BASIC TECHNOLOGY –YEAR 10

TABLE OF CONTENTS
SAFETY
General Workshop Safety
Personal Safety
Hand Tools Safety
Electrical and Machine Safety
First Aid/OHS Regulations

GEOMETRY
Basic Technical Drawing Equipment
Preparing A3 Sheet and Paper Layout
Using the Tee & Set Squares
Styles of Lettering and Numbering
Sketching
Polygons

DESIGN & ENTERPRISING

Design Process
Enterprising Skills

HAND TOOLS & MATERIALS

Hand Tools & Appliances

Hardware
Working with Non-Metals
Finishing
Sharpening Hand Tools

GEOMETRICAL DRAWING

2D Drawings
3D Drawings
Prisms & Cylinders
Pyramids & Cones

JOINTS & PROCESSES

Wood Work Joints

Metal Work Joints

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 Chapter 1
SAFETY

Outcome
After studying this chapter students should be able to:
 Identify and follow electrical, mac hine safety
procedures and practices in a workshop.
 Practice correct safety procedures and practices
in a workplace at all times.

Introduction
Safety is the freedom from danger or risk when
planned measures or precautions are taken into
consideration to prevent injury to a person or
others. Safe practice in school premises is very
important. Practically, every school workshop
contains many potential hazards. However, with
proper control, these hazards can be eliminated.
Safety in workshop can be achieved by
appropriate implementation and adherence to the
correct safety rules. Training students in the use of
safety equipment, safety procedures and
encouraging them to create a safe working
environment are the best ways to reduce injuries
and accidents.

Workplace Safety Rules

Safety First in the Workshop

Tools and machines used in the workshop, if not properly used or handled, may result in injury to the workers and damage
the tools and machines. Developing safe working attitudes and adopting safe methods are the best ways of avoiding
unnecessary injury to the workers, damage to the tools and machines in the workshop.

A workshop is a building or place where facilities such as machines, tools and workbenches are provided to enable a worker
or student to carry out the practical tasks.

Workshop safety is important because it:

• Ensures free movement and a comfortable working condition.

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 • Prevents workers from injuries.
• Guides students to work in a safe environment.
• Helps workers feel safe and confident.
• Enables the workers to pay attention to their surroundings.

First Aid and OHS procedures in the Workshop

First aid

First Aid provides the initial and immediate attention to a person suffering an injury or
illness. In extreme cases, a quick first aid response could mean saving a person from
injury.
In many cases, first aid can reduce the severity of the injury or illness. A quick and
competent first aid response also calms the injured person, reducing unnecessary stress
and anxiety.

Some first aid tips to know in the workshop:

• Always keep a First-Aid kit in the workshop and know where it is.
• Get to know your working environment, in particular where to find a fire extinguisher and an emergency stop.
• Report ALL hazards, unsafe conditions and work practices.
• Use the workshop in presence of a supervisor or a teacher. Avoid working alone in the workshop.
• Ensure that all passages to, from and in the workshop are completely clear.

Occupational Health and Safety (OHS)

OHS is an area concerned with the health, safety and welfare of people engaged in
work or employment. According to the OHS Act 1996 and OHS regulation, all schools
to maintain a safe and healthy workplace for its teachers and students. The school
should have an evacuation plan which includes a map indicating evacuation routes.
This plan should be displayed on notice boards so that it is visible when needed and
using this evacuation drills to be conducted on a regular basis.

Electrical and Machine Safety

Electrical safety in schools is achieved through the proper use and installation of electrical equipment in workshop. Also, all users must be
properly instructed concerning electrical hazards in their workplaces and understand the necessary safe work practices to avoid injury.

Machine hazards are a major cause of accidents and must be identified and
controlled to avoid injury to users working on or near one of the machines. Due to
the possibility of serious injury, all electrical hazards should be reported to the
immediate supervisor.

Some of the following electrical and machine safety rules can ensure a safe working
environment in the workshop.
• Always wear an apron or dust coat, as it will protect your clothes and hold loose
clothing such as ties in place.
• Wear goggles or safety glasses equipped with side shields when working with
machines. Be sure to have enough light to see the work after wearing the
protective glasses.
• Keep the top of your bench and floor around it clean and neat. End your work ten
minutes earlier to properly and safely store equipment in appropriate places and to
clean your workplace as well as the workshop.

• Report any electrical faults or conditions that could cause injury to the operator or damage to machine.

• Avoid talking to or distracting the attention of anyone operating a machine. If you are the operator, do not talk to others while working. If you
are an observer, stand at a safe distance from the machine.

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 • Do not go beyond the danger zone lines marked near machine areas. Do not attempt to touch any worn out machine parts, electrical wires or
power cords.
• All personnel operating machines must be properly trained, qualified, and competent to perform the task.

Knowing and understanding electrical and machine safety, will help you by providing a safe working environment.

Questions
1. Describe how to dress properly in the workshop.

2. Why is it important to follow instructions or direction in the workshop?

3. Why is it important to learn how to use tools correctly?

4. What is the most dangerous thing you can do in the workshop?

5. Why is it important to report all accidents?

Activity

1. Prepare a poster based on one of the safety rules discussed in this chapter.

2. Prepare a housekeeping checklist. This list can be used during the workshop clean-up time to help make sure tools and materials have
been properly put away and the area has been cleaned.

Chapter 2 GEOMETRY

Outcome

After studying this chapter you will be able to:

 Recognize and develop skills in orthographic

projection
rd
 Acquire the concepts in of 3 and 1 st angle
orthographic projection
 Develop the skills in pictorial drawing

Technical Drawing Instruments and Standards

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Technical drawing uses lines and various forms of letters and figures. The drawings must accurately represent the shape of the object and all the details
necessary to fix its size and its position must be included. As with languages, technical drawing has its own rules. These are based on the correct use of
lines, figures and other signs.

Technical drawing is the common language of technology and industry. The manufacturer, designer, builder and technician all use technical drawing for
communication and construction.

Technical drawing has many advantages over words.

1. Drawings of two and three dimensional shapes — try describing a tool or household utensil in words.
2. Complex mechanisms — a motor cycle engine.
3. Design ideas — a bracelet; a car body.

4. Standard drawing practices throughout much of the world mean there are no language barriers.
5. There are no differences in the understanding of a drawing. Different meanings may be read into words.

Preparing an A3 Sheet

The TITLE BLOCK

This title block is for an A3 drawing sheet

EXAMPLE

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Given below is anisometric view and orthographic projection of a simple solid with dimensions

Steps in setting yourDRAWINGS

1. Draw a horizontal line with a Tee
-Square

2. Measure 70mm and draw the second horizontal line with

-square
a Tee

3. Draw the horizontal line with a T-Square

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4. Measure 50mm and draw the fourth horizontal line with a Tee-
Square

5. Draw the first vertical with the longer edge of the 30°/60° set
square

6. Measure 70mm and draw the vertical line with the Set-Square

7. Draw the verticle line with the set-square

8. Measure 10mm and draw verticle the line with set squares

9. Now we are left with 3 views illustrated below.

LETTERING

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 BASIC STROKES

EXAMPLES
Application of Basic Stroke

Uppercase Numbers and Numerals

1. Straight Line Letters

2.Curved Line Letters

2. Curved Line Letters and Numerals

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 4. Lower Case Letters

Good and Poor Lettering

GOOD

NOT UNIFORM IN STYLE

NOT UNIFORM IN HEIGHT

NOT UNIFORMLY VERTICALLY OR INCLINED

SENTENCE COMPOSITION
Leave the space between words equal to the space required for writing the letter ―O‖. Example

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DESIGN PATTERNS

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ENLARGEMENT AND REDUCTION

Plane figures which are either enlarged or reduced use ratio‘s and scale for changing the size and proportion of
their geometry. The ratios are added to determine the enlarged or reduced scale.

EXAMPLE 1

Enlarge the Regular Pentagon below to the ratio 2:5. Once the pentagon is constructed, the scale division of five
is taken from any points on the side of the pentagon.

D'

E'C'

E C

A0
12 B B'
3
4
5

EXAMPLE 2

Reduce the given Hexagon from the ratio 9:4

E D

FC
E'
D'

F' C'

A B
0 B'
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

METHOD 9

1. CONSTRUCT A REGULAR PENTAGON WITH A CIRCLE GIVEN. ENLARGE TO THE RATIO 2:3

2. CONSTRUCT A REGULAR HEXAGON WITH A CIRCLE GIVEN. ENLARGE TO THE RATIO 2:3

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3. CONSTRUCT AN IRREGULAR PENTAGON WITH GIVEN BASE CD:

SIDE DE = 41mm, EF=43mm, FG= 52mm and GC=47mm. DIAGONALS ARE CE=53mm and CG=57mm.
ENLARGE TO SCALE 3:4

5
4
2
3
1

C D

EXAMPLE 3 EXAMPLE 4

EXERCISE

1. CONSTRUCT A REGULAR OCTOGON WITH A SIDE 25mm IN LENGTH. ENLARGE TO SCALE 3:4

2. CONSTRUCT A REGULAR OCTOGON WITH A SIDE 35mm IN LENGTH. ENLARGE TO SCALE 2:3

3. CONSTRUCT AN IRREGULAR PENTAGON WITH GIVEN BASE CD:

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 SIDE DE = 42mm, EF=44mm, FG= 54mm and GC=48mm. DIAGONALS ARE CE=52mm and
CG=56mm. ENLARGE TO SCALE 3:4

4. CONSTRUCT A CIRCLE OF RADIUS 25mm AND CONSTRUCT A REGULAR HEPTAGON WITHIN

THIS CIRCLE SUCH THAT EACH CORNER FALLS ON THE CIRCUMFERENCE OF THE CIRCLE.
ENLARGE ITS OVERALL SIZE PROPORTIONALLY BY A RATIO OF 2:3

5. CONSTRUCT AN IRREGULAR HEXAGON, GIVEN THE BASE, SUCH THAT THREE OF IT‘S
INTERNAL ANGLES ARE 110° EACH AND ALL THE SIX SIDES ARE EQUAL IN LENGTH.
ENLARGE ITS OVERALL SIZE PROPORTIONALLY BY A RATIO OF 3:4.

6. CONTRUCT A TRIANGLE ABCD, GIVEN BASE AB, IF AC=50mm AND BC=90mm. ENLARGE THIS
TRIANGLE TO A SCALE OF 2:3

7. CONSTRUCT A 60mm x 50mm PARALLELOGRAM WITH AN INTERNAL ANGLE OF 60°.

ENLARGE THIS PARALLELOGRAM TO A SCALE OF 3:4

Chapter 3
DESIGN AND ENTERPRISING
Outcome
After studying this chapter students will:

 Identify,understand and interpret the relevance of the

cycle in designing.
 Identify a nd differenciate the traditional local design.
 Recognise the important of recycling and
sustainbility in design.
 Recognise and develop enterprising skills and
characteristic through planned tasks and projects.

Introduction

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The designing process is seen by many as a constant search for better solutions to our needs.For
example , good industry employers constantly use the designing process as they try to improve
products and processes.It involves working through a series of linked steps that lead to solving a
problem or satisfy a need.

Developing skills with this designing process takes practice.While using the process in different
situation learners will gain confidence and success. Most people get a lot of enjoyment from designing
and making something useful,or solving a problem or reaching a decision about a difficult situation.

Designing and Problem Solving.

They both use the same designing strategy or process to reach a solution. The designing process usually
results in an actual product or process involving materials and information.

Problem solving uses the designing process to lead to a decision or solution.This may not involve a
product.Problem-solving or decision making is not always concerned with technology and is useful in
situtions such as buying of tool, planning a party or festival, choosing a study program, planning a
holiday or trip, making choices, finding an engine problem and working out how to do something.

In these examples,the outcomes do not involve the production of a final product or process.

Technicians in the appliance service and automotive industries are very involved in problemsolving, but
less so in designing.

