plant growth, ex. Stunting
Chlorosis, mottle, mosaic, curling, and resetting

1.7.3 Hyper plastic symptoms- are expressed with the occurrence of excessive multiplication, enlargement,
or over-development of plant organs including the abnormal prolonged retention of the green color,
ex. Gall formation, scab, fruit drop, greening; hypertrophy- abnormal increase in cell size while
hyperplasia is abnormal in cell numbers.

4. Signs of plant diseases- refer to the structures of the pathogens that are found associated with the infected
plant. Examples: fungal mycelia, spores and fruiting bodies, sclerotial bodies, bacterial ooze, nematodes,
plant parts of phane organs.

5. Plant disease diagnosis- is the identification of specific plant diseases through their characteristic
symptoms and signs including other factors that may be related to the disease process.

5.1. Symptomatology- diagnosis is done based on thee characteristic symptoms and signs, particularly for
diseases which are quite common and having distinct symptoms and obvious signs. However, different
diseases/pathogens may exhibit similar symptoms on a host and a single pathogen may cause different
symptoms on a host depending on the host variety, the environment and race of the pathogen.

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5.2. Rules of proof of pathogenicity or Koch’s Postulates

For diseases, which are of unknown etiology or having no previous reports, the Koch’s postulates had to be
carried out to verify the causality of the pathogen to the particular diseases.

1. The pathogen must be found associated with the disease in all the diseased plants examined.
2. The pathogen must be isolated and ground in pure culture nutrient media, and its
characteristic described (non-obligate parasites), is it must be grown on a susceptible host
plant (obligate parasite), and its appearance and effects recorded.
3. The pathogen from pure culture must bee inoculated on healthy plants of the same species or
variety on which the disease appears, and it must be produce the same disease on the
inoculated plants.
4. The pathogen must be isolated in pure culture again, and its characteristics must be exactly
like those observed in step 2.

5.3. Classification of plant diseases

5.3.1. Classification according to affected plant organ

a. root diseases affect water and mineral uptake

b. leaf diseases-affect photosynthesis
c. fruit diseases- affect reproduction
d. stem diseases- affect water conduction

3.2 Classification according to symptoms

a. Leaf spot d. anthracnose

b. Rusts e. wilts
c. Smuts f. fruit rots

3.3 Classification according to type of affected plants.

a. Vegetable diseases
b. Forest tree diseases
c. Field crops disease
d. Ornamental crops diseases

3.4. Classification according to type of pathogen

a. Infectious diseases are caused by parasitic agents of plant diseases such as fungi, bacteria,
nematodes, viruses, mycoplasma and others.

1. fungal diseases
2. bacterial diseases
3. viral diseases
4. nematode diseases
5. mycoplasma diseases, etc.

b. Non-infectious diseases are caused by non-parasitic agents of plant diseases as listed below.

1. extremely high or excessively low temperature

2. unfavorable oxygen relations
3. unfavorable moisture conditions
4. nutrient deficiencies
5. mineral toxicities
6. air pollution
7. toxicity of pesticides

Principles of Plant Pathology

Part 2

Terminologies:

Parasite- an organisms that lives on or in some other organism and obtain its food from
the latter.

Parasitism- the removal of food by a parasite from its host

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 .effect could be + or-.(symbiosis) eg. Rhizobium causing root nodules, mycorrhizae
. Microorganisms and parasitic plants causing plant diseases

Pathogenicity- the ability of the parasite to interfere with one or more of the essential
Function of the plant and thereby to cause disease.
.the ability of the parasite/ pathogen to cause disease.

Biotrophs- Parasites that can grow and reproduce in nature only in living hosts.
.also called obligate parasites
.usually do not kill the hosts
eg. Powdery and downy mildew fungi, rust fungi, viruses, viroids, mollicutes
(Mycoplama-like orgs r Phytoplasma, Spiroplasma)

Non-obligate parasites- parasites that can live on either living or dead hosts and on various nutrient media
.usually kills the invaded host cells.

2 Categories of non-obligate parasites:

a. Facultative saprophytes- parasites that live most of time or most of their life cycles as
parasites, but under certain conditions, may grow saprophytically on dead organic matter.
Also called semibiotrophs.
b. Facultative parasites- parasites that live most of the time and thrive on dead organic matter,
but under certain circumstances, may attack living plants and become parasitic. Also called
necrotrophs.

Saprophytes- many microorganisms (fungi and bacteria) that lives or grows on a non-
living substrate or m.o. that thrives on dead organic matter.

Three components of disease in plants: PATHOGEN ENVIRONMENT

.plant or suscept (susceptible)
.pathogen (virulent) Disease
.environment (favorable)
HOST
DISEASE TRIANGLE

6. Disease Cycle- stages in the development of disease

-a series of events that leads to the development of disease

6.1. Events of parts of a disease cycle:

a. Inoculation
b. Penetration (Ingress)
c. Establishment or infection
d. Colonization (invasion)
e. Growth and reproduction of the pathogen
f. Dissemination of the pathogen
g. Survival of the pathogen in the absence of the host

a. Inoculation- the coming in contact of a pathogen with a plant

Inoculum- any part of the pathogen that can cause initial infection
-spores, fungal, hypae, sclerotia; bacterial cells; virus particles; nematode eggs, larvae and adults.

b. types of inoculum:

1. Primary inoculum- inoculum that causes original infections or inoculum from a dormant stage that
causes original infections.
2.
3. Secondary inoculum- inoculum produce from primary infection that causes secondary infections.

c. Sources of Inoculum:

1. Plant debris, soil in the field where the crop is grown

2. Seed, transplants, tubers or other propagative organs
3. Nearby plants or infested fields
4. Alternative Hosts such as perennial weeds

d. Dissemination- movement of inoculum to new areas, new hosts,etc…

e. Agents of Dissemination:
1. Air-eg. Fungal spores mostly disseminated through air
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 2. Water- rain, irrigation water etc…
3. Vectors- insects such as aphids, leafhoppers, planthoppers, mites, nematodes
4. Seed, transplants, nursery stock
5. Human- through handling, through tools, soil-contaminated feet, equipment, imported new varieties,
planting materials that harbor pathogens.

f. Inoculum Survival:

a. In infected host tissues and debris

b. In soil as resting sages like sclerotia, chlamydospores etc…
c. In alternate hosts like other perennial plants and weeds
d. In vectors
e. Survival as saprophytes in non-living matter

g. Pre-penetration:

Inoculum deposited in or near infection court maybe affected by various physical, chemical (abiotic) and
biological factors (biotic) of the environment before penetration takes place.

1. Abiotic factors affecting pre-penetration-moisture and minerals on leaf surface, soil moisture, RH,
soil temperature, etc…

2. Biotic factors- other microorganisms in the inoculation sites that may compete for moisture and
minerals, toxic compounds produced by these m.o.

Fungistasis- the incapability of spores of soil-borne fungi to germinate in some soils due to the existence of
a variety of antagonistic m.o. that cause starvation and production of toxic metabolities. These type of soils
are called suppressive soils

h. Penetration or ingress- the entry of pathogen into the host plant.

Three modes of ingress or ports of pathogen entry:

1. Direct penetration through intact cuticle.

2. trough wounds
3. through natural openings (stomata, lenticels, hydathodes,

Fungi-direct, through wounds or natural openings

Bacteria- through wounds or natural openings
Viruses- through wounds

Appresorium- the swollen tip of a hypha or germ tube of a fungus that facilities attachment and penetration
of the host by a fungus.

i. Infection- the process by which pathogens establish contact with the susceptible cells or
tissues of the host and procure nutrients from them.
- successful infections result in the appearance of symptoms

Latent infections- do not produce symptoms right away but at a later time when the environmental conditions
or the stage of maturity of the plant becomes more favorable.

Incubation period- time interval between inoculation and the appearance of disease symptoms.

Local infections – infections that involve single cell, a few cells or a small area of the plant. Caused by some
fungi, bacteria and protozoa.

Systemic infections- invasion by the pathogen of most or all susceptible cells and tissues throughout the
plant. Eg. Vascular wilt fungi and bacteria, viruses, phytoplasmas

6.2 Colonization- Growth and reproduction of the pathogen inside the host.

a. Colonization by viruses, viroids, and phytoplasma (Mycoplasma)

These pathogens invade and infect new tissues within the plant by reproducing at a rapid rate and
increasing their numbers tremendously in the infected tissues. The progency may then be carried
passively into new cells and tissues through plasmodesmata (viruses and viroids), through phloem
(viruses, viroids and Phytoplasmas, some fastidious bacteria and protozoa.

b. Colonization by bacteria- some bacteria colonize usually through the xylem and in some bacteria,
they may move through cells in their own power.

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 c. Colonization by fungi- invade the infect tissues by growing into them from one initial point of
inoculation then continue to grow and branch out within the infected host.

d. Colonization by nematodes- multiply initially at one point then may be carried through the xylem or
through cells in their own power.

6.3 Types of Disease Based on Disease Cycles:

a. Monocyclic- pathogen completes only one or even part of one disease cycle in 1 year.
b. Polycyclic- pathogen goes through more than one generation of disease per growth season.

7. Mechanisms of Pathogenicity and Host Response

(Effect of Pathogens on Plant Physiological Functions)

7.1 Interference with uptake of water and inorganic elements from the soil

-pathogens that affect the integrity and function of the rots causing them to absorb less water. Eg. Damping
off fungi (pythium), root rotting fungi and bacteria, most nematodes.

- Pathogens that invade and grow in the xylem vessels interfere with translocation of water through the
stem.
- Eg. Vascular wilt fungi and bacteria- Fusarium, Verticillium; Pseudomonas/ Ralstonia
and Erwinia.

7.2 Interference with transaction of organic compounds

- Pathogens that interfere with movement of organic nutrientsfrom leaf cells to the phloem and
to the cells that utilize them.
- Eg. Obligate fungal parasites such as rust and downy mildews, virus diseases that cause leaf
deformation and yellowing phytoplasmas

7.3 Reduction of Plant Photosynthetic Activity

- pathogens that infect leaves and cause chloroses, necroses and reduced leaf development.
- Eg. Leafspots blights, downy mildew, powdery mildw, sooty molds etc.., virus and viroids,
mollicutes causing chloroses, curling little leaf diseases.

7.4. Increased Transpiration

- some pathogens that interfere with the water economy of the plant by causing excessive
transpiration through their effects on leaves and stomata

7.5. Effect of Pathogens on host transpiration

- Respirationn is the process by which cells, through enzymatically controlled oxidation of the
energy in the form that can be utilized in the performance of various cellular processes.
- In diseased plant, respiration generally increases. Tissues used up their reserved CHO faster
than healthy tissues would.

7.6. Changes in growth suscepts

- eg. Leaf reforming pathogens eg. little leaf, curling and stunting

7.7 Changes in reproduction of host

- eg. flower and fruit infections

7.8. Death of cells and tissues

- necroses-causing pathogens like those causing spots, blights, due to toxins and enzymes
produced by the pathogen.

8. How pathogens Attack Plants?

8.1 Mechanical weapons- mechanical forces exerted by pathogens on host tissues.

- some fungi hyphae, appressorium, penetration peg.

- Nematodes apply mechanical pressure to plant surface, with the aid of their stylets enter
hosts.

8.2 Chemical weapons

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 a. .Enzymes- large protein molecules that catalyze all the interrelated reactions in the living cell.
Enzymatic degradation of cell wall substances
Eg. Pectinases or pectolytic enzymes, cutinases, cellulases, hemicellulases, proteases.

b. Microbial toxins- chemical substances that act directly on living host protoplasts seriously damaging
or killing the cells of the plant. Categorized into non-host specific or non-host selective toxins
(bacterial toxins) and host specific or host selective toxins (fungal toxins).

c. Growth Regulators- hormones that regulate growth in plants. May be produced by the plant as a
result of pathogen infection or may be produced by the pathogens directly. Eg. auxins such as IAA,
gibberellins, cytokinins etc.

9.Variability in Plant Pathogens

9.1 Concepts- one of the most dynamic and significant aspects of biology is that characteristics of
individuals within a species are not “fixed” that is, they are not identical but vary from one
individual to another. This is due to constant change (evolution).

9.2 Mechanisms of Variation- recombination, heteroploidy, mutation (general).

9.3 Mechanisms of variability in fungi (sexual-like processes)

a. Heterokaryosis- a condition in which, as a result of fertilization or anastomosis, cells of fungal

hyphae or parts of a hypha contain two or more nuclei that are generally different.

b. Parrasexualism- the process by which genetic recombinations can occur within fungal
heterokaryons. Comes about by the occasional fusion of two nuclei and formation of a diploid
nucleus.

c. Heteroploidy- the existence of cells, tissues, or whole organisms with numbers of chromosomes per
nucleus that are different from the normal 1N or 2N complement for the particular organisms.

9.4 Sexual-like processes in bacteria

a. Conjugation- coming in contact of two compatible bacteria and the transfer of portion of the
chromosome of plasmid from one bacterium to another through a conjugation bridge of pillus.

b. Transformation- bacterial cells are transformed genetically by absorbing and incorporating in their
own cells genetic materials secreted by, or released rupture of other bacteria.

c. Transduction- a bacterial virus (phage) transfers genetic material from the bacterium in which the
phage was produced, to the bacterium it infects next.

9.5 Stages of Variation in pathogens:

a. species- a population of a particular organism (e.g fungi) that have certain morphological and other
phenotypic characteristics in common; a group of genetically similar organisms that are capable of
interbreeding etc….
e.g.Puccinia graminis

b. varieties or special forms (formae speciales). Individuals within a species that attack only specific
hosts.
e.g. Puccinia graminis f.sp. tritici-infects wheat
Puccinia graminis f.sp. avenae- insects oats

c. race- even within each special form, some individuals attack some of the varieties of the some host
species but not the others. Each group of these individuals makes up a race. Eg. There are more 200
races of P.g. triciti.

d. variant- suddenly one of the offspring of the race can suddenly attack a new variety that it can barely
infect before. This individual is called a variant.

e. Biotype- the identical individuals produced asexually by the variant makeup a biotype. Each race
consists of one several biotypes.

10. Genetics of Host-Parasite Interaction

(Genetic of Virulence in Pathogens and Resistance of Hosts)

a. Infectious plant Diseases- result of the interaction of at least two organisms, the host plant
and the pathogen. The properties of these two organisms are governed by their genetic
make-up, the DNA that is organized into numerous segments making up the genes.