SUMMARY

Designing usually leads to actual

oducts.
pr

Problem–solving uses the designing process to find a solution or decision that may not involve
a product.

Important of Using Design Process

Solutions to designing tasks are rarely reached in a disorganised way. You rarely find good solutions by
chance.

The use of an orderly process always leads to better decision or solutions. This process helps ensure that
important things are not overlooked.

Designers are more likely to produce better results as they develop confidence, experience, and practice
skills with the designing process.

What is the designing process?

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 The designing process involves four linked main stages:

 Investigating the problem,

ideas for solutions, and
information about ideas.
 Designing solutions 
Producing the final solution
 Evaluating the outcomes.
You can use this process for most designing tasks, no matter how complex. Some design tasks are
relatively quick and simple-others can be complex and difficult.

INVESTIGATING

o Investigating the design brief:

oINVESTIGATING
Clarify the problem
o Note expectations or specification
about solution;
o Explore issues aboutthe problem
o Investigate ideas of solutions
o Find information about ideas
o Evaluate and document your DesignFolio

DESIGNING
EVALUATING
o Identify the most likely ideas. 15
o Think about the outcome o Develop and refine the idea.
o Does it meet the design brief? o Devise the proposed solution
o How well does it work? o Model or trial the proposal
o What remains to be done?
your Design Folio
o Complete your design folio

A large designing task can have many small designing tasks embedded in it. For example, the process of
designing a car or a building can have hundreds of small design tasks, for various parts, within the main
task.

Designing is much more than simply drawing plans, shaping, styling or decorating. These activities are
important, but they are only a small part of the designing process.

Are all stages of the process necessary?

PRODUCING.
All stages of the designing process are important, and each
stage must be included in Produce
any designing task. that
the solution For can
some tasksany making
involve
you may need to spend more timeexample
activity on one stage of the
designing process than others. For example, an electric
o Built and test a protoype
security lock on door could take a lot of planning and
o Implement a decision
development work, but the final solution may quite easy to
o Construct, establish, build, etc
build.
o Repair tasks
o Evaluate and document your design folio
Where does the process start?

All designing or problem-solving tasks start with a need. However, different tasks may require the
designer to enter the designing process at different points.

For example, a designer can start with a new design brief, and move through the investigating-
devising-producing-evaluating process. Another situation may start with an existing product that
needs to be repaired, modified or improved. In this case, the designing process is
evaluatinginvestigating-devising-producing-evaluating.

Review progress at each stage

At each stage of the process, you have to make many judgements and decisions. It is important that you
evaluate your process and the decisions made at each stage. Do not wait for the final evaluation stage.

Working with others

Wherever possible, work with others throughout the

designing process. Discussion and cooperative activity
will normally produce better results.

When working with others decisions will be shared or

sometimes settle conflicts as the group works through
the process.

Documentation

Keep records of all stages in all stages in the designing

process. Do not throw anything away, even rough ideas‘
sketches, brainstorming notes, or results of test or
experiments made. It is necessary for every designer to
document every material in Design Folio for assessment
as evidence of the process used.

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The type of documentation needed will depend upon the task for the audience or client. This will be
clear at the design brief stages. Documentation will be done on some certain stages and for other task
Design Folio to be prepared to cover he total process.

For oral presentation about the proposed solution different material such as charts, or pictures to be
presented. Graphics are an important part of the designing process. The type of graphic used must suit
the task and the stages of the design process. At the investigating and designing stages, for example,
you may only need ‗thumbnail‘ concept sketches or flow charts. Your final drawing must comply with
normal drawing conventions.

INVESTIGATING THE BRIEF

The design brief is a statement about the needs or problem and any expectations or specifications
required for the solution. A design brief is like a contract, because it sets out all the conditions and
specifications that to a situation. The design brief outlines the problem or need, the task expected to be
undertaken, any specifications for the solution, and any special conditions

The design task is easier to tackle if the design brief is clear and precise. If the brief is not clear, design
work may be misdirected. In some cases the design brief will list some essential outcomes that must be
met. It may also list some desirable outcomes. These are not absolutely essential.

Clarify the problem or the need.

Investigating and clarifying the problem is the first important step along the path to a solution. Thinking
and discussion of the problem should have some background reading.

Specifications and limitations

In designing tasks, some factors are set and beyond the designers control. This will place limits on the
designing process. These could include:

Time: the solution may be needed by certain date.

Processes: the tools and equipment available may influence the processes to be used.
Materials: the choice of materials may be defined, or be limited to those available.
Cost: there may be limited budget.
Performance specification: the solution may have to satisfy some performance requirements.
Operational requirements: where and how the solution will be used.

Discussion
What does this statement mean?

Don’t ask the designers to build a bridge .Ask them how to get across the river.

Check list-The design brief

Do you know what is expected of you?

Details about the folio required?
Are requirements about the task clear?
Due date for drafts and final report.

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INVESTIGATING IDEAS

The ‗investigating ideas‘ stage of the designing process is vital.

Good solutions depend upon good ideas. Some background
reading or discussion with others may help you with
understanding the problem set in the design brief. Internet,
encyclopaedia, magazines and textbooks can be useful.

A range of ideas gives the designer many options for possible solutions to the problem.
Investigate a lot of ideas, no matter how unlikely they may be seem and often, these ideas can
lead to surprising and creative solutions.

Work with others where possible, and discuss as many ideas as you can think of.

Good designers try to be creative.

The easiest way to get ideas is from our own background and this will improve with experience and
confidence. There are many ways to get new or better ideas

Successful designers try to think creatively about problems. They question the obvious or traditional
ways of dealing with things, and try to look at situation from different angles. They do not limit there
thinking by using traditional solutions.

Good designers try to be imaginative, and approach their work with a sense of fun.

Designers always look for better ideas and solution that are simple, elegant and effective.

Effective designers are hardly ever satisfied with their first ideas, and search for better ideas.

Brainstorming is a useful and enjoyable way to produce creative ideas. Usually it involves a group,
where everybody contributes ideas.

Check list-Investigating ideas

Is the design brief clear?

Is the task clear?
How will you find good ideas?
How will you find creative ideas?
Will you contact or interview resource people for ideas? (who)
Will you use range of resources to get ideas?
How have others handled this problem? Are there any existing ideas or solutions that could
help you with the task?

Evaluation of the ‘Investigating Ideas’ stage

Have you found useful range of ideas?

Have you found several creative ideas?
Have you found several ideas that appear to be likely solutions?

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 Have other people been involved in developing ideas?
Have you discussed the ideas with others?
Have you made notes and sketches about the ideas?

INVESTIGATING INFORMATION ABOUT

IDEAS.

An idea is only a starting point or option for a solution.

Before an idea to be considered as a likely solution,
there is a need to more about it. For example using an
idea involving certain material; the
following information about the cost, sizes,
availability, and properties is needed. These are factors to help in analyses.

The investigating ideas stage and investigating the information about ideas stage are closely linked, and
you may need to move backwards and forward between two stages many times-as you make decision
about information you are analysing.

Sometimes the ideas will be rejected because of the information found; it may be too costly, material
may not be available in the sizes needed, or the idea may be unrealistic or not practical. This is the
analysis stage or thinking stages.

The information will be gathered by talking, listening and observing, internet and reading reference
book. The more literature available, the more important it is to know where and how to find useful
information. Often the information you find can lead to new ideas. Evaluation of the investigating
information stage

Have you got all the information you need?

Was enough information available for you to make decisions about using the idea? Is
the information opinion or fact?

Is the information detail enough

Have you cross-checked important information?
Do you need more information?
Is the information useful?
What evidence supports the information?

Is the information up-to-date?

DESIGNING MOST LIKELY SOLUTION

Designing process you have to sort out likely solutions and make some careful judgement.

At this stage, you should have considered many ideas, and gathered information about all ideas that
could be likely solutions.

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You must choose the idea that seems most likely to be successful. The designer has to predict the way
this idea will work, or how it will work or how it will look.

You may have to choose the best of the several potentially good solutions. It may be that none of the
ideas may be ideal, but choose the best at this stage, unless you consider it to be unsatisfactory because
it does not meet the design brief.
At this stage you need to develop and refine the idea, taking it from an ‗idea‘ stage to a more detailed
proposal. You may need to test the proposed solution (eg. building a model or mock up‘). Evaluating
the proposed solution

Does the proposed solution meet the design brief?

Why have you selected this solution?

Have you tested, modelled, or simulated the proposed solution?

What were the results of these tests?

Were any changes required?

How readily can the solution be produced?

Have you selected the most suitable materials?

Have you considered the properties and appearance of materials?

Is the cost of materials acceptable?

Does the solution need packaging or labels?

Are there any dangerous parts?
What will happen if the product breaks?
Can the product be stored properly?

Traditional Knowledge in design

Although classified as non-scientific, the traditional knowledge has been accumulated after centuries of
extensive trial and error experiences from which people have learned. In the sub-tropical conditions in
the Pacific Islands, people have used traditional knowledge to live off the environment on which they
depend for food, supplies, medicine and culture. An appreciation of some of the traditional knowledge
will provide an insight into how the people use and depend on their environment and its resources.
Traditional knowledge can be the basis on which scientific research is utilised to explain the details that
up to now may be unknown or unexplained.

Traditional method of building

Pacific islanders have been dealing with a changing environment for centuries. Adaptation to change is
part of the lifestyles of the Pacific community, and traditional knowledge, values, and practices—or
intangible cultural heritage (ICH)—underpins the ability of the Pacific community to successfully live
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and thrive in the Pacific environment. In synergy with other scientific knowledge, ICH may enhance the
communities‘ resilience against natural disasters and climate change. Consideration for culture should
be integrated into reducing disaster risk and adapting climate
change policies, plans, and action.

Traditional Navigation System

The Pacific, with its land and oceanic areas, spans one third
of the planet. Traditional navigation systems are the most
important ICH elements shared by Pacific communities. For
centuries, Pacific navigators have used a wide range of
traditional knowledge and techniques related to weather
patterns and signs to guide their long ocean voyages. Such techniques rely upon following
observations.
Safeguarding traditional navigation systems reminds not only the Pacific
community but also the entire world of the ancient knowledge and skills of
humanity and of the respect to nature and universe.

Traditional Farming Systems

The traditional farming systems in the Pacific have a

number of mechanisms that allow for sustainable production
and a supply of agricultural products. These mechanisms
include the production of surpluses, the use of emergency
food resources, control of food consumption, and the
maintenance of agricultural resilience through diversifying
crops. These systems have enabled Pacific island
communities to mitigate the risks and effects of
climatological extremes and to ensure food security. The
common examples of traditional knowledge across the
Pacific are traditional calendars that guide agricultural
planning and harvesting of forest and agriculture products. Tongan farmers have their own calendar
around which farming activities revolved. According to this traditional calendar, the year comprises
thirteen lunar months, where each lunar month consists of twenty-eight days. The Tongan calendar
plays a role when smallholders make decisions about planning, harvesting, and other

Traditional Fishery Systems

Several traditional fishing control practices have

been put in place in the Pacific through different
types of customary marine tenure. These practices
include limiting access, closing fisheries during
certain seasons, establishing no-Examples include
the no-fishing or tabu areas of Fiji,Vanuatu, and
Kiribati; the ra’ui in Cook Islands; the masalai in
Papua New Guinea; and the bul in Palau. These
traditional fishery-management practices have
served as measures for sustainable resource
management and ecosystem protection. They have
also constituted important living food reserves for
communities.

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Traditional architecture

There are many examples of traditional building

methods in Pacific islands. Due to the frequency of
natural disasters in the region, many building styles
demonstrate the traditional Fijian bure, which is
mounted on a high stone foundation to prevent
flooding and storm surges. It has a high dome ceiling
to combat humidity and has open sides to allow
winds to pass through. Such traditional dwellings incorporate architectural styles that enable them to
withstand extreme weather and strong winds. Even in the event of the structure failing, replacement
materials are readily available and sustainable, and the collapse generally would not injure the
inhabitants. Many of the traditional aspects of vernacular housings in the Pacific have eroded with the
introduction of Western building techniques and materials, Including corrugated iron and concrete.
Construction is often unregulated, and buildings are not built according proper building standards and
codes. This makes the Western-style buildings more vulnerable to environment.

Design for recycling

What is design for recycling?

The designed-for-recycling1 method incorporates

recycling and recyclability criteria into the design
phase of products, with the aim of obtaining recycled
and/or recyclable products. The environmental
variable is just another requirement of the product that
is added to all the others, such as its cost, its safety, its
manufacturability, its use, etc. The application of this
variable does not affect the rest of the properties of the
product, and price and environmental improvement
are combined with the aim of manufacturing products
with a reduced environmental impact associated to its entire life cycle and competitive prices.

What are products designed for recycling, or in other words, recycled and/or recyclable products?

Recycled products are those which are manufactured using recycled materials or components from
products no longer in use. Recyclable products are those that are manufactured to be recycled at the
end of their useful life. In other words, mono-materials are used, the toxic and hazardous substances are
eliminated and a modular manufacturing system is used that produces easily-dismantled products,
compatible materials are used, material that is difficult to use is identified by means of codes, and so
on.

Why recycle?

Recycling is a daily activity for more than 100 million Americans and a great way to protect our
environment and stimulate our economy. Recycling saves resources, prevents pollution, supports
public health, and creates jobs. It saves money, avoids landfills, and best of all, it‘s easy. To understand
the value of recycling, we must look at the entire lifecycle of a product ― from the extraction and
processing of raw materials, to the manufacture of the product, to its final disposal. Recycling creates a
closed-loop system where unwanted products are returned back to manufacturers for use in new
products. This prevents the pollution and destruction that occurs when virgin materials –like trees and
precious metals– are extracted from the ear.

Benefits of Recycling

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 • Reduces the amount of waste sent to landfills and incinerators;
• Conserves natural resources such as timber, water, and minerals;
• Prevents pollution by reducing the need to collect new raw materials;  Saves energy; gas
emissions that contribute to global climate change

What are the benefits of recycling?

We cannot sustain our consumerist lifestyle without getting inundated by garbage and exhausting the
earth‘s resources. The products that we use are wrapped in several layers of packaging material that are
perfectly recyclable – plastic, aluminium, paper, tin, wood, etc. Solid waste disposal experts engage in
an uphill struggle to contain this virtual avalanche of garbage we produce every day. It is apparent that
digging a hole, a landfill, is clearly not the answer. Sooner or later, the waste becomes uncontainable
and will spill into our farming areas, forests, and water sources. Reason for recycling.

Financial Income – There is money in recycling. In the level of the individual, one of the benefits of
recycling is financial INCOME. There are a lot of things lying around the house that we no longer want
or need that might just end up in a dumpsite somewhere, that we can recycle AND EARN MONEY
from. Cell phones, PDAs, ink cartridges, etc. Here at Pace Butler, for instance, a phone sent in for
recycling could net the owner as much as $50.There is also the financial benefit for the communities
who recycle in that there will be reduced costs of waste disposal or recycling. You think recycling is
expensive? Consider these recycling facts: aluminium cans are the most valuable item in
your bin. Aluminium can recycling helps fund the entire curb side collection. It‘s the only packaging
material that more than covers the cost of collection and reprocessing for itself.

Recycling helps conserve limited resources – Throwing away a single aluminium can, versus
recycling it, is like pouring out six ounces of gasoline. Last year, Americans recycled enough
aluminium cans to conserve the energy equivalent of more than15 million barrels of oil. Here are some
compelling recycling facts from the Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection.

Recycling is energy efficient – On a larger scale, recycling could translate into huge reductions in our
energy costs. Consider these facts: It costs more energy to manufacture a brand new aluminium can than
it does to recycle 20 aluminium cans. 20 cans can be made from recycled material using the same
energy it takes to make one new can.

Recycling builds community – In almost all communities in the country today, there is a growing
concern for recycling and the environment. People are working together in recycling programs, lobbies,
and free recycle organizations to help promote recycling. We will be featuring these groups in our
upcoming posts and link with the various networks to help you locate the nearest recycling center or
free recycle group nearest your location.

Recycling creates jobs – Incinerating 10,000 tons of waste creates one job; landfilling 10,000 tons of
waste creates six jobs; recycling 10,000 tons of waste creates 36 jobs.

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Recycling builds a strong economy – Done on a nationwide scale, like what we‘re doing here in the
US, recycling has a huge impact in our economy in terms of jobs, energy cost reduction, resources
conservation. Lately, as the price of oil hits close to $120 a barrel, people have become more aware of
the huge impact of recycling, particularly in reducing plastic waste material coming from the bottled
water and beverage industry. We will be discussing this in detail in our future posts.

Recycling is Earth-friendly – No matter how safe and efficient our landfills are being billed to be, the
possibility of dangerous chemicals coming from the solid waste deposited in these landfills,
contaminating underground water supply is always present. Combustion or incineration of our solid
waste is effective and energy-generating, but we pay the price in increased air pollution.

Activity

1. Explain the difference between modern and traditional designs support your answer with two
examples.
2. What do you mean by ―design for recycling‖?
3. List and briefly explain five reason why design for recycling?
4. What are some benefits for recycling?

Green Design

Sustainable design (also called environmental design,

environmentally sustainable design, environmentally
conscious design, etc.) is the philosophy
of designing physical objects, the built environment, and
services to comply with the principles of social, economic,
and ecological sustainability.

Where We’re Going: Education for Sustainability

Today, our students are encountering a rapidly changing and interconnected world. Because of this, it is
time to broaden environmental education to a more comprehensive view of the world that includes
teaching about the environment, as well as the social constructs of culture, society, governance, and
economics. Our quality of life, now and in the future, will ultimately depend upon humans‘
comprehension of their role in a world of interdependent environmental, economic, and social systems.
The goal of education for sustainability is to develop the capacity for society to meet the needs of today
while assuring intergenerational equity – that is, creating opportunities for a positive present and a
hopeful future.

What is a System?

A system is a group of interacting, interrelated, and interdependent components that form a complex
and unified whole. Systems are everywhere. For example, a classroom, a predator/prey relationship, and
the ignition system in your car are all systems. Some systems are ―nested‖ within larger systems. For

24
example, the circulatory system is nested within the system we know as the human body. A system is a
collection of ―things‖ in which the whole is greater than the sum of its parts.

What is Sustainability?

The most well-known definition of sustainability – ―meeting the needs of the present without
comprising the ability of future generations to meet their needs‖ – comes from the Brundtland Report,
which was the product of a United Nations commission in 1989.

What is Sustainable Design?

Sustainable design considers how to design the built environment in a way that cultivates ecological,
economic, and cultural conditions which support human and environmental well-being, indefinitely
(Ann Thorpe, The Designer‘s Atlas of Sustainability, 2007).
Sustainable Design offers the possibility of building schools, office buildings, parks, transportation
systems, and entire communities with an eye toward long-term sustainability, rather than only seeking
to solve immediate needs and desires. It supports city planners, architects, and designers in approaching
each project with the intent to reduce environmental impacts, stimulate the economy, and provide
opportunities for people to connect with each other and the land.

Sustainable design takes a systems-wide perspective. It aims to solve current environmental problems
and prevent future ones from occurring while integrating a wise understanding of social and economic
factors and their impact on the environment.

Common Principles of Sustainable Design

There are some common principles associated with sustainably designed products and processes. These
include:

Use of low-impact materials: Chooses non-toxic, sustainable, or recycled materials, which require
little energy to process. Takes into consideration how the materials (visible and invisible) originate in
and return to the ecosphere (atmosphere, lithosphere, biosphere, and hydrosphere).

Energy efficiency: Implements manufacturing processes that use less energy and produces products
which require less energy to manufacture and operate. Ideally, makes use of renewable energy sources.

Quality and durability: Understands that longer-lasting and better-functioning products will have to be
replaced less frequently, thereby reducing the impacts of producing replacements and disposing of
worn-out products. Another option is flexible designs that have a core component, such as an
automobile chassis, that remains durable, but other components that can be replaced and upgraded over
time as better versions become available, such as the engine and transmission.

Cradle-to-cradle life cycle design for reuse and recycling: Designs products, processes, and systems
for performance in the commercial ―afterlife‖ of the product. This includes choosing materials with a
cradle-to-cradle approach, so that the materials themselves create clean water, clean air, or can be
composted to enrich the soil. This also includes design to facilitate the eventual separation of
―technical nutrients‖ for the industrial process of manufacturing from ―organic nutrients‖ that will
biodegrade and enrich natural systems.

Bio mimicry: Designs products, services, and industrial systems to mimic biological designs and
cycles found in nature. Natural systems, large and small, are models of interactive functionality that
maximizes effectiveness and efficiency.

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Service substitution: Promotes the sharing of products or services among groups of people. For
example, encouraging people to change from private automobile ownership to joining a car-sharing
service. Such a system promotes minimal resource use per unit of consumption (e.g., per car trip
driven).

Local renewable resources: Chooses materials from nearby (local or bioregional), sustainably
managed, renewable sources. Ideally, when their usefulness has been exhausted, biodegradable
resources can be returned to nature as biological nutrients, or alternatively, returned to manufacturing
as technical nutrients.

Carbon footprint: Reduces an individual‘s carbon footprint by choosing products and services that
have been sustainably designed, sustainably produced, and have the ability to be recycled or reused.

Environmental health: Aims to reduce or eliminate human health risks from environmental factors
(such as pollution, heavy metals, etc.) that can be ingested, inhaled, or absorbed through the skin.

Environmental justice: Aims to provide all people with access to a healthy environment and equal
access to decision-making processes. The development and enforcement of environmental laws,
regulations, and policies should fairly involve all people and should protect groups of people from
being disproportionately affected by environmental health hazards.

Human needs and quality of life: Considers how a design can promote human needs and quality of
life in terms of subsistence, protection, affection, understanding, participation, leisure, creation, and
identity.

Design for change: Considers what policy changes, behavioural changes, and technology changes will
enable a design to occur, and what changes will exert the greatest leverage for overall sustainability.

Examples of Systems and Sustainable Design Projects

The following chart provides examples of different systems and a few corresponding sustainable design
project ideas.

SYSTEM POSSIBLE SUSTAINABLE DESIGN PROJECTS

• Create a manual to help schools in your district choose green
Built building materials and interior fixtures.
Environment
• Design and build a rain garden at your home or school.
• Conduct an energy audit of your home, school, or community
and develop/implement an energy efficiency plan.
• Compare solar, biomass, wind turbines, and geothermal
Energy
energy sources and develop a renewable energy plan based on
this analysis.

• Conduct a water use audit of your home, school, or

community and develop/implement a water reduction plan.
• Conduct water quality testing at different locations within
Water your watershed (e.g. creeks, rivers, Puget Sound, and marine
estuaries) and design/implement a plan to improve water
quality.
• Design an art piece that teaches about your local watershed.