11
Studies of the inheritance of resistance versus susceptibility in plants prove that single genes control
resistance and their absence allows susceptibility. Studies of the inheritance of arivulence versus virulence
in pathogens prove that single genes control arivulence and their absence allow virulence. Studies of their
interactions prove that R genes in the plant are specific for avr genes in the pathogen. These varieties
possessing certain genes for resistance react differently against the various pathogen races and their genes for
arivulence.

It appears in the above that, under favorable environment conditions, the outcome-infection (susceptibility)
or none-infection (resistance)- in each host pathogen combination is pre-determined by the genetic make
material of the host and the pathogen.

b. The gene-for gene concept explains the step-wise evolution of virulence and resistance. It
states, “ For each gene that confers virulence to the pathogen there is a corresponding gene
in the host that confers resistance to the host and vice versa.

11. Mechanisms of Disease Resistance

11.1 Pre-existing Defenses

Pre-existing defense structures- cuticular wax covering of epidermal cells, structure of epidermal cell walls,
size, location and shapes of stomata and lenticels, thick walled cells etc…

Pre-existing chemical defenses

a. Inhibitors present in plant cells before infection such as phelonic compounds, tannis etc…
b. Defense through lack of essential factors of recognition factors. (lack of recognition between
hosts and pathogen)
c. Lack of host receptors and sensitive sites for toxins.
d. Lack of essential growth factors for the pathogen

11.2. Induce Structural Defenses

a. Recognition of the pathogen by the host plant- early recognition of the pathogen by the plant
is very important if the plant is to be mobilize the available biochemical and structural
defenses to protect itself from the pathogen. Transmission of the alarm signals to host
defense providers (signal transduction).

b. Induced Structural Defenses

1. Cytological defense reaction- the plant cell cytoplasm surrounds the clump of penetrating
hyphae, cytoplasm and nucleus enlarges becomes granular and dense causing the mycelium
to disintegrate.
2. Cell wall defense structures- thickening of cell wall, callose deposition, papillae formation at
penetration sites.

c. Histological defense structures

1. Formation of cork layers- inhibits further invasion and block the spread of any toxic
substances.
2. Formation of abscission layers
3. Formation of tyloses- overgrowths of protoplast that prot-rude into xylem.
4. Deposition of gums at the infection sites.
5. callose formation

d. Necrotic Defense Reaction: Defense through the hypersentive response (HR).

HR- the rapid death off cells immediately surrounding the point of infection, thereby walling off the
pathogen and preventing its spread. This is brought about by the recognition of the elicitors of the
pathogen by the host plant and leads to the activation of a cascade biochemical reactions in the
attached and surrounding plant cells such as the production of active oxygen radicals and
lipoxygenases and the disruption of the surrounding membranes.

Eg. of elicitors- pathogen arivulence gene- this triggers the development of resistance in the host of
resistance in the host.

e. Production of antimicrobial substances in attack host cells

Eg. glucanases, chitanases, lysozymes, peroxidases, etc..(antifungal/antimicrobial cpds) and

phytoalexins

Phytoalexins- toxic antimicrobial substances produced in appreciable amounts in plants only after
stimulation by various types of phytopathogens or by chemical or chemical injury.
12
 e. Detoxification of pathogen toxins

f. Immunization of plants against pathogens-defense through plantibodies

Plantibodies- antibodies that are enoded by animal genes but produced in transgenic plants. Eg.
plantibodies against virus coat proteins. When engineered in plants, plants become resistant to the
virus that were the plantibody was derived.

g. Local Systemic Acquired Resistance (SAR)- induction of plant defenses by artificial inoculation
with microbes or by treatment with chemicals.

Induced resistance or local acquired resistance (LAR)- resistance around the point of necroses caused by
the pathogen infection or by a chemical.

Systemic Acquired Resistance (SAR) – resistance that spreads systematically and develops in distal parts of
the plant which is non-specific or generalized resistnce. Some chemicals such as salicylic acid, arachidonic
acidans 2,6- dichloroisonicotinic acid may induce SAR and LAR in the plants at levels not causing tissue
necroses. They may be applied through the roots, as foliar sprays or by stem injection.

11.3 Defense through genetically engineering plants with

a. Plant derived genes- R genes from different sources of plants to susceptible plants. Eg. Xa21
bacterial blight resistance gene of rice from Oryza longistaminata.

b. Pathogen-derived-genes- eg. coat protein of some viruses to generate plantibodies.

13.Epidemiology of Plant Diseases

Terminologies:

Epidemic- any increase of disease in a population. Occurs when the pathogen spreads to and affects
many individuals within a population over a relatively large area and within a relatively short time.

Epidemiology- study of epidemics or study of the increase of disease in a population and the factors
that influence them.

Plant disease epidemic- sometimes called epiphytotics.

12.1 The Elements of an Epidemic

a. susceptible host
b. virulent pathogen form the disease tetrahedron
c. favorable environment
d. man as a manager

Plant disease epidemic develop as a result of the timely combination of the same elements
that result in plant diseases: susceptible plants, virulent pathogen and favorable
environmental conditions. Humans may help to initiate and develop epidemics through some
of their activities for eg: by topping or pruning plants in wet weather; introduction of new
pathogen from other areas through contaminated planting materials, etc…

12.2 Factors that affect the development of epidemics

1.Host Factors:

a. Levels of genetic resistance susceptibility of the hosts- host plants carrying major or minor genes for
resistance less likely to develop an epidemic than host plants with no genes for resistance.

b. Degree of uniformity of host plants- when genetically uniform host plants, particularly with regard to
the genes associated with disease resistance, are frown over large areas, a greater likelihood exists
that a new pathogen race will appear that can attack their genome and result in an epidemic.

c. Type crop-In annual crop such as corn, vegetables, rice etc.. epidemics generally develop much more
rapidly (usually in a few weeks) than they do in diseases of perennial woody plants.

d. Age of host plants- younger plants are generally more susceptible than adults (adult resistance).

2. Pathogen Factors:

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 a. Levels of virulence- virulent pathogens capable of rapidly infecting the host to ensure faster
production of larger amounts of inoculum, and thereby, diseases than pathogens of lesser virulence.

b. Quality of inoculum near hosts- amount of initial inoculum. The greater the no. of pathogens
propagules (bacteria, fugal spores and sclerotia, nematode eggs, virus infected plants etc..within or
near fields of hosts plants, the more the inoculum reaches the host and at an earlier time, thereby
greatly increasing the chances of epidemics.

c. Ecology of the pathogen- pathogens like fungi that produce inoculum (spores)non the surface of the
aerial parts of the plants can disperse with ease and are more responsible for the epidemics than
internal pathogens like the vascular fungi.

d. Mode of spread of the pathogen- aerially dispersed pathogen cause more of the epidemics.

3.Environmental Factors

c. Moisture- prolonged or repeated high moisture whether in the form of rain, dew or high
humidity is the dominant factor in the development of most epidemics.

d. Temperature- epidemics are sometimes favored by temperature, higher or lower than the
optimum for the plant because they reduce the plant’s level of resistance. Plants growing at
such temperature become “stressed”and pre disposed to diseases provided the pathogen
remain vigorous.

4.Human Factors

a. Site selection and preparation- low lying and poorly-drained and aerated fields especially if near
other infected fields tend to favor the appear and development of epidemics.

b. Selection of propagative materials- the use of seed, nursery stock and other propagative material that
carries various pathogens increases the amount of initial inoculum within the crop and greatly favors
the development of epidemics.

c. Cultural practices- continuous monoculture, large acreages planted to the same variety, high levels of
N fertilization, non-till culture, dense plantings, overhead irrigation, injury by herbicide application,
and poor sanitation all increase the possibility and severity of epidemics.

d. Disease Control Measures- Sometimes, certain control measures, eg. the use of certain chemical,
planting a particular variety, etc…may lead to the selection of virulent strains of the pathogen that
either are resistant to the chemical or can attack the resistant variety and thus lead to epidemics.

e. Introduction of new pathogens- the ease the frequency of worldwide travel have also increased the
movement of seeds, tubers, nursery stocks and other agricultural goods. These events increase the
possibility of introducing pathogens into areas where the hosts have not had a chance to evolve
resistance to these pathogens. Such pathogens frequently lead to severe epidemics.

13. Principles and Methods of Plant Disease Control

13.1 Principles of Plant Disease Control

a. Exclusion- the prevention of a “new pathogen” from being introduced into a locality where it is
currently unknown. Involves Quarantine Regulations.

b. Protection- involves the prevention of infection by putting a chemical barrier (protectant spray or
dust) between the pathogen and the suscept.

c. Eradication- eradicative measures are intended to eliminate, inhibit or kill the pathogens that have
become established within the plant or in an area.

d. Immunization- involves modifying certain physiological or physical features of the host so that it can
repel infection, as in the breeding for disease resistance, engineering pathogen derived or host-
derived resistance, use of cross protection, plan defense activators.

14.Methods of Plant Disease Control

14.1 Sanitation- destroying plant refuge or debris (which harbor the pathogens) by burning or
burying them, cleaning and disinfesting implements used for pruning and trimming, cleaning,
disinfesting, fumigating warehouse before and during storage of produce.
14
 14.2. Cultural Methods- eradication of diseased plants (rouging), crop rotation, proper tillage,
drainage, fertilization etc…

14.3. Physical Methods- heat treatments of plants or plant parts and soil, low temperature storage,
irradiation etc…

14.4 Chemical Methods- seed treatment with chemicals, fumigation of soil and plants warehouses,
chemical control of insect vectors and pathogens, use of chemical protectants and
chemotherapeutants

14.5 Biological Methods- employ the use of microorganisms that compete with parasites, or are
antagonistic to the pathogen , mycoparasites,nematophagous fungi, bacteriophages, antagonistic
plants etc..

Suppressive soils- soil that contain microorganisms that are antagonistic to the pathogen so that
disease could not develop.

14.6. Regulatory Methods- Quarantine laws.

14.7 Resistant varieties or improving the resistance of the host use of defense activators, use of race-
specific or non-specific resistance, gene pyramiding, multilines and mixtures, etc

Principles Of Entomology

Introduction

 History of Entomology
 Importance of insects to man and agriculture
 Distinguishing characteristics of insects
 General structure of an insect
 Type of insect antennae, mouthparts, legs and wings
 Type of insect metamorphosis

________________________________________________________________________

1.1 History of Entomology

 Johann Friedrich Eschsholtz- the first entomological investigator in the Philippines appears to have
been, who, as physician and naturalist on the Russian ship Rurik, visited the Islands in 1816.

 Hugh Cuming-one of the pioneer explorers who visited the islands, first in 1831 and again in 1840
and made collections in Luzon, Mindanao and many of the smaller islands. Cuming amassed in
addition a large quantity of Philippine insects, some of the earliest known species of Philippine
Hemiptera were described from Cumin’s material that found its way to British museum.

 Hemiptera Insularum Philippinarum (1870), by Carl-Stahl, the famous Swedish entomologist, who
is generally considered the father of modern hemipterology, and Die Schemetterlings der
philippineschen Inseln; Rhopalocera (1868-1902), by Georg Semper, a German zoologist, are both
milestones in the Philippine entomology for all future works of Hemiptera, and Lepidoptera.
Lepidoptera is the best known order in the Philippines,with alone 1,825 recorded species, according
to Schultze’s (1928) estimate.

 Insect collectors from 1848 to 1862:

Carl Semper, brother of Georg Semper, did a lot of insect collections
Hans Herman Behr (1848)
Pierre Joseph Michaael Lorquia (1856)-lawyer naturalist
Otto Staudinger (1862)-German lepidopterist

 French Baron Edmond de Selys-Longchamps- world authority on his time on dragonflies

damselflies, who published a paper on Odonates de Philippines in 1891.
 1885 to 1896- The Philippinensis was better known entomologically in Europe and, to some extent,
also in America.

Ramon Jordana- Published Bosquejo geografico e historico natural del Archipelago Filipino (1885)
in Madrid.

15
 Dominican Father Casto de Elera –published Catalogo sistimatco de toda la fauna de Filipinas
cococida hasta al presente, 3 volumes (1895-1896), University of Santo Tomas Press, Manila.

 Toward the closing of the nineteenth century, resident collectors were beginning to appear,
especially in the persons of Alexander Schadenberg, who waas one of the German founders of
Botica Boie, Regino Garcia and Father Francisco Sanchez, S.J., science professor at the Ateneo de
Manila, and his illustrious former pupils, Dr. Jose Rizal (during his exile at Dapitan), and the
Guerrero brothers (Doctors Leon and Luis)…

 Domingo Sanchez y Sanchez-an assistant zoologist in the Government Forestry Service, published a
paper on a coffee longhhorned borer, entitled Memoria sobre un insecto enemigio del cofeto (1890).

 Francisco Alcarraz (1895), who, although not an entomologist, proved imself a careful and accurate
observer of insects particularly on migratory locusts

 “Ordinances of Good Government,” which were originally promulgated by Governor-General Don

Sebastian Hurtado de Corcuera in 1642 and revised by Governor-General Don Fausto Crusat y
Gongora in 1696 ( Blair and Robertson 5:211).

 The successful introduction of the starling, locally known as “martinez”, Aethopsar cristatellus
Linnaeus, from southern China between the yearas 1849 and 1852, in order to control the locusts
represents the ealiest attempt of biological control of insects in the Philippines.

 The conchineal insect (introduced first in 1826 and again in 1861), mulberry, and silkworm were
among the nineteenth-century importations of beneficial insects, which, however, met with failure.

 Scientific work in economic entomology in the Philippines, as a major activity, was in reality an
aftermath of American occupation. The American bumblebee Bremus americanorum (Fabricius),
was introduced into the mountain province, Luzon, for the purpose of fertilizing the clover, which
was raised for the army horses and mules. However, this species apparently did not become
permanently established, although at least two indigenous forms bumblebees are commonly caught
on flowers in that locality.

 Chaarles S. Banks- appointed as the first Government entomologist in the Philippines in 1902 to
organize entomological section in the Bureau of Government Laboratories (later Bureau of Science).
At about the same time, two other very enthusiastic workers (Farther William A. Stanton, S.J.,
assistant director top the Weather Bureau, and Father Robert E. Brown, S.J) were engaged in
carrying out observations on various plant pests largely, Lepidoptera and parasitic Hymenoptera.
Their interesting notes were include in the monthly bulletins of the Weather Bureau in the years
1903, 1904 ,and 1905.

 With the opening of the College of Aggriculture at Los Banos, in 1909, and the organization of an
entomological section in the Bureau of Agriculture, Manila, in 1910, entomological work in the
Philippines received its much-needed reinforcement.

 Charles Fuller Baker, who was professor of agronomy and subsequently dean of the College of
Agriculture from 1912 until his death in 1927, with his Cuban collector, Julian Valdez, whom he
paid out of personal funds, did more than any other individual to augment the knowledge of
Philippine insect fauna.

Reference:

L.B. Uichanco. 1957. In: “Encyclopedia of the Philipppines”, Vol 13. Science, pp 516-525.

1.2 Importance of insects to man and agriculture

Insects are the dominant group of animals on earth. They far surpass all other terrestrial
animals in numbers and they occurred practically everywhere.

A great many insects are extremely valuable to man and human society could not exist in its form
without them. By their pollinating activities they make possible the production of many agricultural
crops, including orchards, vegetables, plantation crops and ornamentals, they provide us with honey,
bee wax, silk and other products of commercial value; they serve as many foods for birds, fish, and
other useful animals and plants in check and in scientific research, and they are looked upon by
people in all walks of life. A few insects are harmful and cause enormous losses each year in
agricultural crops, stored products and the health of man and animals.

Insects have lived on earth for about 350 million years-compared with less than 2 million for
man- and during this time they have evolved in many usual picturesque and even amazing features.

1.3 Distinguishing characteristics of insects

16
 The distinguishing characters of the insects may be listed briefly as follows:

Body

1. Body with three distinct regions: head; thorax; and abdomen.

Head

2. One pair of antenna (rarely no antennae)

3. One pair of mandibles
4. One pair of Maxillae
5. A hypopharynx
6. A labium

Thorax
7. Three pairs of legs, one pair thoracic segment (a few insects are legless), and some larvae
possesses additional leglike appendages-such as prolegs-on the abdominal segments
8. Often one or two pairs of wings, borne by the second and or third of the three thoracic
segments

Abdomen

9. The gonopore (external opening of the reproductive organs) at the posterior end of the
abdomen
10. No locomotor appendages on the abdomen of the adult (except in some primitive insects);
the abdominal appendages, if present, are at the apex of the abdomen and consists of a pair
of cerci, an epiproct and a pair of paraproct.

1.4 General structure of an insect

A knowledge of the structure of insects is important to understand how insects live and how
they can distinguish one from another and from other animals.

Insects are generally more or less elongate and cylindrical in form and are bilaterally
symmetrical, that is, the right and left sides of the body are essentially alike. The body is segmented
and grouped into three regions-head, thorax and abdomen.

The Body Wall

The insect’s body wall serves not only as the outer covering of the body but also as a supporting
structure, and it is the body wall that most of the muscles are attached.

The body wall completely covers the insects and bends inward at various point to form supporting
ridges and braces. The trachea (breathing tubes) and the anterior and posterior end of the digestive tract are
invaginations of the body wall and are lined with cuticle.

Sclerotin and Sclerotization

The hardness of the cuticle is due to the presence in the exocuticle of a horny substance called
sclerotin. The process of hardening is called sclerotization. Sclerotin is formed from protein component of
the cuticle by the action of quinones.

Certain areas of the cuticle contain an elastic protein called resilin, which provides the elasticity of
the cuticle and forms the elastic tendons for most muscles.

Color & Pigmentation

The color of an insect may be due to the pigment in the body wall. Metallic to iridescent colors are
the result of refraction of the light by many minute vanelike structures or ridges on the surface of the
epicuticle ; these tiny ridges are usually visible under extremely high magnification (for example an electron
microscope). The cuticular pigment in the adult is usually deposited shortly after the final molt; newly
emerged adults are generally pale (teneral). Pigment production in an insect is genetically controlled, but it
may be affected by environment, some pigments are synthesized by the insect while others are obtained from
food.

External and internal processes of the body wall

17
 The body bears numerous external and internal processes. External processes include setae, spines,
scales and the like; some of this are solid cuticle, while others contain all these three body-wall layers. The
internal processes of the body wall maay be ridgelike (apodeme) or spinelike (apophysis); these unfoldings
strengthen the body wall and serve as the place of attachement of muscles.
External processes

Setae- a slender hairlike process of the cuticle formed by a plasmatic outgrowth from a
single epidermal cell. The epidermal cell that form a seta, or any hairlike structure, is termed the
trichogeneous cell or trichogen.

Scale- the small flat, scale- like structure that constitute the body covering of adult
Lepidoptera and some other insects are generally modified unicellular outgrowths of the body wall,
which have probably have been evolved from the ordinary setae.

Poison setae- the larvae of certain Lepidopteria are provided with setae from which is
Discharged an irritant venom formed in special poison gland cells associated with the
trihogenous cell. The poison issues from the ends of the setae when the tips of the latter are
broken off. Species of caterpillafrs known to be poisonous occur in the Notodontidae,
Liparidae, Megalopygidae, Arctiidae, Noctuidae, Eucleidae, Saturniidae and Nymphalidae.

Two principal types of stinging structure in caterpillars:

a. the apparatus consists of an ordinary setae that has become toxic by the development of a poison
gland cell immediately adjacement to the trichogen, which extends into the lumen of the setae.
b. the stinging element is the same as above, but the seta has been carried out on the end of a
multicellular spine or spur and becomes thus a terminal armament structure of the latter.

The Head

The Head capsule and internal support

The head is the anterior capsulike body region that bears the eyes, antennae and the mouth parts. The shape
of the head varies considerably in different insects, but it is usually heavily sclerotized (that is the wall of the
head is quite hard).

Most insects have a pair of relatively large compound eyes, located dorsolaterally on the head. The surface of
each compound eye is divided into a number of circular or hexagonal areas called facets; each facet is the
lens of the single eye unit or ommatidium. In addition to the compound eyes.

Structures of mouthparts

1. labrum- a broad flaplike lobe situated below the clypeus on the anterior side of the
head, in front of the other mouthpart structures

2. mandibles- are the paired, heavily sclerotized, unsegmented jaws lying immediately
behind the labrum.

3. maxillae- are paired structures lying behind the mandibles; they are segmented, and
Each maxillae bears a feelerlike organ, the palp (mxp).

4. labrium- or lower lip (Ibm), is a single structure (through it probably evolved from two
Maxilla like structure fusing along the midline) lying behind the maxillae.

5. hypopharnyx- if the mandible and the maxillae are removed, one may see the
hypopharnyx (hyp), a short tonguelike structure located immediately in front or above the
labium and between the maxillae

Glands of the Head

1. Antennal gland- glands connected with the antenna (not of common occurrence in
insects)

2. Maxillary glands- the presence of maxillary gland has reported in Protura, Collembola
Heteroptera, the larvae of some Neuroptera and Trichoptera and
Hymenoptera; they also occur in coleopterous larvae.

3. Labial glands- these glands are commonly known as ‘salivary glands’; but since their
function is variable they are better termed as labial glands.
Labial gland are present in all the principal orders of insect except
Coleopteran. The secretion of the labial glands generally has come
18
 functions connected with feeding, though not necessarily that of a
fldigestive fluid, for in the blood-sucking insects it may have
inflammatory anticoagulatory properties. In lepidopterous and
hymenopterous larvae the labial glands are silk- producing organs.

1.5 Type of insect antennae, mouthparts, legs and wings

Antenna

The antenna are the first appendicular organs of the head present in adult insects. The antennae are
paired segmented appendages located on the head, usually between or below the compound eyes. The
antennae are sensory in function, and act as tactile organs, organs of smell, and in some cases organs of
hearing.

Insect antennae vary on size and form, and are much used in classification. The following terms are used in
describing the form of the antennae.

1.setaceous- bristlelike, the segments becoming more slender distally; for example,
dragonfly, damselfly,leafhopper
2. filiform- threadlike, the segments nearly uniform in size, and usually cylindrical; for
example, ground beetle

3. moniliform- like a sting of beads, the segment similar in size and more or less spherical
in shape; for example, wrinkled bark beetle

4. serrate- sawlike, the segments particularly those in the distal half or two thirds of the
antenna, more or less triangular; for example click beetle

5. pectinate- comblike, most segments with long slender, lateral processes; for example
fire-colored beetle

6.clubbed- the segment increasing in diameter distally

a. clavate; , if the increase is gradual

b. capitate- if the terminal segments are rather are suddenly enlarged
c. lamellate- if the terminal segments are expanded laterally to form rounded or oval platelike lobes
d. flabellate- the terminal segment have long, parallel-sided sheetlike, or toungelike lobes

7.geniculate- elbowed, with the first segment long and the following segments small and
going off at an angle to the first; for example, stag beetle,ant, chalchid

8. plumose- feathery, most segments with whorls of long haire; for example, male
mosquito

9. aristate- the last segment usually enlarged and bearing a conspicuous dorsal bristle, the
arista; for example, housefly, syrphid fly

10. stylate- the last segment bearing an elongate terminal stylike or fingerlike process,
the style; for example, robber fly, snipe fly.

Mouthparts

According to the position of the mouth parts the head may assume one of the three types of structure:

1.hypognathous- if the gnathal appendages are directed downward, and the cranium
corresponds in position to the body segments.

2. Prognathous- the cranium is furned upward on the neck so that the mouthparts are
directed forward

3. opisthognathous- deflection of the facial region, giving the mouthparts a posterior

. ventral position, as in certain Homoptera.

The three types of head structure relative to the position of the mouth are adaptations to the different habitats
or ways of feeding, and all may occur among closely related insects.

Insect mouthparts typically consist of labrum, pair of mandible and maxillae, a labrium and hypopharnyx.
These structures are variously modified in different insect groups are often used in classification and
identification. The type of mouthparts an insect has determines how it feeds and (in the case of injurious
species) what sort of damage its. It is important therefore, that the student have some knowledge of the
structure of insect mouthparts.

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Variation in Insect Mouth Parts

Insect mouth parts are of two general types:

Mandibulate (chewing)-in mandibulate mouth parts the mandibles move

sideways, and theinsect is usually able to bite off and chew its food

Haustellate (sucking)- insect with haustellate mouth parts do not have mandibles
of this type and cannot chew food; their mouth parts are in
the form of somewhat elongated proboscis or break trough which liquid
food is sucked. The mandibles in haustellate mouth parts either are elongate
and styletlike or are lacking.

Both mandibulate are haustellate mouth parts are subject to considerable variation in different insects.

A. Mandibulate Mouth Parts

This is more primitive type and occurs in adult Thysanura, Diplura, Collembola, Orthoptera,
Dermaptera, Psocoptera, Mallophaga, Ordonata, Plecotera, Isoptera, Neuroptera, Mecoptera, Trichoptera,
Coleoptera and Hymenoptera, as well as the larval stages of many insects.

A few mandibulate insects obtain their food in liquid form by sucking it through a channel of some
sort in mouth parts; such mouth parts are sometimes described as chewing-sucking and are found in bees and
in some larvae. The larvae of some Neuroptera (for examples antlions and owl flies) have the mandibles and
maxillae elongate, and suck up the body fluids of their prey through a channel between the mandibles and
maxillae.

Haustellate Mouth Parts

Some of or all the various parts are elongate and styletlike in this mouth parts. There are eight
principal variations in haustellate mouth parts:(1) thrips, (2) Hemiptera and Homopterro, (3) “lower” Diptera,
(4) robber flies, (5) “higher” Diptera, (6) fleas,
(7) sucking lice, and (8) Lepidoptera.

1.The Mouth Parts of Thrips

The proboscis in thrips is short, stout, asymmetrical, conical structure located ventrally at the rear of
the head. The mouth parts of thrips have been termed “rasping-sucking”, but is probable that the stylets
pierce rather than rasp the tissues fed upon; the food ingested is generally in liquid form, but very minute
spores are sometimes ingested.

2. Mouth Parts of Hemiptera and Homoptera

The break is elongate, usually segmented, and arises from the front (Hemiptera) or rear (Homoptera)
of the head. The external segmented structure of the break is the labium: The labium does no piercing, but
folds up as the stylets enter the tissues fed upon. The inner stylets in the break, the maxillae, fit together in
such a way as to form two channels, a food channel and a salivary channel. The palps are lacking.

3.Mouth parts of the Biting Diptera

The biting lower Diptera include the mosquitoes, sand flies, punkies, black flies. These insects have
six piercing stylets: the labrum, the mandibles, the maxillae and the hypopharnyx; the labium usually serves
as a sheath for the stylets. The labium does no piercing and folds up or back as the stylets enter the tissue
pierced.

4.Mouth Parts of Robber Flies ( Asilidae)

The mouth parts of these insects are similar to those of the preceding group, but there are no
mandibles and the principal piercing organ is the hypopharnyx. There are four stylets: the labrum, maxillae
and the hypopharnyx. The salivary channel is in the hypopharnyx, and the food channel is between the
labrum and hypopharnyx. The robber flies on other insects or spiders, and only rarely bite man.

5. The Mouth Parts of the Higher Diptera

By “higher” Diptera is meant the flies belonging to the Cyclorrhapa. The mandibles in these flies are
lacking, and the maxillae are represented by the palps (maxillary stylets are usually lacking). The proboscis
consists of labrum, hypopharnyx, and labium. There are two modifications of the mouth parts in these flies:
(a) piercing type, and (b) a sponging or lapping type.

a) The higher Diptera with a piercing mouth parts include the stable fly, tsetse fly, horn

20
 fly, and louse flies. The proboscis in the louse flies (Hippoboscidae) is somewhat retracted into a pouch
on the ventral side of the head when not in use.

b) The higher Diptera with sponging or lapping mouth parts include the non-biting
Cyclorrpha such ass the house fly, blow flies and fruit flies. The mouth part structure are suspended from
a conical membranous projection of the lower part of the head called the rostrum. These flies lap up
liquid food; these food may be in liquid form, or it may be liquified by salivary secretions of the fly.

6. The Mouth parts of Fleas

Adult fleas feed on blood, and their mouth parts contain three piercing stylets: the epipharrnyx and
the laciniaa of the maxillae. The food channel lies between the epipharnyx and the maxilliary stylets, and
the salivary channel lies between the edges of the maxiallary stylets.

7. The Mouth Parts of the Sucking Lice

The mouth parts of these insects are highly specialized and difficult to homologize with those of the
other insects. There is a short rostrum (probably the labrum) at the anterior end of the head, from which
three piercing stylets are protruded; the rostrum is eversible and armed internally with small recurved teeth.