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 • Conduct a solid waste audit of your home, school, or
community and design a plan to encourage the reduction,
reuse and proper recycling of waste.
Waste • Design a program to encourage school-wide recycling.
• Design and build a composting system at your home.
• Develop a system to encourage your teachers and school
office workers to reduce their paper use.
• Conduct an ergonomics audit of a work station or process at a
local job site and design a healthy worksite product such as a
Workplace Health chair, writing implement, or electronic device.
& Safety • Survey health and safety hazards at a local employer and offer
recommendations on how to protect workers.
• Survey registered voters who do not vote to find out what
impediments keep them from voting. Design and
Social and Civic disseminate ideas to minimize those impediments.
Action • Work with a local non-profit agency to help design a
system that encourages and rewards volunteerism in the
community.
• Explore where food in your school/district comes from
and design an incentive plan to encourage the
procurement of products from local farmers.
• In partnership with local elementary school students and
teachers, design and plant an organic garden for the
school.
•
Develop an educational program about community
Food & Farm supported agriculture.
 Choose a food item (such as a pineapple) and map its
pathways, and environmental impacts, from the farm to
your plate and share that with community members.
 Map the cradle-to-grave (life cycle from development to
waste) pathway of electronic waste and design a product
Technology that following the principles of cradle-to-cradle (a
product whose life is continuous, never ending in a
landfill).
 Identify a landmark, building, park, or other place that
has cultural importance in your community. Design a
brochure, interpretive sign, or other type of media to tell
Culture its story and to educate people about its importance.
 Film a documentary in which you interview community
elders about local history.
• Organize a festival that features film, music, and art
celebrating your community‘s environment, culture, or
Media, Music, and economy.
Art Develop an art program that inspires children to create
•
sustainability-themed art.
Transportation • Conduct a rush hour count of carpools versus
singleoccupant vehicles along a local freeway or highway
and then develop an incentive program to encourage
people to bike, walk, bus, or carpool to school or work.

27
 • Develop a cost/benefit assessment of transportation
modes, such as car, bike, motorcycle, and bus and design
an alternative transportation plan that is economically
viable and socially appropriate for your community.
• Write an interpretive guide for a local nature trail or park.
Parks & Natural
• Develop a plan for removing invasive plant species from
Areas
a local park.
• Investigate the effects of bio solid fertilizers on tree
growth and design a plan or product to sustainably enrich
forestry trees.
• Calculate the amount of wood re-used and the reduction
Forestry of environmental impacts by Urban Tree Salvage
Program (e.g. in King County) and then design an
outreach campaign that encourages builders to use
salvaged wood products.
 Conduct a survey of a local immigrant group to find out
what environmental health risks most concern them and
Environmental then create educational materials in languages
Health & Justice appropriate for your community.
 Create educational materials to encourage low-income
women in your community to get mammograms.

Principles of Design
1. BALANCE - Balance in design is similar to
balance in physics. A large shape close to the
centre can be balanced by a small shape close to
the edge. Balance provides stability and structure
to a design. It‘s the weight distributed in the
design by the placement of your elements.

2. PROXIMITY - Proximity creates relationship

between elements. It provides a focal point.
Proximity doesn‘t mean that elements have to be
placed together; it means they should be visually
connected in some way.

3. ALIGNMENT - Allows us to create order and

organisation. Aligning elements allows them to
create a visual connection with each other.

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 4. REPETITION - Repetition strengthens a design by
tying together individual elements. It helps to create
association and consistency. Repetition can create
rhythm (a feeling of organized movement).

5. CONTRAST - Contrast is the juxtaposition of opposing

elements (opposite colours on the colour wheel, or
value light / dark, or direction - horizontal / vertical).
Contrast allows us to emphasize or highlight key
elements in your design.

6. SPACE - Space in art refers to the distance or area

between, around, above, below, or within elements.
Both positive and negative space is important
factors to be considered in every design.

Balance – shows symmetry in the composition

Movement – elements show movement or action

Contrast – The elements are opposing one another i.e., big against small, light against dark

Emphasis – artist directs the eye to one part of the composition

Rhythm – the same elements in a pattern vary in size or direction

Harmony – elements are similar in size, shade or shape

Variety – elements are different in size, color or shape

Activity

1. What is green design?

2. Why is green design important in our community?
3. What is sustainable design?
4. List and briefly explain four common principles of sustainable design?

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 5. List 4 different systems and write down their possible sustainable design project?

Chapter 4
HAND TOOLS AND MATERIALS

Outcome

After studying this chapter students should be able to:

 Identify and familiarize with basic and
common hand tools .
 Exhibit their competency in appropriate, safe
and effective use of these hand tools .

Introduction
Every workshop should be well equipped with a number and
variety of tools and equipment for work to be done efficiently.
Although you may not be using all the tools at this level, it is
necessary to be familiar with these tools, also able to identify and
select right tool for the job, and use it safely and correctly. Many
non-wood materials such as metals and alloys, plastics, leather and
glass are widely used in the woodwork industry. Therefore, it is
necessary to know something about these materials. This chapter
displays the basic hand tools and appliances, hardware used in joinery, metals and non-metals used in
woodwork and some types of finish applied to these materials.

30
Hand Tools and Appliances
All hand tools and appliances must be used for their intended purpose. Hand tools must be inspected
before and after use. The use of any hand tools should be stopped if it becomes unserviceable during
operation.

1. Combination Square

A combination square is a tool used for multiple purposes in

Vial
woodworking. It combines several of the
features of measuring and marking tools.
The combination square can be used for leveling, as a try
square, to determine the squareness of a piece of joint. stainless steel blade
It can also be used as a saw guide.

2. Sliding Bevel

A sliding bevel is a tool which can be set to different angles

Blade
to aid marking out. It is composed of two parts, the stock and the
blade. The stock is usually made from rosewood which is a high Stock
quality material. The blade is made from hardened and tempered
steel. It is used to mark lines at any angle on a work piece.

3. Sash Cramps
Thread
Sash clamps are used to clamp work together when it is glued.
They vary in size and are normally used in pairs.
Bar
When in use, the sash clamp is placed below the work to
be glued / assembled. The slides are arranged on either side Slide
and scrap wood is placed between each face and the work.
Head This protects the work when the thread is tightened.

4. Hand Saws

Hand saws are hand-held tools, manually-driven, that are designed to cut through softer materials
mainly wood. There are many different types of hand saws that vary based on how and what they cut.

(i) Keyhole Saw Handle

Blade
A keyhole saw is perfect in cutting holes in wood and curves. Its blades
are mounted on handle that is made of metal, wood or plastic and
shaped like that of a hand gun.
It is used for cutting holes in soft woods or in drywall, such as cutting a
hole in a wall for a new electric switch.

31
To safely use a keyhole saw, select the appropriate blade and firmly attach it to the
handle. Depending on the material being cut, a starter hole may need to be drilled
in the wood or drywall so the tip of the keyhole saw can be inserted.

(ii) Cross Cut Saw

A cross cut saw has wide alternating bevel teeth perfect for rough
cutting on wood grains where tearing out is not important. Its saw blade
ranges from 55 to 70 cm with 3 to 5 teeth per cm. It is used to cut large
pieces of timber or cuts through a tree across the grain of timber.

For safety, always be aware that the teeth of a crosscut saw are sharp and
pointed. Placing them point-down on an object or a body part will cut it.

(iii) Panel Saw

Panel saws are perfect for cutting small pieces of wood. It is shorter
compared to regular hand saws and is useful for its portability. Panel
saw length can be as short as 46 cm with 3 to 5 teeth per cm.
It is especially used for cutting light boards like plywood across the
grain.

(iv) Rip Cut Saw

A rip cut saw is an aggressive, push stroke handsaw with sharpened teeth
top. Its saw length varies from 60 to 70 cm with 2 to 3 teeth per cm. It is
specially designed for making cut parallel to the direction of the wood
grain.

(v) Back Saw

Back saws are used for trimming and fine woodcutting.

Its teeth are smaller compared to other types of hand saws grouped
tightly together to achieve a fine cut. There are various subtypes of back
saw like the Mitre saw, Dovetail saw and Tenon Saw. Back saw blade
size can range from 20 cm to 40 cm.
It is used for making fine accurate cuts in small pieces of wood such as cutting of joints, angles with and
across the grain.

(vi) Coping Saw

Coping saws are perfect for cutting complex patterns on wood. It has a
sprung steel frame with a wooden handle that can be turned to tighten the
blade. A coping saw is a pull stroke hand saw.

(vii) Hacksaw

Hacksaws have fine, disposable blades held in tension by front and back pins. It is used in
metal cutting such as thin tubing and drill rod with its 7 to13 teeth per cm. Its finer blades can
also cut through cables, wire ropes, light angle irons and channels.

32
A hacksaw is a push stroke hand saw.
It is used to cut rods, bars, angle plates to required lengths and sheet
metals to specific size and shape.

5. Ratchet Brace and Bits

Hand-operated tool for boring holes in wood, consisting of a

crank-shaped turning device, the brace, that grips and rotates
the hole-cutting tool, the bit. The bit goes into the wood as the
handle is turned. Pressure is applied to the top and the tool is
rotated with a U-shaped grip.

The ratchet must be reliably operational for both direction and

the jaws must hold the tapered tang twist bits, and the dual purpose combination bits firmly
and concentrically.

Hardware for Joinery

There is wide range of hardware available for joinery works. This section focuses on handles, hooks,
hasps and hinges used in joinery works.
Handles
The right handles selection and positioning can transform the look of your kitchen units and doors,
taking them from ultra-modern to elegantly traditional.

Door Handles
Doors generally have at least one fixed handle, usually
accompanied with a latch. However, other types of handles are
also used depending on the thickness and type of door.

Latch Handles
Are for internal use and usually mounted on a back plate. They are used in
conjunction with a tubular mortise latch and suitable for use with doors
that are of 35-44mm thickness.

Lock Handles
Have a keyhole cut for use both internally and externally where a lock is
required and are used in conjunction with mortise sash locks. They are
suitable for use with doors that are of 35-54mm thickness.

Hooks

Whether you want to hang a coffee cup or support a clothes line, you will be able to find a hook of the
right size and shape to do the job. Use large hooks for heavy objects; a small hook may bend or pull
away from the surface when supporting a heavy load. Before installing a hook that screws into place,
make a pilot hole with a nail or drill.

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(i) Screw Hook has a threaded end that screws into wood, ceilings or walls. The open end
supports various items. The rounded tip hook is for household uses; pointed tip is for
suspended ceilings. The L-shaped hook supports wide objects.

(ii) Swag Hook combines a hook with a toggle bolt for hanging a swag lamp or a plant from
ceiling.

(iii) Screw Eye has a ring shaped end. Use it alone by fitting objects through the ring.

(iv) Hook and Eye has a hook attached to a screw eye that screws into a gate or door. The
hook fits into another screw eye to keep the gate or door closed or open.

(v) Rope Hook comes in various designs. These are general purpose hook with two or four
holes in the flat stem for screws. A porch-swing hook, which is screwed into the porch roof, a
hammock hook with a plate to secure it to flat surface.

(vi) Self-adhesive Hook made of plastic and meant for light weight
objects. To install, wipe the surface clean, remove lining paper and
press hook in place.

(vii) Coat Hook may have one, two or more hooks in various
directions for hanging coats and hats.

(viii) Picture Hook is nailed into a wall. A wire is attached to

the back of picture frame and hanged on to the hook.

(ix) Heavy-duty Hook is for hanging objects in a garage or workshop

for items like bicycles and spare parts.

HASP
Hasp is a slotted hinged metal plate that forms part of a fastening for a
door or lid and is fitted over a metal loop and secured by a pin or
padlock.

HINGES
A hinge often has two leaves held together with a pivot pin inside knuckles or barrel. Most cabinet and
house doo hinges can be used either left or right handed doors. Hinges can be surface mounted (with
leaves slightly raised), but the leaves create a gap between the door and frame when the door is closed.
The three basic types of hinges are: Pin
Leaf

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(i) Butt Hinges
Most butt hinges have a non-removable fixed pin. They are suitable foran
exterior door where the barrel is exposed outside; to remove door, the
hinge must be unscrewed. Some have deattachable pin to allow for door
removal without unscrewing the hinge.

(ii) Flush Hinges

This hinge is normally used for a light weight door and is
surface mounted but does not create large gaps. To install,
screw the small leaf to door and large leaf to the frame;
when closed, the small leaf fits into the large one.

(iii) Tee Hinges

Tee hinges comes in large heavy duty sizes for doors, gates ,
boxes and chests.

Working with Non-Metals

Solid non-metals are usually dull, brittle and non-conductors of heat and electricity. Some examples of
non-metals are wood, plastic, rubber, glass and ceramics. Some of the non-metals that are discussed in
this section are PVC, ceramics and manufactured boards.

Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC)

PVC pipe is the most used plastic piping material. PVC pipe is manufactured by extrusion in a variety
of sizes and dimensions. PVC pipe is made to conform to various standards for both pressure and
nonpressure applications. PVC piping is used in Drain-waste-vent (DWV), sewers, water service lines,
irrigation and various industrial installations. It can be used under ground or above ground in buildings.
PVC materials are resistant to many ordinary chemicals such as acids, bases, salts and oxidants. Since
PVC piping system components are manufactured in a variety of colors, identification of application is
easy.

A common color scheme (although not universal) is:

• White for Drain-waste-vent (DWV) and low pressure applications.

• White, blue, and dark grey for cold water piping.
• Green for sewer service.
• Dark grey for industrial pressure applications.

Common Fittings

90˚ ELL
These fittings are designed to turn the flow of a liquid at a 90-degree
angle. Often in home plumbing, for example, the plumbing needs to turn
to flow where it is needed to avoid existing structures in the home or
access outside lines. This 90-degree turn improves the function and design
options for the system.

45˚ ELBOWS

35
PVC 45° Elbow joins two pieces of the same size pressure pipe at an angle
of 45°. These are used to re-direct the pipeline and to assist in turning
corners.

TEE
Tee fitting is a necessity in any PVC structure design. There are total of three ‗ports‘; with all going in
three different directions along the same plane.
PVC Tee is used to create simple wall structures and three-point connections in plumbing.

Cross
PVC cross fittings are not quite as common as other fittings, but they are designed for use
when joining four pipe sections or dividing flow in different directions.
This could be done in plumbing and irrigation systems.
Threaded Male & Female Connectors
Female adapters are used to add a female threaded pipe connection on a
solvent welded pipe.
Male adapters are used to add a male threaded pipe connection to a
solvent weld pipe section.

Connector
This connector is used to join two pipes together normally for
extension. The two pipes to be connected together are glued at ends to
be joined into the either ends of the connector and cannot be taken apart.

End Cap
Sometimes a PVC pipe system will end with an opening that does not
need to be connected to another pipe. Perhaps the system is being left
open for expansion, or perhaps the end is left open to provide access to
the system when needed. When this occurs, the flow
needs to be stopped, and an end a cap simply stops
the flow.

Ceramics

Ceramics are classified as inorganic and non-metallic

materials that are essential to our daily lifestyle.
Ceramics are generally made by taking mixtures of
clay, earthen elements, powders, and water and
shaping them into desired forms that are normally
used when materials that can withstand high
temperature are required. As a result, they are used to make pottery, bricks, tiles, cements, and glass.
Ceramics are also used at many places in gas turbine engines. Bio-ceramics are used as dental implants
and synthetic bones.

Manufactured Boards
Manufactured boards are valuable materials in
their own right, with an important part to play
alongside with solid timber, example plywood and

36
core-board. They are available in large, stable, standard sheets (1525mmX1525mm,
1220mmX2240mm), of uniform thickness and quality.

Plywood
Plywood is the name given to panels or sheets constructed by gluing together three or more layers of
this wood called ‗veneers‘ or ‗plies‘ so that the grain of one layer runs at right angles to that of an
adjacent layer.

Uses of Plywood
The scope and use of plywood is too wide to explain in detail. However, some common uses of
plywood are:
• Furniture Manufacture: In carcass construction, it is glued to a framework. It is also used as
backing for cabinets, drawer bottoms, radio cabinets, door panels and chair backs and bottoms.
• Building Works: In building works it is used for panelling, flush doors and built-in fitments.
Exterior grades are used for wall sheathing and concrete form-work.
• Boat Building: It used in crafts and yachts of all sizes. Special waterproof marine grade
plywood is manufactured to resist water indefinitely.
• Aircraft Construction: The strength of the plywood combined with its light weight makes it
ideal for this type of work, light gliders and sail
planes.
• Other Uses: It is also used in coachwork,
railway carriages and boxes.

Core-board
Core board is a manufactured board with a wood fibre
or wood chip centre and bonded veneer faces on both
sides. It is very strong, lightweight, and easily cut
material used for the mounting of photographic prints,
as backing in picture framing, in 3D design, and in
painting.

Working with Metals

A metal is a material that is typically hard, opaque,
shiny, and has good electrical and thermal conductivity.
Some examples of metals are aluminium, copper, iron, lead, zinc,
tin, silver and gold.

Mechanical Properties
Mechanical Properties refers to the behaviour of material when external forces are applied. Some
of the mechanical properties are:

1. Hardness

Hardness refers to the ability of a metal to resist scratch, penetration, cutting action, or permanent
distortion. Hardness may be increased by working the metal and, in the case of steel and aluminium
alloys, by heat treatment and cold-working.

Brittleness

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Brittleness is the property of a metal that allows little bending or deformation without shattering. In
other words, brittleness is the ability to break or crack without changing shape. Since structural metals
are often subjected to shock loads, brittleness is not a very desirable property. Cast iron, cast
aluminium, and very hard steel are brittle metals.

Malleability

A metal that can be hammered, rolled, or pressed into various shapes without cracking or breaking is
said to be malleable. This property is necessary in sheet metal that is to be worked into curved shapes.
Copper is one example of a malleable metal.

Ductility

Ductility is the property of a metal that permits it to be permanently drawn, bent, or twisted into thin
lengths without breaking. This property is essential for metals used in making wire and tubing. Ductile
metals are greatly preferred for aircraft use because of their ease of forming and resistance to failure
under shock loads. Ductility is similar to malleability.

Toughness

A material that possesses toughness will withstand tearing or shearing and may be stretched or
otherwise deformed without breaking. Toughness is a desirable property in aircraft metals.

Finishing of Materials
The last stage in the construction process is applying a perfect finish. The visual appeal of the material
is one of the attractions of woodworking and metalworking.
Painting is one of the common methods used in finishing materials. However, different types of
finishing are used on different types of materials.

Wood Finishing
Finishes serve to prevent wood absorbing moisture, protect against decay and enhance appearance.
Basic preparation is needed before any type of finish is applied to wood.

Staining
Stain can be used to match different components in construction and to
achieve attractive contrasts of tone. Wood stains ready-mixed are
available in hardware stores. The stain that is needed to be used should
always be tested on an offcut of the same piece of wood.

Varnishing
One of the most popular varnishes used is polyurethane since it is easier to apply and produces clearer
result.

Painting
Paint provides a protective colouring for both indoor and outside
softwood. Sharp corners should be made slightly smooth with
glass paper. First seal with a primer then apply undercoat, rubbing
down between coats with fine glass paper and then apply final
coat.
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Lacquers
Several coats of Lacquers is needed for an effective finish since it is thinner compared to
varnish. Spray application is used for best results but not always used.

Wax
To suit different wood types, furniture wax can be obtained ready
coloured. Over some time the wax applied on the material will form
deep lustrous colour within the wood surface.

Oil
Since oil is natural and waterproof, it provides a perfect finish for
outdoor furniture.

Metal Finishing
To protect metal from rust, coat it with Vaseline or light grease.
Oil Finishing
Steel can be either dipped in machine oil burnt into the metal or the
metal can be heated to dull red and quenched in oil.

Painting
For painting metal, the surface must be thoroughly cleaned and then washed with hot water and
detergent. Metal primer is suitable for most metals. For maximum protection an oil-based undercoat and
top coat should also be used.

Plastic Coating
The most suitable method is to dip pre-heated metal into a tank of liquefied thermoplastic such as
polythene, PVC or nylon. This is done to prevent metal from corrosion and to provide electrical
insulation.

Electroplating
Thin layer of metal is deposited on the surface of the metal to be used. Some examples are chromium
plating on steel, silver and gold plating on jewellery and simple copper plating.

Sandstones
Sandstone is a sedimentary rock, typically formed from the most
common minerals in the earth‘s crust. This type of stone can come
in many different colours, from yellow, orange and brown to red,
pink and black. Sandstone has been a popular building material for
thousands of years, used by ancient civilizations for construction,
as well as for housewares.
39
Common uses of sandstone

Sandstone is a popular choice for both flooring and walls, indoors

and outdoors. It‘s also commonly used as a decorative stone, or
carved into items like bookends, coasters and paperweights.
Sandstone is often found in backyards and patios, whether as
pillars, arches, fountains or simple arts & crafts.

Common finishes of sandstone

Along with slate, sandstone often comes with a natural cleft surface finishing. However, there are
many options when it comes to sandstone finishes.
One popular choice is a honed finish. This finish is created by grinding and sanding, resulting in a
smooth surface that is not as glossy as a polished finish. This is a good choice for high-traffic areas
where low maintenance is desired. For instance, while a polished finish might wear off in a busy
walkway, a honed finish will keep its smooth surface.

The Stone Oil has excellent penetration properties and therefore

ensures a hard-wearing, dirt and water resistant surface. The
Stone Oil is a pre-polish sealer formulated to give an aged
appearance to natural stone and enhances the natural structure of
the floor. Stone Oil may be used indoors on all unfinished, open
structured floors of stone, quarry tiles and marble.

Sharpening Hand Tools

Planes and chisels cut well only if they are sharp. Two kinds of operations are done to sharpen these
tools. Grinding reshapes the cutting edge of tool. It should be done only when the tool needs a new
bevel or when the edge of the cutter is nicked. Otherwise, honing-sharpening the tip of the cutting edge
is enough.

Grinding plane blade

(i) Check the cutting edge of the blade under light. If it reflects
light, sharpening is needed.
(ii) Hold a try square on the edge of the blade and check to see
if the cutting edge is square with the sides. If it does not, grind off the old edge at right
angles to the sides till the edge is straightened.
(iii) If you are grinding the blade ―freehand‖, grind as close as possible to the same angle each
time the blade is returned to the wheel.
(iv) Continue to grind the blade until a wire edge appears.

Sharpening the Blade

(i) Apply few drops of mineral oil to the face of the oilstone.

40
(ii) Place the blade at an angle of about 30 to 35 degrees to the stone.
(iii) To hone the edge, move the blade back and forth in a straight line.
(iv) Now turn the blade over and place it flat against the stone.
Move it back and forth to remove the wire edge.
(v) To test for sharpness, try slicing a piece of paper with the blade.

Questions
1. What kind of saw must be used to cut across grain and with the grain?
2. Why should planes and chisels be kept sharp?
3. What happens if you bore a hole through a piece of wood from one side and don‘t support it
with scrap stock on the other side?
4. What are two kinds of hardware used in constructing projects?
5. Name and describe two types of hinges used in joinery.

Activities
1. Use a magnifying glass to examine the teeth of the saws in your workshop. Which are
crosscut saws? Which are rip saws?
2. Check the plane blades and chisels in your workshop. Do any of them need honing? Do any
need both grinding and honing?
3. Demonstrate how to install a bit in the brace.
4. Demonstrate how to mark a door and frame for location of hinges.

41
 Chapter 5
GEOMETRICAL DRAWINGS

Outcome

After studying thi s chapter students should be able to:

 Recognize and develop skills in pictorial
projection.
 Acquire added concepts in pictorial projection.

Introduction
The word construction in geometry has a very specific meaning: the drawing of geometric items such as
lines and circles using only compasses and straightedge or ruler. In the process of preparing a drawing
there will be many occasions when it will be necessary to utilize more than one geometrical
construction. These construction techniques will be helpful in solving problems.

2D DRAWINGS

ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION

Types of Orthographic Drawing (Projection)

1. First Angle Projection

2. Third Angle Projection

FIRST ANGLE ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION

First angle projection is a method of creating two-dimensional (2D)

drawings out of a three-dimensional (3D) object. The views are drawn
42
as if a torch is shined on the object and a shadow is projected on the wall behind the object. This is
important information for the layperson when interpreting drawings.

Views used in orthographic drawing:

View looking from the front - ELEVATION

View looking from the top - PLAN

View looking from the side - END ELEVATION

In basic orthographic drawing it is important to know that, the views are drawn on the principal planes of
projection.