8. The Mouth Parts of Lepidoptera

This type of mouth part structure is sometimes called siphoning-sucking, for there is no piercing and
the insect merely sucks or siphon liquids up through the proboscis. When used, the proboscis is uncoiled by
blood pressure; it recoils by its own elasticity.

Legs

The legs of insect typically consists of the following segments: the coxa, trochanter, femur, tibia,
tarsus and pretarsus

1. coxa- the first segment off the leg

2. trochanter- a small segment freely movable by a horizontal hinge to the coxa but
fixed to the base of the third segment

3. femur 1- usually the longest and stouted part of the leg, although it varies in size in
different groups of insect or stages of development.

4. tibia- a slender segment, usually shorter than the femur, there usually are spines and on
its apex movable spine-like processes called spurs.

5. tarsus- adult insect are usually subdivided into subsegments or tarsomeres. The
tarsomerss may vary from 2 to 5 and the basal tarsomere is sometimes enlarged and called
basitarsus. In certain Orthoptera, small pads, called pulvilli (sing pullvillus) are present under the
surfaces of the tarsal subsegments or they may appear as lateral lobes of the pretarsus arising beneath
the base of the claw.

6. pretarsus- the terminal segment of the leg bearing usually a pair of movable lateral
claws and median lobe, the arolium. In Dioteria, in addition to the two large pulvilli, one beneath
each claw is a median process called empodium which is spine-like or lobe-like just as the pulvilli.

Functional modification of legs

Many insects have their legs modified to subserve functions other than walking. The following are
examples of some more common types of adaptation.

1. Saltatorial (hindlegs of grasshopper)- the hind leg is modified for leaping. The femur
is enlarged as compared with that of other legs. This provides room for the large extensors of the
tibia, the principal muscles used in leaping. The tibia is strongly sclerotized since the force of leaping
is exerted against it.

2. Grasping(praying mantis)- the foreleg is ratorial but the tarsus and pretarsus take no.
part in the grasping action. The tibia ends in a sharp curved spine and the opposing edges of the
femur and tibia are provided with long sharp spines

3. Clinging (head louse)- the legs are modified for clinging to the hair of its host. The.
tibia is stout and at one side bears a thumb-like process with a spine at its distal end. There is a single
tarsal segment to which the “thumb” is opposed, and curved pretarsal claw. Tarsus and pre-tarsus
work against the thumb in much the same ways as the human forefinger works against the thumb in
grasping an object

21
4. Swimming (cyrinid beetle)- the hindlegs are highly specialized for swimming. The
femur, tibia and first four subsegments of the tarsus are all broad and flattened and their edges are
beset with flattened setae which are folded back against the leg when not in use.

5. Digging (passalid beetle)- thee passalid beetle lives in decaying wood and uses its.
forelegs in helping to excavate its galleries. The foreleg is therefore, adapted for digging (fossorial).
The segments are strongly sclerotized and regid and that the tibia is flattened, with several tine-like
processesa.a the tarsus is slender and normal in structure. Many soil-inhabiting insects have similar
forelegs

6. Cutting (mole cricket)- Mole is a subterranean insect and the forelegs are perhaps more
specialized than the legs of any other insect. The trochanter in some species is produced distally into
a flattened spade-like structure. Apart from being very stout, the femur is not greatly modified, but
the tibia is short and stout, bearing distally two or three strong flattened and pointed tines. Thee first
two segments off the tarsus are also produced into strong tines, and tine of the first segment can
work against one of the tibial ;spines to function as shears in cutting through fine rootlets.

7. Pollen-gathering (honey bee worker)- the leg has a specialized structures described
below.

(a)The pollen comb for removing pollen from the body hairs is made of several rows of stiff hairs on
the inner surface of the first segment of the hind tarsus. (b) the corbiculae or pollen baskets form the
concave outer surface of the hind tibiae. (c) the tibiotarsal articulation of the hind leg is so arranged that the
approximated ends of the two segments form a pair of nippers known as the wax pincers. (d) the apex of the
middle tibia bears a strong spur used in scrapping pollen from the baskets and also in cleaning the wings. (e)
on the front legs there is the antennal comb, a notch in the proximal end of the flexor surface of the basal
segment of the front tarsus bears a row of spines used as an eye brush

Wings

The insect wing is flattened double-layered extension of the body wall. Its structures has three
features: the articulation to the body, the veins, and the differentiation of the wing surface into regions.

1. The articular parts furnish the basal structure in the wing necessary for wing
movements in the distal area and also as a flexor apparatus in insects with wing flexing
mechanism.

2. The veins strengthen and adapt the wings to the movement of flight.

3. The wing regions are accessories to the act of flexion and partly subserve the
. action of flight.

The wings of insect vary in number, size, texture, venation and in the position when they are held at
rest. Most adult insects have two pairs of wings, borne by the mesothorax and metathorax, but some have
only one pair (usually borne by the metathohrax) and some are wingless. In some insects the wings are
membranous (like cellophane and bear tiny hairs or scales: in some insect the front wings are thickened,
leathery or hard, and sheathlike. Most insects are able to fold the wings over the abdomen when at rest, but
the dragonflies, damselflies, and mayflies cannot do this and hold the wings either outstretched or together
above the body when at rest.

Wing Coupling

Insects possessing two pairs of wings have special devises to keep the wings coupled during flight.
The coupling devices are as follows:

1. Enlarged humeral angle- greatly expanded humeral angle fits under the forewings
of butterflies. Humeral angle is the basal anterior angle or portion of the wing.

2. Frenulum- single spine or a group of spines in the female of some moths arising
from the humeral angle of the hindwing. The frenulum fits into the group of scales on the underside
of the forewing.

3. Hamuli- row of tiny hooks on the coastal margin of the hindwing which engaged
the.forewing on a sclerotized fold along the posterior margin. Hamuli are found in Hymenoptera and
some Trichoptera

4. Jugum- a lobelike process at the base of the forewing which overlasps the
hindwing. The coastal margin of the hindwing. The coastal margin of the hindwing fits into a
projecting jugum holding the hindwing in place during flight, found in Trichopter and Lepidoptera.

22
Specialization, textureand vesititure of wings

In many insects the forewings become more scleotized for the protection if the hindwings when not
in use. In others,both wings are delicate membranous structure cloth with thick or fine hairs sometimes
variously pigmented. In few the wings may be reduced or wanting.

1. Tegmina (sing. Tegmen)- the thickened or leathery forewings of orthoperan. The

texture is parchment-like but the veins are still distinct. It covers the delicate membranous hindwing
in a roof-like manner.

2 Elytra(sing. Elytron)- a thickened highly scleotized, leathery or horny forewings

of Coleoptera and Dermaptera

3. Hemeletra (sing. Hemyletron)- the basal 2/3 or 3/4 of the forewing is parchment-
like while the remaining distal part is membranous (half elytron), the forewing of true bugs or
Hemipterans.

4. Membranous- have wing cells that are thin and membranous; their transparency).
or translucency, however, may be obscured by various color pigments, hairs or scales; wings of true
flies, (Diptera), bees, wasps and ants (Hymenoptera), dragonflies and damselflies (Ordonata

5. Fringe- margin of the wings are fringed with setae as in Strepsiptera with fringed
stub-like forewings, Thysanoptera (trips) with fringed short narrow forewing with reduced venation,
and Plitidae (smallest known beetles) with narrow wings fringed with long setae but without veins.

1.6 Type of Insect Metamorphois

The change in form of an insect during postembryonic development is known as metamorphosis.

Depending on the degree of specialization of the immature stages, several types of metamorphosis are
recognized.

1. Ametabolous Development

This type of development is restricted by definition to insects which continue molting throughout
adult life, are wingless and whose ancestors never possessed wings. They also posses paired of appendages
on the proximal abdominal segments. No special name is given to the young or immature stages.
Ex. silverfish

2. Hemimetabolous Development

The immature stages of insects with Hemimetabolous development are known as

Nymphs or naiads. The adults of most forms are winged but some have lost them in the same environment as
the adult, have the same type of mouthparts and eat the same food. The wings develop as external wing
pads, increase in size in successive instars, but are not functional until the adult stage.
Ex. Grasshopper, cockroach, mantids, bugs, cicada, bedbug, sucking and biting lice, giant water
bug.

In some himmetabolous insect groups,the young stages are aquatic while the adults are aerial. The
immature stages are known as naiads and have external wing pads (as do nymphs), but develop special
respiratory organs for their aquatic existence. The food is different in naiads and adults.

Ex. Mayfly, dragonfly, damselfly, stonefly

3. Holometabolous or Complete Metamorphosis

Insects with complete metamorphosis the extremely specialized growing immature stage or larva is
followed by a quiescent pupa. The larva nerve develop external wing pads. The pupa on the other hand, has
external wings, legs and mouthparts pads. The pupa may be house in a protective cocoon of silk or various
other substances or may be formed within the hardened cuticula of the preceding larva instar which develop
into a puparium. The immature stages may occur in the same or different environment as the adults.

Insects larvae may be regarded as immature insects which leave the egg in and earlier stage of
morphological development than do the nymphs. The embryonic features they retain are variously
specialized for obtaining food while internally the adult structures are gradually developing until sufficient
food is obtained when the pupa is formed. Morphologically the pupa corresponds to the last nymphal instar
of insects with hemimetabolous development. The larval instars represent modified earlier nymphal instars
represent modified earlier nymphal instars.
Ex. Beetle, butterfly, moth, house fly

2. Classification and Identification of Insects

23
  The Science of Classification, The Hierarchy of Life, What is a Key
 Morphonological characteristics used to distinguished insect orders
 Different orders of insects
________________________________________________________________________

2.1 The Science of Classification, The hierarchy of Life, What is a Key

The Science of Classification

Taxonomy is the science of classification. Group of organisms that share the same characteristics be
defined on thee basis of those characteristics, given scientific names and placed in a classification.

Two other scientific studies are near taxonomy and can be confused with its systematics and
nomenclature. Systematics deals with how organisms are related to each other and attempt to describe the
underlying reasons for that relationship. Scientists use systematics when dealing with evolutionary concepts.
Nomenclature sets the rules under which organisms are given their scientific names,

Nomenclatture

Animals have two types of names, scientific and common. Scientific names are those used by
scientists, they are used throughout the world, and very animal taxon has one. Common names are vernacular
names; they often less precise than scientific names.

The Hierarchy in Life

The major categories in the hierarchy are shown in taxonomic ladder below. Some of the frequently
recognized subdivisions of major groups are also indicated.

Domain Eukarya
Kingdom Animalia
Phylum Arthropoda
Class Insecta (all insects)
Subclass Pyteryogota (winged insects)
Order Coleoptera (all beetles)
Suborder Phyllophaga (majority of beetles)
Family Curculionida-name ends in idea
Subfamily Curculioninae-name ends in inae
Genus Cylas- name begins in big letter
Species formicarius- name begins in a small letter
Subspecies elegantulus-name begins with a small letter

The species is the fundamental unit of classification. Species is defined as “the smallest grouping capable of
reproduction and the production of fertile offsprings”. Individuals are grouped into species and species are
grouped into genus based on their greater similarity to each other than the species groups, genera are
grouped into a family and so on up to the classification ladder.

What is Key

A key is a tool that unlocks the door of identification of an unknown organism. Keys are useful in
any biological field where large number of taxa are difficult to distinguish just by using the naked eye and
memory. A key consists of a series of pairs or groups of statements of contrasting characters, starting with
the most fundamental characters and working down to smaller and smaller differences until finally specific
characters are used to separate individual species.

2.2 Morphological characteristics used to distinguished insect orders

In practice we rely on anatomical characteristics to distinguished between taxa although other type of
characters are also useful if available. This may include behavioral, physiological and molecular characters.
Morphological features used in distinguishing insect orders include head, mouthparts, antennae, compound
eyes, legs, wings, abdomen and its appendages.

2.3 Different orders of insects

Insects are grouped into 20 to 34 orders. The number of orders varies with the different authorities in
the field. In the classification followed here 31 orders are recognized.

The Entognathous Hexapods

24
ORDER COLLEMBOLA (Greek, kollo= glue; emboloa = tail)
Common name: springtails
Distribution: Cosmopolitan

Springtails are small, elongate globular hexapods with soft body without sclerites but clothe with
hairs and sometimes scales. Metamorphosis is simple or slight.

ORDER PROTURA (Greek, protos = first; oura = tail)

Common Name: None
Distribution: Cosmopolitan

Proturans are small, whitish delicates hexapods 0.6-1.5mm that generally inhabit in leaf litter and the
surface of the soil.Eyes, wings, cerci and antennae wanting. Front are carried in an elevated position like
antennae. Metamorphosis is simple or slight.

ORDER DIPLURA (Greek, diplos = two; oura = tail)

Common Name: None
Distribution: Cosmopolitan

Diplurans are usually small insects with many segmented antennae and elongate body.
Metamorphosis is simple and slight.

The Ectognathous Hexapods

ORDER ARCHEOGNATHA ( Greek, archeous = ancient; gnatha= jaws)

Common Name: bristletails
Distribution: Cosmopolitan

Bristletails are primitive wingless insects. At first glance, they resemble silverfish, however, silverfish have
their abdominal filament nearly equal in length. In bristletailsthe central filament is much longer than the two
sides.

ORDER THYSANURA (Greek, thysanos, = fringe; ura = tail)

Common Name: silverfish
Distribution: Cosmopolitan

Silverfish primitive, small, flattened wingless insect covered with silvery scales that run from the
insect body very easily. The scales are the reasons for the common name “silver” “ fish”.

ORDER EPHEMEROPTERA (Greek, ephemeros = short-lived, ptera = wing)

Common Name: mayflies
Distribution: Cosmopolitan

Mayflies are delicate soft-bodied insects with poorly sclerotized body and wings. They have large
eyes and minute antennae, 2 or usually 3 long joined appendages at the tip of the abdomen. The wings have
may cross-veins and the hind wings are usually relatively small. Metamorphosis is gradual.