Principal Plane of Projection

It consists of two intersecting planes namely the VERTICAL PLANE (VP) and the HORIZONTAL
PLANE(HP).

The illustration below shows the relationship between the principal planes of projection in the first angle of the
intersecting planes.

The illustration below shows the unfolded position of the principal planes showing the proper arrangement of the
views. It must be noted that, even though the three views are drawn separately, there is a very strong relationship
between them. The table below shows the relationship between the three views.

43
 VIEW VISIBLE
MEASUREMENT

1. Elevation (Front) Length & Height

2. Plan (Top) Length & Width

3. End Elevation (Side) Width & Height

Height
Width

Height

Length
Widt

Application of orthographic drawing:

This method of drawing as mentioned earlier is the most effective way of communicating ideas in drawing and it is
mostly used by Architect, Engineers, Surveyors, Civil Engineers

Example: 1 Example: 2

First angle projection is a method of creating a 2D drawing of a 3D object. This is important information for
the person interpreting the drawing because if you examine the diagram below you will note that in first angle
orthographic projection:

44
Relationship of the principal planes and the types of orthographic projection (drawing)

Fig.1 Fig. 2

Unfold position of the principal planes showing the proper arrangement of views.

Fig.3 In real presentation of orthographic drawing the 4 corner planes are omitted.

Rules of first angle orthographic projection

 Draw the front first

45
  Directly below the front, draw the plan
 For the end elevation, things you see from the right draw it on the left and things you see from the left
draw it on the right

THIRD ANGLE ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION

Third Angle – In third angle the principal planes are seen as transparent plane as shown in fig.4 Fig.

Rules of third angle projection

 Draw the front first

 Directly above the front draw the plan
 For the end elevation, things you see from the right draw it on the right, things you see from the left draw
it on the left.
You must have seen the arrangement of views in both projections as shown earlier in this chapter. Different
positioning of views reflect the different positioning of the planes in both the projection- (first angle and third
angle)

Fig. 5 Conventional symbols of the two projections

46
Fig.5 (a) and (b) shows the projection conventional symbols used in orthographic drawing to describe the types
of projection used.

EXERCISES

Draw three views of each object in the positions indicated scale

A. For each shaped block 1 and 2 draw the orthographic views in 1 st angle projection using the measurement
provided on the drawing. Label the views correctly using guide lines.

47
1 2

PICTORIAL DRAWING

3D DRAWINGS

ISOMETRIC OBLIQUE PERSPECTIVE

PICTORIAL DRAWING

Pictorial sketches often are more readily made and more clearly understood than are front, top, and side
views of an object. Pictorial drawings, sketched freehand or made with drawing instruments, are
frequently used by engineers and architect to convey ideas to their assistants and clients.

In making a pictorial drawing, the viewing direction that shows the object and its details to the best
advantage is chosen. Several types of pictorial views can be sketched, or drawn. This can be isometric
view, oblique view or perspective view.

A. ISOMETRIC DRAWING

Isometric means "equal measurement". The true dimension of the object is used to construct the
drawing. You get the true dimension from either orthographic views or by measuring the object.
Because of the ease of using actual measurements to create the isometric image, it has become the
industry standard for parts manuals, technical proposals, illustrations and maintenance publications.

The height of the object is measured along vertical lines. The

width and depth of the object are measured along the 30
degree to the horizontal plane.

48
Step 1

Isometric sketches begin with defining isometric axes, three

lines, one vertical and two drawn at 30° from the
horizontal.

Step 2

Three lines of the isometric axes represent the three

primary dimensions of the object: width, height, and depth.

Step 3 Step 4

Draw the rest of the isometric block. Draw the font face of the isometric block.

Step 5

Add details to the block starting from the front face. Then add details to the other faces.

49
Step 6

Darken all visible lines to complete the isometric sketch. (make sure
that construction lines are light)

Note: In isometric sketch/drawing, hidden lines are omitted unless they are absolutely necessary to
completely describe the object.

Circles in Isometric

A circle in a orthographic projection will appear as an ellipse in an isometric drawing.Instead of actual

ellipses often approximate ellipses are drawn for isometric drawing. Four-centre ellipses are used to
approximate ellipses on isometric planes.

• Draw the isometric centre lines of the circle. Using the centre lines, draw an isometric square
with sides equal to the diameter of the circle.

• From the near corners of the box, draw two large arcs with radius R, using the two red points as
centres.

• Draw the two smaller arcs with radius r, using two green points as centres.

Example:

50
B. OBLIQUE DRAWING

The oblique method of drawing is the simplest method that can be used
to draw objects pictorially. Oblique drawings of objects are easily
recognized because surfaces directly in front of the observer are viewed
orthographically.

In Cavalier Oblique drawings, all lines (including receding lines) are made to their true length. In
Cabinet Oblique drawings, the receding lines are shortened by ½ their true length.

Circles in oblique
In an oblique drawing, a circle
on the surface parallel to the
plane of projection will
appear as a circle. A circle on any other surface will appear as an
ellipse.

C. PERSPECTIVE DRAWING

Perspective drawing is used to represent an object as it would appear to the eye when viewed from one
particular position. A perspective drawing shows a view like a picture taken with a camera It may be
used in working drawings where a more realistic representation or artistic effect is required than that

51
obtained by means of isometric or oblique drawing.

One point Perspective

In one point perspective drawing, depth is added to a

drawing by taking lines to a single vanishing point. One
vanishing point is typically used for roads, railway tracks,
hallways, or buildings viewed so that the front is directly
facing the viewer.

Orientation the object so that a principal face is parallel to the viewing plane (or in the picture plane.)
The other principal face is perpendicular to the viewing plane and its lines converge to a single
vanishing point.

Steps in one point perspective:

 First, we draw a crate that represents the height, length and width of the object that we
want to draw.

 Extra lines are then drawn softly inside the crate until the shape of our object is
complete. We call these feint lines construction lines.

 The outline of the object is then drawn darker over the feint construction lines.

 Construction lines may be rubbed out using an eraser or if they are very feint, they may
be left.

 Finally the drawing may be rendered by adding light, shade and colour.

Examples of one point perspective drawing

52
Two point perspective

In two point perspective drawing, we imagine two

vanishing points. The two top corners of the page may
be used for most purposes. Two-point perspective can
be used to draw the same objects as one-point
perspective, rotated: looking at the corner of a house,
or looking at two forked roads shrink into the distance,
for example. One point represents one set of parallel
lines; the other point represents the other.
Looking at a house from the corner, one
wall would recede towards one vanishing
point; the other wall would recede towards
the opposite vanishing point.
Steps in Two Point Perspective

 All the lines that are drawn towards

the left are drawn to the left
vanishing point.

 All the lines that are drawn towards

the right are drawn to the right
vanishing point.

 Vertical lines stay vertical.

 We normally draw a crate first that represents the height, length and width of the object
that we want to draw.

 Extra lines are then drawn inside the crate until the shape of our object is drawn faintly.
53
  The outline of the object is then drawn darker over the feint construction lines.

 The construction lines may be rubbed out using an eraser or if they are very feint, they
may be left. Finally the drawing may be rendered by adding light, shade and colour.

Examples of two poi nt perspective drawing:

ACTIVITY

A. The drawings below show the orthographic views of shaped blocks. Use the measurements directly
from the drawing to draw the isometric and oblique view of the blocks using the instruments.

B. Draw free hand sketches of the blocks in one and two point perspective.
1. 2.

3.
4.

B. The diagrams given below shows the orthographic views of shaped blocks. Use the
measurements given in the diagram to draw the oblique and isometric views of the blocks.

54
 1.
2.

PRISMS AND CYLINDERS

In technical drawing, objects are usually composed of an arrangement of geometrical solids, either in
one peace or fastened together. An understanding of the geometrical solids is therefore essential before
objects can be satisfactorily represented in technical drawing.

The axis of a solid is the imaginary line drawn from the centre of the top to the centre of the base of the
solid. When the axis is at right angle to the base, it is called a right solid, and when the axis is inclined
to the base or end of a solid it is called an oblique solid. When the edges of the base or end of a solid
are equal, it is called regular.

A cube is a solid contained by six equal squares. The axis is the imaginary line joining the centres of the
opposite sides. A cube can thus have three axes.

A right regular prism is a solid whose sides consist of equal rectangles, ad two equal ends. It is
named by its ends. The axis is the line joining the centres of the ends. The axis is the line joining the
centres of the ends. Examples of right regular prisms are: square prism, equilateral triangular prism,
right pentagonal prism, etc. ( A rectangular prism is not a regular prism).

A right regular pyramid is a solid whose sides consist of equal isosceles triangles meeting at a point
above the base called the apex. Pyramids are named from their bases. The axis is the line joining the
apex and the centre of the base.
A tetrahedron is an equilateral triangular pyramid contained by four equilateral triangles.

A right cylinder is a solid generated by the revolution of a rectangle about one of its fixed sides. The
fixed side becomes the axis, that is, the line joining the centres of the circular ends.

A right cone is a solid generated by the revolution of a right-angled triangle about its perpendicular.
The perpendicular then becomes the axis, i.e. the line joining the apex to the centre of the base.

A sphere is a solid generated by the revolution of a semi-circle about its diameter.

Frustum When the upper portion of the pyramid or a cone has been cut away, the remaining portion is
called a frustum, and the solid is said to be truncated.

Types of prisms:
Rectangular prism

55
 Rectangular Prism: A Prism with rectangular bases is a Rectangular
Prism. It has 4 lateral faces and 2 rectangular base and top.

A rectangular prism is a 3-dimensional object, which has as many as six

faces. It is a solid material and all the faces are rectangular. One more
reason because of which it is regarded as a prism is that it has the same
cross section along a length.

Hexagonal prism
A hexagon has six sides and a hexagonal prism has six sides and two
bases. It is mostly considered as a space-filling polyhedron. Moreover, the
regular right hexagonal prism has a definite formula to calculate the
surface area and volume.

Triangular prism

Two triangular bases and three rectangular sides make a triangular prism.
It falls in the category of a tetrahedron. It has 3 lateral faces and 2
triangular
bases.
THE GEOMETRICAL SOLIDS

Pyramids
Square Based Pyramid Hexagonal Based Pyramid

In technical drawing, objects are usually

composed of an arrangement of
geometrical solids, either in one peace or
fastened together. An understanding of
the geometrical solids is therefore
essential before objects can be
Pentagonal Based Pyramid Triangular Based Pyramid
satisfactorily represented in technical
drawing.

The axis of a solid is the imaginary line drawn from the centre of the top to the centre of the base of
the solid. When the axis is at right angle to the base, it is called a right solid, and when the axis is
inclined to the base or end of a solid it is called an oblique solid. When the edges of the base or end
of a solid are equal, it is called regular.

A cube is a solid contained by six equal squares. The axis is the imaginary line joining the centres of
the opposite sides. A cube can thus have three axes.

A right regular prism is a solid whose sides consist of equal rectangles, ad two equal ends. It is
named by its ends. The axis is the line joining the centres of the ends. The axis is the line joining the
centres of the ends. Examples of right regular prisms are: square prism, equilateral triangular prism,
right pentagonal prism, etc. (A rectangular prism is not a regular prism).

Development of a Prism

Parallel Line Development

To develop the surface of a rectangular prism

56
(a)Draw the plan and elevation of the prism to scale.
(b) Number the edges as shown.
(c) Set out the stretch out. This is the perimeter of the prism measured off the plan.
(d) Project the height of the prism parallel to the stretch out line.
(e) Draw the vertical fold lines at points 2,3 and 4.
(f) The prism ends are added by revolving the lengths 2-3 and 1-4.

Note: Final outlines should be firm. Fold lines should be light continuous lines.

Development of a Cylinder

1. Draw the plan and elevation. The stretch out for the curved surface of the cylinder should
equal the circumference of the cylinder.

2. For drawing purposes the cylinder is thought of as many sided prism. We usually divide the
plan into 12 divisions. The length of the stretch out is obtained by stepping off the same
number of equal spaces (12) along the stretch out line.

3. The height of the development will be the height taken from the elevation. Ends of the
cylinder should be cut out as separate parts.

57
Development of a Cone
Radial line Construction may be used to develop the curved surface of a cone.

Fig A1. These illustrate the construction of a cone.

Fig A2. The intersection of a cone by a cutting plane D-D

58
Note. The intersection of the plane and cone elements must be projected into the true length
edges.

Development of a Pyramid
Fig.1 shows a square based pyramid in plan andelevation. The true length of pyramid edge 03
is not shown in these views and must be constructed before the radial line development can
be started.

Fig.1 shows the construction. Line 0-3 is revolved in the plan view and projected into the
elevation. The true length lateral edge 0-3 is the radius for the construction.

Fig.2 To complete the development of the pyramid, use dividers to set off the base edges 12,2-3,3-4
and 4-1 from the plan view.

59
Fig.3. The pyramid is intersected by the horizontal cutting plane A-A. If you look at the
pictorial view the effect of the intersection is to remove the apex of the pyramid. The pyramid
is then termed as truncated pyramid.

Fig.4. The construction of pyramid in a different layout. The true length is edge 0-2 as its plan
is parallel to the reference line. Therefore, it does not require rebatement method in finding
the true length.

To complete the development the cutting plane is extended to point A in the true length line.
True length O-a can then be transferred to the development.

60
SURFACE DEVELOPMENT
The development of an object is made by laying out the true shape surfaces of the object on a plane. Fig

A shows the development of a square prism. There are six surfaces to lay out in sequence.

Applications. Practical applications involving development are frequently used in sheet metal work
and engineering. Common examples are metal cans, drums, tool boxes, heating ducts. Can you name
any more?

Development of Prisms and Cylinders Intersected by Cutting Planes

61
Radial Line Development

Figs A and B. Pyramids and cones are developed by using the radical line construction.

The fold lines in the case of the pyramid radiate about the apex. The elements of the cone radiate
about the apex.

Fig A. Illustrates the laying out of a square pyramid to provide the true shape of the four triangular sides
and the square base.

Fig B. illustrates the laying out of a cone to give the true shape of the curved surface. Notice how the cone
is divided into equally spaced straight line elements. Remember the construction for the development of a
cylinder? Reference: 11-4.

The small pictorial views of the pyramid and the cone show the names of the various parts.

62
Development of a Pyramid
Fig 1 shows a rectangular pyramid in plan and elevation. The true length of pyramid edge 0 -1 is not shown in
these views and must be constructed before the radial line development can be started.

Fig 1 shows the construction. Line 0-1 is revolved in the plan view and projected into the elevation. The true
length lateral edge 0-1 is the radius for the construction.

Fig 2. To complete the development of the pyramid use dividers to set off the base edges 1-2, 2-3, 3-4 and 4-1
from the plan view.

Fig 3. The pyramid is intersected by the horizontal cutting plane A-A. If you look at the pictorial view the
effect of the intersection is to remove the apex of the pyramid. The pyramid is then termed a truncated
pyramid.

To complete the development the cutting plane is extended to point A in the true length line. True length
0-a can then be transferred to the development

Development of a Cone

63
Radial line construction may be used todevelop the curved surface of a cone.

Figs Al andA2. These illustrate the construction for a cone.

Fig A3. The intersection of the cone by a cutting plane D - D.

Note. The intersection of the plane and cone elements must be projected into the true length edges.

Problems 1 and 2

Construct the development of the curved surfaces of the truncated cones.

ACTIVITY

1. Six geometrical solids are illustrated in Fig.1. (a) Write down the correct name for each solid. (b)
Name the development method used for each.

2. Name the various parts of the pyramid shown in Fig2.

3. Fig 3. (a) Construct the true length of edge 0-1. (b) Draw the development of the surfaces.

4. Fig 4. Draw the development of the sides of the prism. The prism is shown intersected by the
cutting plane D-D.

5. Fig 5. Draw the development of the cylinder as described in Fig 4.

64
6. Fig 6. Draw the development of the pyramid as described in Fig 4.

7. Fig 7. Draw the development of the cone as described in Fig 4.

8. Fig 8. Construct the complete development of the model aircraft fuel tank.

9. Fig 9. Develop as described in Fig 8.

10. What is meant by the term ―development of the surfaces of an object?‖ (b) What practical has
the development construction?

11. Construct the development of a carton to contain six new drawing pencils.

JOINTS AND PROCESSES

65
Outcome
After studying this chapter students should be able to:
 Identify common joints
 State the use of common joints in wood and
metals
 Able to construct these joints

Introduction
Dimensioning of joints is a very difficult and complex operation which precedes breach of the
construction and product deterioration. Stiffness and strength of structural furniture elements
related to and furniture itself depends mainly on the material properties joining (element
dimensions, material type, etc..), the type mechanical connectors and the way of its shoulder
application. It is often found in furniture construction single shear steel-to-timber joints,
they represent the connection fittings, such as allowing the movement of furniture parts with
screws. From the size and purpose of fittings depends on size of screws for fixing fitting. Our
research task is ascertaining the mechanical properties of single shear steel-to-timber joints
with wood screws.

WOODWORK JOINTS

Common Mortise and Tenon joint

This is one of the most common woodworking joints and the
strongest as well. The two parts are the tenon which has a
projection on the end and the mortise, the hole in the other
part into which the tenon fits. The width of the tenon is
usually 1/3rd the width of the board.

Constructing the joint:

Step 1 - Preparation of timber

(a) Prepare the timber to the required sizes using the FEWTEL (Face Side, Face Edge, Gauge
for Width, Gauge for Thickness, Shoot the End, Measure the required Length) method.

Step 2 - Marking out

66

Fig. 2 Fig. 3
 Mortise
Tenon
(In the following steps, the piece with the mortise is "piece A" and the one with the tenon is "piece B".)

(a) Mark out the length of the tenon on piece B. Allow 3 mm

Fig. 1
waste in the length and make square lines all around with
a try square and pencil (Fig. 2).
(b) Take piece A and mark out the position of the mortise on
the face edge and make square lines on the edges on both
sides with the try square (Fig. 3).

Fig. Fig.
(c) Set the marking gauge to the width of the tenon and mark
the lines around piece B at the width. Mark the waste
with small crosses (Fig. 4).

(d) Use the same setting to mark both faces of piece A and
use a try square and (already smoothed) piece B to mark
the remaining two lines for the width of the mortise (Fig.
5). Mark the waste with a small cross.

Note: If the marking gauge has two pins, set each at its correct measurement and mark both
lines at one. If not, mark with the first setting on all the members, then change the setting and
mark the other measurement on all the members.

(e) Always mark from the face edge. Check the marking by
setting piece B against the marks on piece A to see if they
fit. Piece B must be smoothed first.

67
 Fig. 6

Fig. 7
Step 3 - Cutting the mortise (a) Bore out most
of the waste, using a brace bit (Fig. 6). Clamp a piece of wood to the underside to prevent splintering
and damage to the bench.

(b) Chop out the remaining waste with a mortise chisel, chiseling halfway through from
both sides. Leave about 2 mm extra waste on all sides to prevent damage to the sides.
Keep the cutting edge of the chisel across the grain.

(c) Carefully chop out the rest of the mortise up to the lines (Fig. 7). Keep the bevel of the
chisel towards the inside of the mortise. Do not use the
mallet.

Step 4 - Cutting the tenon

(a) Rip the sides of the tenon sawing on the waste side of the line
(Fig. 8).
Fig. 8

Fig.11d
Fig. 11a Fig. 11b Fig. 11 c

Fig. 9 Fig.
(b) Cut in stages as shown in Fig. 11, a, b, c, &d).

68
 (c) Carefully saw the shoulders, making sure to hold the saw straight. Keep on the waste
side of the line (Figs. 9 & 10).

Step 5 - Assembling the joint

(a) Check the fit of the members. The tenon should fit tightly into the mortise without splitting
the mortised piece. There should be no gap between the shoulders of the tenon and the
mortised member. Don't force the members together. If they don't fit, find the problem and
correct it.
(b) Clean up the inside of the joint where it can't be reached after assembly with a smoothing
plane. (Remember that the tenon should be smoothed before using it to mark out.)
(c) Assemble the joint.
(d) Plane off the waste end of the tenon, clean up all sides and edges with the smoothing plane.

Corner Locked or Box Pin joint

The corner locked joint is similar to the mortise and tenon
joint. It is an angled joint with a series of tenons on one Fig. 1
member which correspond to slots on the other member
(Fig. 1). The resulting joint is strong because it can be
nailed from two sides, and the interlocking tenons and
slots also help hold the pieces together.

Constructing the joint:

Step 1 - Preparation of the timber

(a) Prepare the timber using the FEWTEL (Face Side, Face Edge, Gauge for Width, Gauge
for Thickness, Shoot the End, Measure the required Length) method.

Note:If the members are to be used for a box where the external appearance is important, the
face sides should be outside. In most cases the face edges are kept upwards.

Step 2. Marking out

(a) Mark out the position of the tenors and slots by gauging or squaring lines at the corners on
the ends of the pieces: on piece A the depth should be equal to the thickness of piece B
(Fig. 2); while on piece B the depth should be equal to the thickness of piece A (Fig. 3).
Allow 2 mm waste for cleaning up after assembly.

69
 Fig. 3
Fig. 4

Fig. 2

(b) Mark out the shape of the tenons on piece B. Keep all tenons the same size.
(c) Immediately mark the waste between the tenons with crosses
(Fig. 4).

Step 3 - Cutting the tenons (a) Rip the sides of the tenons down to

the gauge line (Fig. 5).

Fig. 11
Saw on the waste side of the line.

(b) Chop out the waste by chiseling alternately vertically and then at an angle, making "V"
cuts halfway through from each side. (Figs. 6, 7, & 8).

Step 4 - Cutting the slots

(a) Place piece B (with the tenons) over the end of piece A, with the face
side towards the outside as indicated in Fig. 9. Mark the shape of the
tenons onto piece A with a pencil (Fig. 9).
(b) Square the sides of the slots down both sides. Mark the waste with
small crosses (Fig.10).
Fig. 9

F
Fig. F
(c) Rip the sides of the slots, sawing on the waste side of
the line. F
(d) Chop out the waste from the slots, chiseling from both sides as explained in the
previous step (Fig. 11).
70
Step 5 - Assembling the joint

(a) Clean up the inside faces of the joint.

(b) Assemble the joint with glue and nails.
(c) When the glue is dry, clean up the waste off the tenons and slots with a smoothing plane.
(d) Make sure the nails are punched well below the surface to prevent damage to the sole of the
plane.
(e) Clean up the outside faces and edges with a smoothing plane.

FRAMING JOINTS

Framing joints are those used in frame-like construct ions. The members are usually
constructed with their edges at right angles to each other; in contrast to the angle joints where
the sides forms the right angle.

Halved joints
Halved joints are a type of framing joint. The name is applied to joints where the pieces of
timber which meet or cross each other are halved. At the joint, each piece is ½ the thickness
of the rest of the piece. The result is an assembled flushed joint, in which the surfaces of both
pieces are flushed.

71
Halved joints are used for constructing simple frames.
In the building industry, there are four different kinds of halved joints. The discussion here
will focus on the description and construction of the "tee-halved joint". Similarly, the
procedures can be applied for the other halved joints.

Tee-Halving Joint

The tee-halved joint consists of a pin (a) on the end of one piece
which fits into a socket (b) in the other piece (Fig. 1).

The pin is half the thickness of the timber, and the depth of the socket
equals the thickness of the pin. The shoulder of the pin (c) fits against
the face edge of the socket (Fig. 1).

Constructing the joint:

Fig. 1
Step 1 - Preparation of timber

(a) Prepare the timber using the FEWTEL (Face Side, Face Edge, Gauge for Width, Gauge
for Thickness, Shoot the End, Measure the required Length) method.