ORDER ODONATA (Greeek, odous = tooh)

Common Name: dragonflies aand damselflies
SUBORDER ANISOPTERA: dragonflies
SUBORDER ZYGOPTERA: damselfies

Odonata is a very ancient insect order of insects with fossils dating from the Upper Carboniferous.
Dragonflies and damselflies are very similar in appearance but differ as follows: at rest, the wings of
dragonflies are spread out perpendicular to the body (resembling aircraft wing), damselflies bring their wings
together loosely over the back of the abdomen; dragonflies tend to be strongly built; damselflies tend to be
rather delicately built; dragonfly nymphs are heavily built mud-dwellers, while damselfly nymphs flattened
abdominal appendages which are absent in the dragonfly wings.

ORDER PLECOPTERA (Greek, plekos = to fold; ptera= wing)

Common Name: stoneflies
Distribution: Cosmopolitan

Stoneflies are soft-bodied insect that generally have two unequal pairs off membranous intricately
veined wings. However, there are some wingless species. The forewings are smaller than the hindwings and
often longer than the abdomen of the insects. They are of interest because of their archaic features in their
structures and the aquatic habits of their nymphs. Metamorphosis is simple.

ORDER BLATTODEA (Greek, blatta= an insect that shuns light)

Common Name: cockroaches
Distribution: Cosmopolitan, predominantly tropical

25
 Cocknroaches are short, broad, and dorsoventrally flattened insect the head nearly or completely
covered from above by the large, shieldd-like pronotum. They are usually of a tectaceous or dark mahogany
color but some tropical species are brightly colored. Metamorphosis is slight.

ORDER ISOPTERA (Greek, iso s= equal; pteron = wing)

Common Name: termites
Distribution: Cosmopolitan, mostly tropical and subtropical

Termites are soft-bodied, usually pale-colored, social and polymorphic insects living in large
communities composed of reproductive morphs together with numerous wingless, sterile soldiers and
workers. Metamorphosis is slight or absent.

ORDER MANTODEA (Greek, mantis= seer, prophet)

Common Name: Praying mantis, preying mantis
Distribution: Cosmopolitan, predominantly tropical, subtropical

Mantis are well-known for their stance with upraised legs which resembles praying, or for the
raptorial spines used to empale prey. All species are “sit and wait”
Predatory carnivores, usually feeding on other insects.

ORDER GRYLLOBLATTODEA (Latin, gryllus = a cricket; Greek, blatta = an insect that shun light)
Common Name: rock crawlers
Distribution: Northern Hemisphere

Grlloblattids are restricted to Wester North America and central to eastern Asia. They tolerant to
cold climate and high attitude. Adults are soft-bodid, palae, finely-haired wingless and posses well develop
mandibles. The compound eye are absent or reduced in size. Grylloblattids lack organs for the production or
reception o sound. Many are found in caves, snow-melt areas and similarly cool regions.

ORDER DERMAPTERA (Greek, derma =skin, pteron= wing)

Common Name: earwings
Distribution: Cosmopolitan

Earwings aree elongate, often rather flattened insects with well developed mandibles. The
distinguishing characteristics of this order is the presence of forceps at the end of the abdomen. Forceps are
used by earwings in a threatening display when disturbed.

ORDER ORTHOPTERA (Greek, orthos = straight; = pteron = wing)

Common Name: grasshoppers, locusts, crickets, katydids
Distribution: Cosmopolitan

Orthopterans are usually medium- or larged-sized, winged, brachypterous or apterous insects. Members of
Orthopterans have antennae which may be extremely long (extends beyond the insect body length) or
relatively short (less than that of the body length). The forewings are leathery and hindwings are
membranous.

ORDER PHASMATODEA (Greek, phasma = apparition, phantom)

Common Name: stick insects, leaf insects, walking stick insects
Distribution: Warmer parts of the world, especially the topics.

All phasmids are phytophagous and are remarkable for their ability to mimic twigs, stems, leaves
and sticks. Their body are varied as the vegetation they inhabit. Dry grass stems are inhabited by species that
are flattened and leaf-like with legs that are equal resemblance to foliage. Wings may be present or absent.
The forewings are leathery and form protective cover, the hindwings are for flight. In winged species, only
the males are capable of flight.

Phasmids actively feed at night and remain motionless during the day. Metamorphosis is slight.

ORDER EMBIOPTERA (Greek, embio = lively; pteron = wing)

Common Name: webspinner, foot-spinner
Distribution: Tropics and warm temperature regions

Embiopterans or webspinners resemble termites. However, webspinners do not utilize solid wood
(such as fallen logs as food source although they do attack plant debris). Webspinners are fragile insects with
soft cuticle and soft cuticle and weak fliers. They are somber colored, being either brown or yellowish brown
with cloudy wings. The males are usually winged and females apterous. Metamorphosis is slight or simple.

ORDER ZORAPTERA (Greek, zoros = pure; apterous = wingless)

Common Name: None
Distibution: Tropical and warm temperate regions

26
 Zopterans are mminute, soft and unpigmented insects, 3 mm or less. They are polymorphic.
Metamorphosis is slight.

ORDER PSOCOPTERA (Greek, psocus = biting; pteron = wing)

Common Name: booklice, barklice
Distribution: Cosmopolitan

Psocids are tiny insect that are extremely common but so small that they are frequently overlooked.
They are soft-bodied, usually delicate insects less than 2mm in size. They are either brachypterous,
micropterous or apterous. Metamorphosis slight or simple.

ORDER PHTHIRAPTERA (Greek, phthir = lice; aptera = wingless)

Common Name: lice
Distribution Cosmopolitan

Lice are obligate ectoparasites. They are found in all bird spsecies and almost all mammals except
bats. The phthirapterans are apterous, flat-bodied insects entirely adapted to ectoparasitic life. The majority
of the biting species infest birds, while among the sucking group, two infest man, about a dozen occur in
domestic animals, the remainder have been found from several orders of mammals. Metamorphosis slight.

ORDER HEMIPTERA (Greek, hemi = half; pteron = wing)

Common Name: bugs, leafhopper, planthoppers, cicadas, aphids, mealy-
Bugs, scale insects)
Distribution: Cosmopolitan

The true bugs are readily recognized by the forms of the mouthparts which are adapted for piercing
and sucking. The habit of sucking is prevalent throughout their life except in the male Cocciodea, whose
adults have atrophied mouthparts. Other body structures vary greatly within the order so that no additional
general character can be given. Methamorphosis gradual.

ORDER THYSANOPTERA (Greek, thysanos = fringe; pteron =wing)

Common Name: thrips
Distribution: Cosmopolitan

Thrips are small or minute, pale or yellow, yellowish-brown or black insects. The distinguishing
characteristic of thrips is the possession of two pairs of fringed wings. Metamorphosis simple and
accompanied by two or three pupa-like instars.

ORDER MEGALOPTERA (Greek, megalo = large; pteron = wing)

Common Name: alderflies, dobsonflies, snakeflies
Distribution: best represented in temperate regions

Megalopterans are soft-bodied insect with two pairs of delicate, large, finely veined wings. Often
the wings are so large that they extend well beyond the abdomen. They can be distinguished from the
Neuroptera by the absence of end-branching of wing veins, and from Mecoptera by their short, unmodified
mouthparts and different terminal portions of the abdomen in both sexes. Metamorphosis is complete.

ORDER NEUPTERA (Greek, neuro = nerve; pteron = wing)

Common Name: lacewings, antlions
Distribution: Cosmopolitan

Adult lacewings vary from minute to large species which are often highly colored and attractively
patterned. Many have dense, long hairs on the body and a few are moth like in appearance. Lacewings are
characterized by extremely delicate adult stage, with resemble the sides of a house roof.

ORDER COLEOPTERA (Greek, koleos = sheath; pteron = wing)

Common Name: beetles, weevils, ladybirds
Distributtion; Cosmopolitan

3. Insects Pests of Major Crops and Stored Products

 The concept of a pest
 Kinds of pests
 What is an insect pest
 Economic injury and economic threshold levels
 Classification of insect based on feeding habits
 Terms describing insect feeding
 Ways on how insect damage or destroy crops and the plants
 Some insect pests of major crops and the characteristic damage inflicted on crops

3.1 Definition of Pest

27
From the British Columbia Pesticide Control Act (1997).
“Pest” means an injurious, noxious or troublesome living organism but does not include a virus, bacteria,
fungus or internal parasite that exists on humans or animals.

In practice:
“Pests” is a general term that includes problem insects, weeds, plant pathogens, birds, mammals and other
organisms.
Organisms become “pests” when their numbers are high enough to be damaging .

Traditional Definition:

Pest is defined as any organism that interferes with production of the crop.

3.2 Kinds of Pests

We generally think of pests as insects, diseases and weeds, but there are many other types including
nematodes, arthropods other than insects, and vertebrates.

3.3 What is an Insect Pest

Insect pest is an insect which interferes with the production of crop and animals either directly or indirectly.

3.4 Economic Injury Level and Economic Threshold Levels

One major component of a pest management program is determining when controls must be applied to
prevent economic loss. Economic loss results when pest numbers increase to a point where they cause crop
losses which are greater than or equal to the cost of controlling the pest. An economic injury level (EIL) is
defined to be that level of pests which will cause economic damage. An EIL recognizes that treatment is
justified for some pest population levels while others are not of economic importance.

An economic threshold level (ETL) is the level or number of pests at which controls must be applied to
prevent an increasing pest population from causing economic losses. Usually the ETL is lower than the EIL.
Insect population must be increasing before treatment is applied. Decreasing populations have already caused
their damage and treatment would cost more than the return.

3.5 Classification of insect based on feeding habits

A. Chewing- insects with generalized mandibulate mouthparts

 Leaf skeletonizers

 Leaf miners

 Leaf tiers, leaf rollers, leaf folders

 Borers

B. Sucking- insects with haustellate mouthparts

Most insects cannot digest cellulose. This feeding strategies allows direct feeding on plant nutrients in the
juices or sap without cellulose ingestion.

3.6 Terms describing insect feeding

Phytophagy = herbivory

Phytophagous = herbivorous

Levels of specificity of fooding:

Monophagus-restricted to one food or plant

Ex. Sweetpotato weevil

Oliphaaous- restricted to a small group of food plants

Ex. Aphids

Polyphagous- general feeding

Ex. Migratory locust, armyworms

28
 The location of the feeding damage on the plant caused by the insect’s feeding, and the type of
damage (damage from chewing or from sucking mouth parts) are the most important clues in determining
that the plant damage is insect caused and in identifying the responsible insect.

Feeding Habits

CHEWING DAMAGE OR RASPING DAMAGE:

 Entire Leaf Blade consumed by various caterpillars, canker worms, and webworms. Only tougher
midvein remains.
 Distinct Portions of Leaf Missing. distinct notches cut from leaf margin (black vine weevil adult),
circular hole cut from margin of leaf (leaf cutter bees), small randomly scattered holes in leaf
(beetles, chafers, weevils, frasshoppers).
 Leaf Surfaces Damaged: “Skeletorization” of leaf surface. Slugs, beetle larvae, pearslug (pear
sawfly larvae), elm leaf beetle, and thrips.
 Leaves “rolled”: leaves that are tied together with silken threads or rolled into a tube often harbor
leafrollers or leaitiers, i.e. omnivorous leaftler.
 Leaf Miners Feed Between the Upper and Lower Leaf Surfaces. If the leaf is held up to the light,
one can see either the insect or frass in the damage area (discolored or swollen leaf tissue area),i.e
boxwood, holly, birch, elm leaf miners.
 Petiole and Leaf Stalk Borers burrow into the petiole near the blade or near the base of the leaf.
Tissues are weakened and the leaf falls in early summer.sectioning petiole reveals insect larva of
small moth or sawfly larva, i.e. maple petiole borer.
 Twig Gridlers and Pruners, i.e. vine weevil and twig girdling beetle.
 Borers Feed under the Bark in the cambium tissue or I the solid wood or xylem tissue, i.e.
mountain pine beetle and smaller European elm bark beetle galleries. Damage is often recognized by
a general decline of the plant or a specific branch. Close examination will often reveal the presence
of holes in the bark, accumulation of frass or sawdust-like material or pitch, i.e. raspberry
crown,borer, sequoia pitch moth.
 Root Feeders, larval stages of weevils, beetles and moths cause general decline of plant, chewed
area of roots i.e. sod webworm, Japanese beetle, root weevil.

SUCKING DAMAGE:

In addition to the direct mechanical damage from feeding, some phloem-feeding insects cause damage by
injecting toxic substances when feeding. This can cause symptoms which range from simple stippling of the
leaves to extensive disruption of the entire plant. Insect species which secrete phytotoxic substances are
called toxicogenic (toxin-producing) insects. The resulting plant damage is called “phytotoxemia” or
toxemia” (Chapman, R.K 1985. Insects that poison plants. American Grower 33-10:31-38, October 1985).

Spotting or Stippling result from little diffusion of the toxin and localized destruction of the chlorophyll by
the injected enzymes at the feeding site. Aphids, leafhoppers, and lygus bugs are commonly associated with
this type of injury.

Leaf curling or Puckering- more severe toxemias such as tissue malformations develop when toxic saliva
causes the leaf to curl and pucker around the insect. Severe aphid infestations may cause this type of damage.

Systemic Systemia- in some cases the toxic effects from toxigenic insect feeding spread throughout the plant
resulting in reduced growth and chlorosis. Psyllid yellows of potatoes and tomatoes and scale and mealy bug
infestations may cause systemic toxemia.
 General (uniform) “stipple” or Flecking or Chlorotic Pattern on leaf i.e.adelgid damage on
spruce needles and bronzing by lace bugs.
 Random Stipple Pattern on leaf, i.e. leafhoppers, mites.
 Leaf and Stem “distortion” associated with off-color foliage= aphids cherry aphid, leaf curl plum
aphid.
 Galla, Swellings on leaf and stem tissue may be caused by an assortment of insects, i.e. aphids,
wasps,midge, mossyrose gall wasp, poplar petiole gall midge, azalea leaf gall.
 Damaged Twigs=Split: damage resembling split by some sharp instrument is due to egg laying
(oviposition) by sucking insects such as tree oppers and cicadas. Splitting of the branch is often
enough to kill the end of the branch, i.e, cicada.

Root, Stem, Branch Feeders-General Decline of Entire Plant or Section of a Plant as indicated by poor
color, reduced growth, dieback Scales, mealybugs, pine needle scale.

Ways on how insect damage or destroy crops and the plants

Insects can cause damaged by:

29
  Reducing photosynthetic area which results 1 yield reduction
 Attacking the stem which weakens the plant and inhibits nutrient transport
 Attacking the planting materials which reduces germination, lessens the quality and quantity of
planting materials
 Attacking the roots causing wounds or boring holes through which the soil-borne pathogens can
enter
 Serving as vectors of plant diseases

Some insect pests of major crops and the characteristic damage inflicted on crops

A. Grains and cereals

Rice

 Rice stemborer
 Rice stemborer (Chilio suppresalis)
 Yellow stemborer(Schirphophaga incertulas)
 Pink stemborer(Sesamia inferens)

Damage rice from seedling to maturity. At early vegetative stage, this pest causes dead heart or dying of
shoot while at the reproductive stage, it causes white heads or empty partially filled grains

 Rice bug (Leptorcorisa oraturius)

Nymphs and adult feed on developing grain. Soft and milky grain is vulnerable to attack. Panicles may bear
partially empty grains. Brown spot occur where bugs have fed. In addition, the grains, may smell upleasant,
and this smell may lower the market value of grains.

 Leafhoppers and planthoppers

These pests transmit virus diseases of rice which cause either stunting of the rice plant, reduction of
excessive productions of tillers or “burning’ or dying of the whole plant.

Leafhoppers

 Green leafhopper (Nephotetix spp)- transmit tungro, yello dwarf, transitory yellowing, dwarf, brunchy
stunt, walka and gall dwarf
 Zigzag leafhopper (Recilia dorsalis)- transmits tungro virus, orange leaf and rice dwarf

Planthoppers

 Brown planthopper (Nilapartava lugens)- transmits grassy stunt, ragged stunt, wilted stunt viruses
 White backed planthopper (Sogatella furcifera)- heavy infestation show burn symptoms

 Black bugs (Scotinophara spp.)

This insect damages plant by sucking sap. The area around a feeding hole turns brown with dark
brown margins, resembling a blast lesion. Leaf tips or margins, the center leaves, or an entire plant
may dry and center leaves may roll longitudinally.

Corn

 Corn borer (Ostrinia furnacalis)

Corn borer damages plant by boring the stalks, cutting the silks and making holes of the opening
ofears from silking to soft dough stage. Feeding area shows granular faces.

 Armyworm & Cutworm(Spodoptera exigua & Spodoptera litura)

 These insects completely defoliate young plants. In older plants the leaves are eaten including veins
and midribs and stems.

 Corn Seedling Maggot (Atherigona oryzae)

Infested seedling shows stunted growth, yellowing of younger leaves and rotting of tissues.

 Corn Aphid (Rhophalosiphum maidis)

30
 Corn seedling may die and wither if infested at early growth stage. Leaf surface becomes sooty as a
result of fungal infection on honeydue deposits.

Vegetables & Species

Crucifers (cabbage, lettuce, broccoli, cauliflower)

 Diamond-back moth (Plutella xyllostella)

The larvae if numerous eat holes in leaves all over the plants giving a lacy pattern. The penetrate the
heart and produce a lot of webbing and excreta, thus ruining the plant.

 Cabbage butterfly (Pieres rapae)

The caterpillar eat out ragged holes in the leaves, up to about 2.5 cm across, and feed on the outer
leaves of the heart. Heavily infested plants become ragged and stunted, and fouled with dark green
excrement, but no webbing is present.

Beans

 Podborer (Etiella ssp., Maruca testularis)

The young larvae bore into the buds, blossoms or young pods, they feed mainly on the flower and
buds. The older larvae attack the pods and the presence is indicated by the entrance hole through a
mass of excrement is extruded. The larvae spin silken threads which cause the leaves, blossoms and
pods to be meshed together by webbing.

 Bean bug (Nezara viridula)

All stages feed by sucking sap through needle-like beaks. The damage is restricted mainly to the
pods; they are sucked dry and left shriveled, distorted and containing only empty shriveled seeds.

 Aphid (Aphids craccivora)

Leaf distortion may follow the attacks, with the plants becoming stunted. When bean plants with
pods are infested, the aphids produce dense colonies and sooty mold on the pods which may be
washed clean for marketing. These aphids also transmit a virus disease, bean yellow mosaic.

Cucurbits (squash, cucumber, melon)

 Squash beetle

Flowers are destroyed and feeding on the skin of fruits produces disfiguring blemishes. Beetles are
most abundant and harmful on warm calm days following wet and windy wheather.

Tomato

 Budworm (Holiothis spp.)

Buds and blossoms are eaten. Infested fruits show pinholes usually near the stem. Larger entry holes
are seen when larger larvae move from one fruit to another. Internal rotting of fruits are usually
observede.

Potato

 Potato moth ( Pthorimae operculella)

Infested plants wilt and die. Infestations usually occurs when the second and third trusses of fruits
have set.

Rootcrops

Sweetpotato

 Sweetpotato weevil (Cylas formicarius elegantulus)

The damage in vines and tuberous roots is characterized by small feeding and oviposition punctures
on the surface and internal damage is characterized by feeding tunnels filled with frass with
disagreeable odor.

Cassava

 Cassava red spider mite (Tetranychus kanzawai)

31
 Feeding punctures appear as yellow dots on both surfaces of the leaves. Infested leaves turn yellow
and gradually brown. Heavy defoliation leaving only the stem and shoots of the plant occur.

 Scale insect (Pseudaulascaspis pentagona)

Cassava planting materials become susceptible to scale insects during storage. The brownish scale
insects congregate around the stem and infested stem failed to germinate when heavily infested.

4. METHODS OF INSSECT PEST CONTROL

Control of insect pests can be grouped into two general approaches namely:preventive approach and
suppressive approach.

Preventive approach-this is done prior to pest establishment

- Tries all possible means to avoid association of the pest and the host
- The objectives is the reduction of the initial population of the best.

Suppressive approach- in here the pest have already established association with the host.

The objective of this approach is to reduce further population growth or drastic reduction of existing
population to minimize crop loss.
high
4.1.1 CONTROL STRATEGIES/TACTICS

PREVENTIVE APPROACH

Regulatory Contorl- involves legal action such as the prohibition or restriction of the entry or passage of
insect-infested planting materials form one area to other in the (e.g.Quarantine; use of certified seeds)

-The purpose of quarantine measures is to prevent the introduction of potential pests to another area or
prevent further dissemination of those already present in the locality.

-The use of certified seeds ensures that the planting materials are pest-free

Cultural control

Thorough land preparation

Use of healthy planting materials
Crop rotation
Cultivation
Crop complementation
Sanitation
Timing of planting
Plant spacing

SUPRESSIVE APPROACH

Mechanical and physical control- such as trapping and subjecting insects to high or low temperatures.

Host plant resistance

Resistance is the inheritable property that enables the plant to inhibit the growth of pest populations or
recover from injury caused by populations that were not inhibited to grow.

4.2.1 Types host plant resistance

Ecological resistance- false or fake; also called pseuresistance

-resistance of the crop to fest infestation is due to the primary control of environmental factors. (e.g.
phonological asynchrony)

(e.g)
Vertical resistance- called monogenic, major gene, or specific resistance.
-Resistance is governed by many genes

4.2.3 Mechanisms of resistance (in insects)

Antixenosis-refractory to guests
-Also called as none preference

Antibiosis- include all adverse physiological effects of a temporary or permanent nature resulting from the
ingestion of a plant by an insect

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 Tolerance- in here the plant is capable of producing considerable yield despite
Supporting a population of pests.

4.2.1.2 Advantages and disadvantages:

4.3 Biological control

Biological control is defined as the action of natural enemies (parasites, predators pathogen) in
maintaining another organisms density than would occur in their absence.

4.3.1 Types of biological control:

Natural biological control- involves the action of natural enemies in reducing pest population
without man’s intervention

Applied biological control- a method that relies on natural enemies to reduce pest population to the
considerable level that involves natural enemy manipulation by man.

4.3.2 Kinds of the natural enemies:

Parasite/ parasitoid includes insects that feed on another organism. They are
Usually smaller than their hosts. (Trichogramma)
Predator-attack other organism by devouring them. They are usually bigge or
Similar in size to their preys; requires more preys to complete their development.
(e.g. mantids, dragonfly etc.)
Pathogen- microorganisms that cause diseases (e.g viruses, bacteria, funji etc)

4.3.3Advantages and disadvantages of biocon:

4.4 GENETIC COTROL

This involves manipulation of genetic make up of insects through chemical sterilization or gamma radiation.
In here male insects are caught and subjected to sterilization. They are then released in the field to compete
with the wild population (non sterile) in mating with the females.
4.5 CHEMICAL CONTROL

Insecticides- chemicals designed to kill insect pests

4.5.1 Classification:

-Based on the origin of the active ingredients

-Based on the mode of entry:
-contact poison
-stomach poison
-fumigant
-Based on selectivity:
-narrow spectrum
-broad spectrum
-Based on the mode of action:
-physical poisons
-metabolic inhibitors
-Based on the parent compound
- organochlorine
-organophosphate
-botanicals

4.5.2 Advantages and disadvantages:

4.6 INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT

IPM- is an ecologically based pest control strategy that relies heavily on natural
mortality factors such as natural economies and weather and seeks control tactics
that disrupt these factors as little as possible.

-An intelligent selection and use of pest control action that would ensure
favorable economic, ecological and sociological consequencies.

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 Weed Science

I Weed Science as a Discipline

Weed Science deals with anything about weeds like their biology, control
and possible utilization. Its main objective is to formulate an effective, more economical and at the
same time an environmentally safe weed control strategy.

The recognition of Weed Science as a discipline came in at a later time compared with other
fields in Plant Protection such as Entomology and Plant Pathology. According to Mercado (1979) the
delayed recognition of wed science is because of the idea that one can always resort to hand weeding
which does not require any scientific background. Moreover, the damage caused by weeds is not as
distinct as those inflicted by insects and pathogens.

However, weed awareness has been there since man started with agriculture, keeping only
the desirable vegetation and dispose those that are undesirable. However, the desire to control the
weeds intensively just started when the herbicidal potential of 2,4-D (2-4- dichlorophenoxy acetic
acid) was discovered in 1944 in the U.S. of Ameerica.

II What is a Weed?

A. Definitions

A weed is commonly defined as a plant that:

- is unwanted, undesirable grows everywhere such as in road sides; in cultivated and

noncultivated areas;

- interferes with human activities like in crop production; and interferes with water navigation.

B. Characteristics

The major characteristics of weed that distinguished it from other plants are:

- faster rate of vegetative growth such as rapid tillering, branches, leaf formation and stem
elongation, tuber and rhizomes production

- earlier and efficient reproduction

- possession of propagule dormancy

- ability to adapt and survive adverse environmental conditions

- capacity to reduce the yield of crop even at low population density.

C. Importance of Weeds

Weeds are considered enemies of crop because of their ability to reduce yield and at the
same time, there are some benefits that can be derived from them.

Advantages/Benefits from Weeds

-Alternate source of food for human

-Alternate source of feed for animals
-Source of useful compounds like growth regulators, natural pesticides
-Some possess medicinal properties
-Enrich the soil upon decomposition
-Prevents soil erosion
-A “home” for beneficial organism
-Source o genes for crop improvement
-Add aesthetics value/beautification

Disadvantages/harmful effects

-Ability to reduce crop yields when allowed to grow with the crop during the
34
 Sensitive growth stages.
-Reduce the quality of farm products when contaminated with weeds
-Reduce the quality of land
-Clog irrigation canal
-Alternate host for other pests
-Cause human ailment
-Toxic of livestock
-Compete with pollinators

3. Classification and Identification

Taxonomically, weeds are plants and they are identified scientifically using the binomial system of
classification just like in other organisms, for example, purple nutsedge (Mutha-Tag. Unod-unod-Vis.) is
known as Cyperus rotundus L. Hennce, Cyperus refers to the genus and rotundus to species. Linnaeus is the
author of the binomial and abbreviated as L.or Linn.

Weeds may also be classified based on the following categories:

- life cycle

Annual- life cycle completed in one year or within one cropping season
e.g.Echinocloa colona, Rottbellia cochinchinensis

Perennial- life cycle is completed in more than two years

e.g.Cyperus rotundus, Imperata cylindrical

-growth habit
Vine
Herb
Shrubs
Tree

-body texture
Herbaceous
Woody

-habitat
Terrestrial
Aquatic (emergent, submerged and floating)
Epiphytic

-grass morphology

Grasses
Belong to Poaceae family
Annual or perennial
Stem known as culm is round and hollow
Presence of nodes and internodes
Leaves which are narrow with parallel venation arise in alternate manner
Along the stem; leaf sheath is the lower portion of the leaf and the upper
Portion is called the blade.
Presence of hairy membranous structure, the ligules which is found at the
Junction of the leaf blade and the leaf sheath

Examples: Rottboellia cochinechinensis (itchgrass)

Echinochlea glabrescens (barnyard grass)
Imperata cylindrical (cogon)

Sedges- belong to Cyperaceae family

- annual or perennial
- stem is solid and triangular
- absence of ligule and nodes
- leaf sheaths are forming a tube around the stem
- presence of underground rhizomes, bulbs, tubers, in perennial sedges/grasses

Examples: Cyperus rotundus (purple nutsedge)

Imperata cylindrica (cogon)

Broadleaf

-belong to other plant families

- generally dicots but few species are monocots
35
 - fully expanded leaves with netted venation
- leaves are arranged in different manners arising either on opposite or alternate
manner

Examples: Ageratum conyzoides (tropic ageratum)

Monochoria vanigales (gabing uwak)
Amaranthus spinosus (spiny amaranth)

Classification of weeds based on gross morphonology is the most convenient and popularly used by scientist.
The other categories mentioned above became a qualifying trait of the weed being classified.

Example: Cyperus rotundus is a perennial, terrestrial, sedge

Echinochloa colona is an annual, terrestrial grass;
Elicchhormia crassipes is an aquatic, perennial, broadleaf weed.

Weed Establishment

4.1 Soil as Seed Bank

The magnitude of viable weed seed reserve in the soil, seed germination
and competititon determine the capacity of particular species to establish in an area. Weed
establishment technically known as ecesis contributed to its dominance coupled with efficient
reproduction and mechanism for adaptation and survival.
Soil serves as a bank depository of numerous weed seeds. Several studies indicated that there
are thousands/millions and even billions of viable weed seeds deposited in the soil. The tremendous
number of weed seeds in the soil is one of the reasons why they are persistent in nature. In addition
their ability to adopt and survive under adverse conditions contributed a lot to their establishment
and dominance.

Estimation of weed population in the soil gives an idea of how effective is the weed control
method. In estimating the total number of seeds in the soil the dormant seeds must also be taken into
consideration.

Weed of seed reserve in the soil can be affected by cultural practices like crop rotation and
cultivation. Both practices can either reduce or increase weed population because of better weed
growth. On the other hand, preventing the weed from seedling using any weed control method can
reduce the weed seed population in the soil.

4.2 Longevity of Weed Seeds

The longevity of seeds in the soil is affected by soil type. Sandy soil for instance are prone to
drought and can reduce the water content of seed to below survival. Likewise exposure to
drought of weed propagules (e.g. tubers, rhizomes, seeds) can reduce the moisture content
below the critical level necessary for survival. Cyperus rotundus for instance has a critical
moisture level of 13-16 % to maintain tubers viability. Studies showed that water hyacinth
(E. crassipes) seeds can survive for about 15 years while the work of Juliano (1940, as cited
by Mercado,1979) indicated that the seed of some common weeds contained in glass vials
for 19 years in the laboratory resulted in low germination.
On the othere hand, weed seed viability was maintained when buried for 6-6 1/2 years in the
soil.

4.3 Dormancy of Weed Seeds

Dormancy is the inability of seed/propagule to germinate even if conditions are favorable.

Types of Dormancy:

1. Primary dormancy- acquired as seed develops or mature. Also refer to as natural dormancy.
Almost all weed species possesses this form of dormancy. This also accounts for flashes of
germination in the field.

2. Secondary dormancy- also refers to as induced dormancy which resulted when a

nondormant seed/propagule is subjected to unfavorable conditions, for example exposure to
high temperature or limited moisture. This is an adaptive form of mechanism for weed
survival.

Mechanisms of Dormancy:

1. Physical-this involves the impermeability of the thick seed coat to imbible water and oxygen, hence
even if the embryo is viable it will not germinate because of the barrier e.g. Cdelosia argentia,
Impomoea triloba, Rottboellia cochiinchinensis.

36
 2. Physiological- can be accounted to immaturity of the embryo or to the presence of substances
inhibitory to the germination of weed seeds.
e.g. Rottboellia cochinchinensis
Echinochloa crusgalli, Imperata cylindrical, Cyperus rotundus

Ways to Overcome Weed Dormancy

1. Microbial action
2. Treatment with acid
3. Passage through the alimentary tract of animals
4. Dehulling or scarification
5. Exposure to alternate wet and dry conditions
6. After ripening process- lapse of time required for the plant to overcome the physiological barrier for
germination
7. Treatment with germination promoters (KNO3, GA, Auxin)
8. Exposure to light to inactivate the inhibitors
9. Stratification or low temperature treatment
10. Use of suitable germination medium for germination that can absorbed the inhibitors

Dormancy is considered a biological adaptation, it assures the continued existence of weeds in the
field. And a continued problem in crop production.

4.4 Germination

Germination is the resumption of growth of the seed embryo and this marks the start of
survival for weed.

Steps in germination process (King, 1966)

1. Imbibition

Phase 1- a physical process involving the absorption of water by starch and taking place in living and
dead seeds

Phase 2- a physiological process involving the absorption of water by the embryo. This starts the
initiation and progress of starch hydrolysis which triggers metabolism.

2. Period of rapid metabolic activity- characterize by rapid cell division and elongation accompanied by
faster synthesis of materials.

3. Root elongation- the first sign of germination showing the root breaking into the seed.

4. Shoot emergence- in the field this is the first sign of weed growth.

Hypogeal- cotyledons remain below or at the soil surface

Epigeal- cotyledon is carried above ground.

5. Period of independent growth- seedling starts to manufacture its own food, leading to an increase in
weight. The seedling is on its way to ecesis.

Factors affecting weed germination

1. Environment- light, moisture, temperature, oxygen and carbon dioxide

2. Cultural practices- water management, cultivation

4.5 The seedling stage of weeds

The seedling stage is the most important stage in the establishment of the weed. It is the most
competitive and at the same time the most sensitive to environmental effect including vulnerability to control
measures. Hence the most practical stage to apply control measure. Leaves are still succulent, lacking cutin
and waxes allowing easy penetration of herbicide by cells. The root epidermal cells are still thin making
efficient absorption of herbicide.

However, the problem is how to distinguished between the weed and crop seedlings especially the
grasses. They have the same morphology and it is quite difficult to identify which one is the rice, and which
one is the weed grass.

Factors Affecting Seedling Growth and Development

37
 1. Soil factors- pH, nutrient level, salinity
2. Light- shading-reduces photosynthetic activity
3. Adaptation to growing condition-tropical, temperate condition
4. Competitive power of the weed- most important power of a weed in the battle for survival.
5. Weed Reproduction and Survival

A. Sexual reproduction- annual weeds mainly reproduce by sexual means.

Factors Affecting Seed Production

1. Photoperiod- short day plant, long day plant dual effect on weed sexual reproduction

2. Vegetative growth- determines the magnitude of seed production. The number of tiller, branches and
leaves can influence the amount of seed produced by weed.

3. Temperature- affects physiological and biochemical processes within the plant body. Its direct effect
on sexual reproduction is on the response of anthesis (flower opening) and subsequent pollination to
changes in temperature. Nectar secretion is important in insect pollinated species and this is affected
also by temperature. The coincidence of flower opening, defriscense of pollen sacs, nectar secretion
and bee activity makes way for a perfect condition and bee activity makes way for a perfect
condition for pollination, a prerequisite in weed seed formation for most plant species.

4. Growth regulators- may increase or decrease seed production depending on the chemicals being
used.

B. Asexual or Vegetative Reproduction

Factors Affecting Asexual Reproduction

1. Soil texture-affects the reproduction of rhizome tubers in perennial weeds. Sandy loam soil caused
higher rhizome production than heavier soil.

2. Daylength- short daylenghts can stimulate tuber production in Scirpus maritimus while long
daylenght reduced the number of tuber formation.

3. Light intensity- influence dry matter production of the weed. Plants exposed to full sunlight
produced smaller leaves but higher number of tubers while reduction of light intensity reduced tuber
formation.

4. Mineral sufficiency- favors asexual reproduction in some perennial weeds just like in Elicchhornia
crassioes or water hyacinth.

5.3 Magnitude of seed production

The number of seeds produce by weed varies from one species to another. For
example Echinocholoa species the number of seeds produced by the plant is approximately
more than 42,000. while Monochoria vaginales recorded an average of 44,799 seeds per
plant. number of tillers, branches and leaf axils contributed to the extent of seed production
most especially in annual weeds.

1.4. Weed Propagule Dispersal

Dispersal determines the spread or distribution of a weed. The efficiency of dispersal

is influeces by the structures and habitat of the weed species and man’s activities .

Dispersal unit refers to any structure usually single-seeded or multi seeded together
with its accessory parts separated or dispersed from the mother plant that can be caused in
weed reproduction or perpertuation.

Agents of Dispersal:

a) Wind-weed with very light or minute, flattened or winglike structures are easily dispersesd by weed.
Members of Asteraceae family contain pappus (consists of a circle o hairs) which aids in efficient
distribution. Some members of Poaceae family are also easily dispersed by weed.

Examples:Ageratum conyzoides
Tridax procumbens
Vermonia cinerea
Vermoniaa cinerea
Imperata cylindrical
Echinochloa colona
38
 b) Water- aids in dispersal of aquatic weeds. Bouuyancy of some weed seeds/whole weed can be
attributed to the presence of pericarp that consists of light tissues or through an inflated structure.

Examples: Eichhornia crassipes

Pistia stratiotes
Echinochloa glabrescens
Monochoria vaginales

c) Explosive mechanisms- exhibited by legume and some nonlegumenous species. Upon maturity the
values of the pod just explode scattering the seeds.

Examples: Mimosa pudica

Cleome rutidusperma

d) Animals- seeds that possesses hard seed coat when eaten by animals can pass through the alimentary
tract of the animals and are disposed through the dung or manure thereby facilitating germination.

Examples: Rottboellia cochichinensis

Echinochloa species

e) Man and his activities serve as the most effective agent of dispersal. Weeds producing sticky
substances adhere to man’s clothing facilitating dispersal. Likewise, weeds with specialized
structures like hooks, spines and burs can also attach to man’s skin and clothing.

Examples: Chrysorpogon aciculatus

Cenchrus echinaatus
Desmodium procumbens
Urena lobata

Intercontinental Dispersal of Weeds

The discovery of thee Philippines in 1521 opened its Acapulco- Manila galleon line and many
aggressive weed species were believed to be brought to the country by this route (King, 1966 as cited by
Mercado, 1979).

Oceanic current of the world is considered by King (1966) to have played an important role in
intercontinental distribution of weeds. This is aided by the presence of specialized structures designed for
dispersal by water.

At present, intercontinental dispersal is more rapid because of man’s activitids. Planting materials
contaminated with weeds are exported and imported for specific purposes from one country to another and
this facilitates an effective dispersal of weeds.

6. Weed Interference

Interference is a general term which comprises both concepts of allelopathy and competition. It
refers to positive or negative interaction between or among organisms.

6.1 Competition only occurs between or among organisms when there is limited supply
of resources.

Types of Competition

a) intraspecific- competition between organisms belonging to the same group of species.

b) Interspecific- competition between organism belonging to different species

Major Factors for Competition

a) Light-LAI, LTR
b) Water
c) Nutrients

Factors Affecting the Competitive Ability of a Crop Against Weeds

a) Weed species, density and duration of competition

b) Seeding method
c) Crop variety or selection
d) Level of nutrition

Principles Involve in Crop-Weed Competition

39
 1) The first plant to occupy area has an advantage over late emerging plants
2) Plant with more or less similar morphological characteristics compete more than those dissimilar
traits.
3) Competition between the crop and the weed is critical during the sensitive stage of the crop which is
about 1/3 to 1/2 of the life cycle of the crop. The critical period of competition differs among crop,
cropping seasons and weed species associated with the crop. Control measures must be applied
during this period to avoid irreparable damage on yield.
4) Critical threshold level refers to the particular density of the weed above which significant yield
reductions will commence.
5) Canopy forming crops compete with weeds better than noncanopy forming crops.

Physiological Basis for Plant Competition

Black et al. (1969) grouped plants into two categories namely the C 3 (less efficient) and C4 (more
efficient) plants to explain the physiological mechanisms why some plants are better competitor than other
plants. Below the characteristics that differentiate C 3 from C4 plants

Characteristics of efficient and less efficient plamts

Aspect C4 (Efficient) C3 (Less efficient)

1.Pathway in photosynthesis
2. Chloroplasts in the vascular bundle sheath
3. CO2 compensation point
4.Photorespration
5. Water requirement
6. Light intensity saturation
7. Temperature optimum for photosynthesis

Espression of Competitive Relationship

1. Relative Crowding Coefficient

KAB= [MA MB ] [PA]-1

---- ---- -----
[ZA ZB] [PB]

Where: A & B are competing species

KAB- relative crowding coefficient of A with respect to B

MA and MB are yield of A & B, respectively, in mixture

ZA and ZB are density of A and B, respectively in mixture

PA and PB is > 1, then A is more competitive than B and vice versa.

2. Replacement diagrams- the numbers of densities of A and B are plotted against yield.
The species that shows a convex curve is more competitive than one with concave curve.

6.2 Weed- Crop Allelopathy

Allelopathy came from greek words allelo and pathos meaning mutual harm. It involves release of
substances from a donor organism to the environment thereby affecting the growth and development of
target organism.

Allelopathic substances may come from the roots of living plants, leachates/extract of plant organs or
seeds or from decomposition of dead plant parts.

Grummer and Beyer (1960) classified toxic allopathic substances based on the producer and receiver
organisms namely:

a. antibiotic- microorganism vs. microorganism

b. marasmin- microorganism vs. higher plant
c. phytoncide- higher plants vs. microorganism
d. koline- higher plant vs. higher plant

40
 The above allelopathic substances exhibited specificity of action within a range of concentration.
Above a certain concentration they would be toxic to all organisms.

Koline and marasmin can act as natural herbicide and therefore can bee exploited for weed control
program. Their mechanisms of action are similar to synthetically produced herbicides.

7. Methods of Weed Control

The main objective of weed control is not to totally remove the weeds from the field but to reduce its
population to a level that s not detrimental to the growth of crop thereby increasing the yield.

Weed control can be done either by nonchemical or chemical methods which involves the use of
synthetically produced herbicide. The nonchemical methods include: Manual, mechanical, cultural,
ecological and biological methods.

a. Manual- the oldest form of weed control which involves the use of sticks, bolos or
garden forks. Still the most commonly used method in Asian countries.

b. Mechanical- involves the use of big implements like cultivators and rotary weeders.
Can be used in crops planted in straight rows.

c. Cultural and ecological- altering the grow condition with the aim of suppressing
directly the weed population by decreasing its competitive power or encouraging
weed growth at specific period during which control measures can be applied. crop
Examples are mulching, change in crop or variety, flooding, crop rotation, increasing
density, available nutrients and cultivation.

d. Biological- involves the natural enemy organisms that can be used to check the weed
growth. These organisms may include insects, pathogens, mites and some species
fishes. The biological control agents must be host specific and will not harm the
economically important crops. A series of host range studies must be conducted
before any recommendation can be made with regards to the use of biocon agents for
weed control purposes.

A good biological control agent must possess the following qualities:

1. Ability to kill or prevent the reproduction of the weed host

2. High ability to disperse and locate the weed host
3. good adaptability to the weed host and on the existing environmental condition
4. Sufficient reproductive capacity to overtake the increase of its weed host
when unfavorable environment occurs.

e. Integrated Weed Control- employs the use of two or more methods to control
or manage the weed population in a harmonious manner.

Main Reference Book:

Mercado, BL 1979. Introduction to Weed Science Southeast Asian Regional for Graduate Studies and
Research in Agriculture (SEARCA). UP at Los Banos, College, Laguna, Philippines. 292 pp.

Other Pests

A. MOLLUSCS

Classification:

Kingdom : Animalia
Phylum : Mollusca
Class : Gastropoda
Genus : Pomacea Pila Achatina
Species : canalicuta luzunica fulica
Common name: Golden snail/kuhol Native kuhol Japanese snail

Economic Importance

1. Pests of agricultural crops

- kuhol is an important pest of rice and other aquatic plants
- on rice, golden kuhol feeds on transplanted seedlings
41
 - 14 to 24 day old seedlings are more susceptible to golden snail attack.
Beyond 6 weeks, seedlings are hardly eaten.

- Japanese snails on the other hand, are prevalent in upland habitat.

- They feed on upland crops namely such as vegetables, banana, rootcrops and others.

2. Snails are also carries of parasites of man and animals

- they are the host of intestinal fluke, lungworm and other parasites causing
Diseases in man.

Feeding Habitat

- snails are herbivorous; fed on almost any type of plant.

- one adult snail (golden kuhol) consumes a blade of rice for 3-5 min.
- 4 kg papaya leaves produce 1 kg snail

Life Cycle

- adult female lays an average of 300 pink eggs/mass during night time about 1 foot above the
ground
- eggs hatch 12 to 15 days after egg laying
- maturity ranges from 2 to 3 months with 3 to 3.5 cm shell diameter
- females start to lay eggs 75 to 90 days after hatching
- adults live for 2 to 3 years
- breeds twice a month

Control Measures

1. Chemical control- molluscides

2. Mechanical- use of wire screen to prevent transfer of kuhol from one field to the
one other
3. Biological control- using ducks and other agents
4. Use of botanical extracts

B. VERTEBRATE PESTS

Classificattion:

Kingdom : Animali
Phylum : Chordata
Class: Aves--- Mammals
: Mammalia--- Rodents or Growing
Order : Rodentia---Rodents or Growing
Chinoptera--- Bats
Primates--- Monkey, Apes etc.

Birds Pests

1. Lonchura Malacca jagori- chestnut manikin

*Color:
Entire head
Back of head Black
Side of neck, chin
Throat, Breast

- Rest of upper parts- chestnut or reddish brown

* Food- Wee seeds, rice grains

* Nests-Tall grasses, bushes with 5-10_____
*Flock- 100< individuals

2. Passeur montanus- House of Tree Sparrow

*Storage Pest- it warehouses

*Replaces Lonchura Mallaca as major bird pest of rice.

3.Padda oryzivora- Java sparrow

*Exotic bird pest

*Color is gray and black
42
Control of Bird Pests

*mechanical

C. Rodent Pests

Economic Importance

1.Food Problem
- 10 grams of grains is consumed/rat/day
- 2.5% of food is lost/year due to rat infestation in the Philippines

3. Health Problems

- Bubonic plague- serious disease in Asia affecting 42 million victims in the 14 th century
- Bacteria causing the disease is transmitted by the rat flea Xeropsylla sp.

5 Major Rodent Pests

1. Common rice field rat- Rattus rattus mindanensis.
- medium-sized rat with an average weight of 180 g.
-Color is cinnamon buff with darker streaks on upper part
- Also found in warehouses throughout the Philippines
- Mammary formula 2+3 = 10

2. Asian rice field rat – Rattus argentiventer

- medium-sized rat, slightly smaller than R. mindanensis with an average weight of 130 g.
- pelage has salt and pepper appearance with darker upper parts
- found in Mindoro and Mindanao islands
- Mammary formula 3+3 = 12

3. Polynesian rat or bush rat- Rattus exulans

- small sized rat about 30 g body weight
- upper parts with dark silky gray, under parts paler
- closely associated with several growth forest
- widely distributed in Southeast asia and a major pest in Palawan
- mammary formula 2+2 = 8

4. Norway rat- Rattus norvegicus

- Large sized rat about 200-500 g.
- Upper part are brownish, under parts grayish
- An urban pest problem
- Widely distributed in Southeast Asia
- Mammary formula 3+3 = 12

5. Philippine House Mouse- Mus musculus castaneus

- Small sized rat about 12 g.

- Brown in color
- Tail about as long or slightly longer than head and body

Signs of Rat Infestation

- damaged cropss
- scattered food/feeds
- runways
- droppings
- nests
- burrows
- foot prints

Population Dynamics of rats

Population dynamics of rats is affected by the following: reproduction, mortality, immigration,

emigration.

Immigration

43
 Birth Rate Death

Emigration

This further affected by:

- Availability of food
- Water
- Harborage
- Predation
- Competition

Control of Rodents

1. Physical/mechanical
2. Biological
3. Chemical

PESTICIDAL CALCULATIONS

SAMPLE PROBLEMS

1. To control leafhoppers in rice fields, 500 gal of 0.09% Sevin 85s is to be prepared. The WP
to be used contains 85% ai. How many kg of the WP are needed to meet the recommended
concentration?

W.P. required (kg) = %a.i. desired x specified spray vol. (gal) x 3.8 li/gal.
---------------------------------------------------------------
% ai of commercial wettable powder

W.P. required = 0.09 x 500 gal x 3.8 li/gal

-------------------------------
85
= 2.01 kg

Add sufficient water to 2.01 kg up to 500 gallons of spray material

2. Five hundred gallons of 0.04 % a.i. is needed to control rice stemborers. How many gallons
of the commercial Basudin 600 EC which contains 60% a.i will be required to meet the
recommendation?

gal of EC required = % a.i. desired x specified spray volume (gal)

--------------------------------------------------
% a.i. in commercial EC

gal Basudin 600 EC required = 0.04 x 500 gal

-----------------
60

Add enough water to 0.33 gal of Basudin 600 EC to get total volume of
500 gallons.

3. You wish to apply 320 li of spray solution/ha to a 0.5 ha area. The recommended spray
concentration of the 45% EC pesticide is 0.04%. How many litters of the commercial
formulation are required for the treatment? If you have a 16 li capacity sprayer, how much
commercial material will you prepare per sprayerload/

a) Volume of spray required = 320 li/ha x 0.5 ha= 160 li.

b) li of commercial formulation = % ai desired x vol of sparay required

--------------------------------------------
% ai in commercial EC

44
 = .04 X 160 LI
----------------
45

= 0.142 li

c) Amt of commercial material = li of commercial x capacity of

formulation sprayer (li)
-----------------------------------
amount of spray required (li)

= 0.142 li x 16 li/sprayerload
--------------------------------
160 li

= 0.0142 li or 14.2 ml/sprayerload

4. A certain pesticide has a 45 kg ai per li of emulsifiable concentrate formulation. To control

aphids 200 gal of 0.05% ai spray solution is to be prepared. How many liters of the
emulsifiable concentrate are needed to meet the desired concentration.

EC required (li) = % ai desired x specified spray volume (li)

------------------------------------------------
100 (concentration (kg/li) ai in commercial EC)

= .05 x 200 gal x 3.8 li/gal

---------------------------
100 (45 kg/li)

= .05 x 200 x 3.8

-----------------
4500

= .00844 li or 8.4 ml

5. You wish to apply 320 li/ha of spray solution to a 0.5 ha area. The recommended rate of the
70% WP pesticide is 0.75 kg ai/ha. How many kg of the commercial formulation are
required to treat the 0.5 ha area? What is the volume of spray needed for the treated area?
How much of the pesticide will you prepare per sprayerload?

a) commercial formulation (kg) = recommended rate (kg ai/ha) x area to be x 100

treated (ha)
------------------------------------------------------
% ai in formulation

= 0.75 x 0.5 x 100

--------------------= 0.536 kg
70

b) volume of spray needed for the = 320 li/ha x 0.5 ha

area to be treated = 160 li

6. When a recommended calls for 0.5 kg/ha of actual diazinon to control rice stem borers and
an emulsifiable concentrate containing 60% ai is on hand, how many liters of the
formulation is needed to treat 1/2 ha of rice?

Amount of formulation = recommended rate x area to be x 100 in

in liters (kg/ha) treated (ha)
-------------------------------------
% ai
= 0.5 x 5x 100
----------------
60

= 0.416 li or 416 ml

45
 Add sufficient amount of water to 0.416 li concentration to a desired volume that
can completely and evenly be applied over a 1/2 ha area.

7) A recommended calls for 0.6 kh/ha of actual carbofuran to control rice stemborers. How many kilos
of Furadan with 3% carbofuran is needed to treat 2 ha of ricefield.

Kg of Furadan = area to be treated x recommended x 100

(ha) rate (kg ai/ha)
-----------------------------------------------
% ai

= 2 ha x 0.6 kg/ha x 100

-------------------------
3

= 40 kg

8) Control of diamond back moth in cabbage calls or application of Dithane at 0.5 kg

ai/ha. How much 35% WP Dithane is required for 2 ha field?

Kg of Dithane 35 WP = 2 ha x 0.5 kg ai/ha x 100

----------------------------
35

= 2.857 kg

9) An EC formulation of a pesticide contains 30 kg/li of active ingredient. If recommendation calls for 0.5
kg ai/ha, how much of the pesticide is needed to treat 2 ha area?

Amount required = 0.5 kg/ha x 2 ha

-------------------
30 kg/li

= 0.033 li or 33.33 ml

10) A commercial EC preparation of 2,4-D comes as lbs/gal ai. If recommendation is 0.8

Kg ai/ha, how many liters of the commercial preparation are needed to spray one ha?
.
Li of 2,4-D EC formulation = recommended rate x area to be treated (ha) (kg/ha)
------------------------------------------------------------
Concn of a.i.

First Convert
6 lbs/gal = kg/li

6 lbs kg 2.7 kg
----- x ----- = ------- = 0.72 kg/li
2.2 lbs 3.785 li 3.785 li

= 0.8 kg ai/ha x 1 ha
--------------------- = 1.11 li
0.72 kg/ li

11) Napropamide comes as 50% WP formulation. The recommended rate is 1.5 kg/ha.
How many grams are needed to treat a 800 sq m area?

Amt of napropamide = recommended rate x are x 100

-----------------------------------
% ai

= 1.5 kg/ha x .08 ha x 100

---------------------------
50

= 0.24 kg or 240 g

Herbicides

12) Butachior comes as 5 % granular form. How many kg are needed for 4 3x5 sq m

46
 experimental plots at a rate of 1.5 kg/ha?

100 R 1.5 kg/ha x .006 ha (100)

-------- x Area = -----------------------------------
C 5

= 0.18 kg or 180 g

13) Recommendation calls for the use of 4 pounds of Maneb per 100 gallons of water to
Control a disease of rice. The EC formulation of Maned contains 60% ai and has specific gravity of
1.1.How much ai is contained in one gallon of the formulation and what is the strength of thee finished
spray? Further, how much of the 60 percent Maneb should be used to obtain the rate of 3 lbs./100 gal?

a) % EC x Sp. Gr. X 8.345 (lbs/gal water)

-------------------------------------------- = lbs ai/gal
100
60 x 1.1 x 8.345
-------------------- = 5.5 lbs. ai/gal
100

b) Strength of finished = amt. of ai needed (lb) Spray

------------------------------- x 100
8.345 lb x 100 gal

4lbs
= -------------------x 100 = 0.8
8.345 lb x 100 gal

c) Amt. of EC needed = vol of spray x desired ai %

-------------------------------
% EC x sp.gr.
desired % ai:

3 lbs
------------- = 100 = 0.36%
8.345 x 100 gal

= 100 gal x 0.36

---------------
60x1.1

= 36
-----
66

= 0.54 gal

14. A recommendation calls for the use of 2 lbs of zineb per 10 gallons of water for
Residual treatment of warehouse. The EC formulation of zineb contains 57% by weight of a.i. and has a
specific gravity of 1.1. How much a.i. is contained in one gallon of the formulation and what is the
strength of the finished spray? Further, how much of the 57% zineb should be used to obtain the rate of 2
lb/10 gal?

a) 57 x 1.1 x 8.345
------------------- = 5.23 lbs/gal
100

b) strength = 2 lbs
---------- x 100 = 2.4 %
8.345 x 10

c) amt of EC= 2.4 x 10 gal

-------------- = 0.38 gal
57 x 1.1

15. How many pounds of 50% wettable Benlate would you need to prepare 25 gallons of
a 0.5 percent Benlate spray?

WP needed= Volume of diluted spray (gal) x 8.345 lbs/gal x desired strength (lbs)
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
% ai

47
 = 25 gal x 345 lbs/gal x 0.5
------------------------------
50

= 2.08 lbs.

16. What is the Maaneb content of the finished spray if 2 lbs of a 75% WP Maneb is
mixed with 58 gallons wateer?

2 lbs x .75 x 100 1.5 x 100

-------------------- = ----------- = 0.36%
50 gals. X 8.345 lbs/gal 417.25

17. How many kilograms of a 12 % granular Kitazin are needed to treat a 600 sq m rice
field at the rate of 3 kg actual Kitazin hectare.

Kg = 3 kg ai/ha x 0.06 ha x 100

------------------------------
12

= 1.5 kg

18. What is the strength of the finished spray if 4 pounds of a 25% Zineb WP are mixed
With 5 gal of water?

Amount o WP used x concentration of WP x 100

-----------------------------------------------------------= strength of diluted spray
Total volume x 8.345

4lbs x 0.25 x 100 1 x 100

-------------------- = --------=2.39%
5 gal x 8.345 lbs/gal 41.725

19. How many pounds of 50% WP PCNB would you need to prepare 25 gal of a 0.5%
PCNB spray?

Volume of diluted spray (gal) x 8.345 (lbs/gal) x desired strength

----------------------------------------------------------------------------= WP needed
% WP

25 gal x 8.345 lbs/gal x 0.5% 104.3125

----------------------------------- = ---------- = 2.08 lbs
50% 50

Sample Problems:

1. Benomyl is recommended to control powdery mildew disease of cucurbits at 0.2%

concentration. How much Benlaate is needed to prepare 250 liters of spray suspencion?

2. Hostathion 40EC is recommended to control certain species of nematode at a concentration

of 0.15%. (a) How much Hostathion 40 EC is needed to prepare 400 liters of spray
suspension? (b) How many tablespoons are needed to prepare a tank load of spray
suspension (if tank capacity is 20 li)?

3. Furadan 3G is recommended at the rate of 2kg/ha. A farmer applied 60 kg of Furadan 3G in

his 1.5 ha field. Did he follow the recommendation rate or not? If not, how much Furadan
3G was applied in excess/deficit? What was actual rate of application in kg ai/ha?

48
 REFERENCES

Plant Pathology

Major:

Agrios, C.N. 1978. Plant Pathology, 2nd ed. Acad. Press N.Y.

Alexopolous, C.S. 1962. Intriductory Mycology. 3rd ed. N.Y.John Wiley & Sons.

Minor:

Bawden, F.C. 1964. Plant Viruses and Virus Diseases. 4 th ed. N.Y.

Ela, V.M. 1980. Development of Plant Pathology

49