Step 2 - Marking out

(b) Mark the length of the pin by placing the socket piece on top of it and marking at the
width. A small amount of waste can be left on the end of the pin,
to be planed off after the joint is assembled.

(c) Make lines square at the shoulder of the pin, drawing them
across the side and halfway down the edges, with a try square
and pencil (Fig. 2). Mark the waste. Fig. 2

(d) Mark the position of the socket, using the piece with the pin as a guide. Smooth the pin
before using it to mark the socket.

(e) Square the lines across the side and halfway down the edges with a try square. Mark the
waste (Fig. 3).

(f) Gauge the thickness of the pin around its edges and mark the waste (Fig. 2).

(g) With the same setting, gauge the depth of the socket on both edges and mark the waste
(Fig. 3). Both pin and socket should be gauged from the face side.

72
 (h) Place the pin over the position of the socket and check the fitting (Fig. 4).

Step 3 - Cutting the pin

(a) Rip the thickness of the pin. Cut in stages as shown in Fig. 5, a through d. Take care to
keep on the waste side of the line.

Fig. 6

Fig. 3

a
b
c

Fig. 5 d (b) Saw the shoulder of the pin,

keeping on the waste side of the line
(Fig. 6).

Step 4 - Cutting the socket

(a) Saw down to the gauge lines of the socket, keeping on the waste side of the lines (Fig.
7).

(b) Chisel out the waste, chiseling halfway through from both edges (Figs. 8 & 9).

(c) Test the flatness of the socket with the blade of the try square.

Step
Fig.5 -7Assembling the joint
Fig. 8

73
 Fig. 9

(a) Clean up the inside edges with a smoothing plane.

(b) Assemble the joint with glue and nails.
(c) When the joint is dry, plane off the waste of the pin.
(d) Clean up all sides and edges with the smoothing plane.
Fig. 1

Corner-Halved Joint
Another halved joint is the corner-halved joint (Fig. 1). It is used
where the pieces meet at their ends to form a corner. The sequence
of operations to construct this joint is similar to the one for the
teehalved joint, except that instead of a pin and a socket, two pins
have to be marked and cut.
Cross-halved joint
The third halved joint we deal with is the cross-halved joint (Fig.
2). It is used where two members cross each other. Fig. 2

The sequence of operations to construct this joint is similar to the

tee-halved joint, but instead of a pin and a socket, two sockets
have to be marked and cut.
Stopped Tee-halved joint
In this joint the socket is stopped away from the edge and the pin
is cut short, so that in the assembled joint the end grain of the
piece is not seen (Fig. 3.) Otherwise, the same sequence is
Fig
followed as for the tee-halved joint. Fig

Common Mortice and Tenon joint

This is one of the most common and strongest forms of framing joint (Fig. 1). The sequence
of operations to construct a mortise and tenon joint for frame-like constructions is almost the
same as for box-like constructions. Of the four types of mortise and tenon joints mentioned in
this chapter, we will only go into detail about the construction of one of them, common
mortise and tenon.

Constructing the joint:

Step 1 - Preparation of timber
Prepare the timber using the FEWTEL (Face Side, Face Edge, Gauge for Width, Gauge for
Thickness, Shoot the End, Measure the required Length) method.

Step 2. Marking out

(a) Mark out the position of the mortise and

square the lines across the face side and
edges, using a try square and pencil (Fig.
2).

74
Fig. 1
 Fig. 5

Fig. 4
(b) Mark out the length of the tenon on the other
member. Allow 3 mm waste on the end.
Square lines all around (Fig. 3).
(c) Set a marking gauge to the size of the tenon
(one-third of the width of the piece) and mark Fig. 6
around the end of the tenon (Fig. 5). Mark the
waste.
(d) Use the same setting to mark both edges of the Fig. 7
mortise and mark the waste (Fig. 4). Do all
marking from the face side.
(e) Check the marking, using the pieces as a guide
Fig. 8
by placing them over the marks (compare this
sequence to the mortise
and tenon for box-like constructions).
Step 3 - Cutting the mortise
(a) Most of the waste may be bored out (Fig. 6). Bore halfway through from both edges. Make sure
you keep the brace at a 900 angle to the edge.
(b) Chop out the remaining waste, chiseling halfway through from both edges. Leave about 2 mm
extra to prevent damage to the sides of the mortise during chiseling (Fig. 7).
(c) When most of the waste is out, chisel out the remainder to the line (Fig. 8).
Note:Keep the cutting edge of the chisel across the grain.

Step 4 - Cutting the tenon

(a) Rip the sides of the tenon, sawing on the waste side of the lines(Fig.9) (b)
Saw in steps (see tee-halved joint).
(c) Carefully saw the shoulders, keeping the saw vertical and on the waste side of the line (Fig.
10 &11).
Step 5 - Assembling the joint
(a) Check whether the members fit together (see
Assembly section for the mortice and tenon
joint for box-like constructions).
(b) Clean up inside the joint where it cannot be
reached after assembly. Fig. 9
(c) Assemble the joint with glue. Fig.
(d) When it is dry, plane off the waste of the tenon. Fig.
(e) Clean up the edges and sides with a smoothing plane.
Note:The importance of marking the waste as you mark out the pieces. This cannot be
overemphasized. Most construction mistakes are made by cutting on the wrong side of the
line, due to improper marking.

Haunched Mortise and Tenon joint

Fig. 1

75
 Fig. 2

Another type of mortise and tenon for frame -like constructions is the haunched mortise and tenon joint
(Fig. 1). This joint is used where one member meets another at a corner.

The width of the tenon is reduced to 2/3rd of the width of the board and the mortise size is reduced to
suit (Fig. 1).
A haunch is left on the tenon to prevent it from twisting in the mortise. The length of the
haunch is equal to the thickness of the tenon and it fits into a recess above the mortise, called
the haunching.

Otherwise, the sequence of operations for construction of this kind of joint is the same as for
the common mortise and tenon joint. When you make the cutting list for this type of joint, the
allowance in length for the member with the mortise should be 25 mm instead of 12 mm to
help prevent splitting of the haunching.

Stub Tenon Joint

Where the end grain of the tenon and the opening of the mortise must be hidden, the stub
tenon joint is chosen (Fig. 2). in this joint the tenon does not pass through the mortised
member, but is stopped inside. The sequence of operations for constructing this joint is the
same as for the common mortise and tenon joint. Stub tenons are also used for box-like
constructions.

At times a combination of the haunched and stub tenons is required. This is called a haunched stub
mortise and tenon joint.

Securing the joints:

(a) Instead of nails to secure mortise
and tenon joints, either pegs or
wedges can be used.

(b) One or two holes are drilled

through the assembled joint and
wooden dowels, or pegs, as they
are called in this case, are
inserted with glue to securely fix Fig. 1
the join (fig. 1).

(c) To make the dowels, plane off the corners of a square piece of hard wood, until the piece is
round. When the dowel is cut to length, chamfer the ends and cut a groove along the length to
permit air and excess glue to escape (Fig. 1, a - e).

Follow the steps below to secure a joint by means of wedges.

(a) Cut the mortice with an allowance of 2 mm in width, tapering from the outside edge to
about 2/3rd of its depth (Fig. 2).

(b) Make cuts in the tenon to receive the wedges.

(c) To prevent splitting of the tenon, drill small holes at the end of each cut.

76
 (d) Cut the wedges from small pieces of waste wood; they should have the same length as
the tenon.

Haunched mortise and tenon joints in frame-like constructions should not be wedged, because
of the danger of breaking off the small haunch at the corner of the joint. Both wedges and
pegs can be used for securing mortise and tenon joints in boxlike constructions.

Bridle Joint
Bridle joints are similar to mortise and tenon joints. They consist of a pin
and a socket (Fig. 1). The thickness of the pin is 1/3rd of the thickness of
the member. The two types of bridle joint are the tee bridle (Fig. 1) and PI
the corner bridle. Here we will only go into detail SOCKE about the tee Fig.
bridle, since the" construction of the corner bridle joint follows much the
same procedure.

Constructing the joint: HAUNCHED-CHECK

Step 1 - Preparation of the timber.

Prepare the timber using the FEWTEL (Face Side, Face

Edge, Gauge for Width, Gauge for Thickness,
Shoot the End, Measure the required Length)
method.

Step 2 – Fig. 3

Marking out

(a) Mark the position of the pin on one

member, making the distance between the
shoulders equal to the width of the other
piece. Square the lines all around the piece
with a try square and pencil (Fig. 2).

(b) Mark the length of the socket (plus 2 mm

Fig. 2
waste) on the end of the other member,
making the length equal to the width of the
pin. Square the lines across the face side
and on both edges (Fig. 3). Remember to
smooth the pieces before using them to
mark.
(c) Set a marking gauge to l/3rd of the
thickness of the member and gauge along
Fig. 4

77
 both edges of the pin. Use the gauge from the face side only. Mark the waste with
small crosses (Fig. 4).

(d) With the same setting on the gauge, mark around the end of the socket. Mark the waste
(Fig. 5).
(e) Mark the other side of the socket in the same manner, from the face side, with the
gauge set at 2/3rds of the thickness of the piece. If you have a gauge with 2 pins, mark
both lines at once. (f) Check the fitting. Step 3 - Cutting the pin

(a) Carefully saw the shoulders down to the gauge line, sawing on the waste side of the line (Fig. 6).
(b) Chisel away the waste, chiseling
Fig. 6
halfway through from both edges
(Fig. 7).

Fig. 7
Step 4 - Cutting the socket
(a) Rip the sides of the socket down to the
required depth, sawing on the waste
side of the lines (Fig. 9). Saw in steps
(see Tee-halved joint, cutting the pin.
(b) Chop out the waste with a mortise Fig. 8
Fig. 9 Fig. 10
chisel, chiseling halfway through from
Socket
both edges (Figs. 10 &11).
Step 5 - Assembling the joint Fig. 11
(a) Clean up the inside edges which cannot Tenon
be reached after the joint is assembled.
(b) Assemble the joint with glue and nails.
(c) When the glue is dry, plane off the waste
of the socket.
(d) Clean up the sides and edges with a
smoothing plane.

Corner Bridle Joint

The corner bridle joint is used where members meet to form the corner of a frame.
Fig. 12
Like the Tee-Bridle, it consists of a pin and a socket (Fig. 12).
The pin is constructed like the tenon in the sequence of operations for the mortise and tenon
joint for frame-like constructions. The socket is constructed in the same way as the socket for
the tee bridle joint, above.

Widening Joints
Widening joints are joints used to make a single, wide board by joining two or more narrow boards
along their length, edge to edge (Fig. 1).

The boards that will be joined must first be marked. Lay the boards out in the desired

78
 Fig. 1
position and mark them with a triangular mark over all the boards (Fig. 1). The triangle should
point upwards. This mark will help us to keep in mind the position of each board during the
steps that follow.

Plain Glued Butt Joint

This is the simplest widening joint (Fig. 2). The edges of the boards are planed perfectly
straight and square, and then butted together. The joint is glued and clamped tightly to force
out the surplus glue. For narrow pieces this is done with G-clamps. For wider pieces, wooden
or metal sash clamps are used.

Dowelled Widening Joint

This joint is similar to the plain glued butt joint, but
strength is added by means of cylindrical wooden pins,
called dowels. Dowels are made as explained in the
section on securing joints. The dowels are then glued
into holes in the edge of each board (Fig. 3). The
diameter of the dowels should be about one-third of the
thickness of the pieces that are being joined.

The holes should be about as deep as the boards are

Fig. 2 Fig. 3
thick, and they should be slightly countersunk.

Mark out the position of the dowels by putting the boards on top of each other, sides together
and marking both edges at the same time. The centre can be marked with a marking gauge,
marking from the face side.

Metal or wooden sash clamps are used to press the boards together during gluing.

Rebated Joint

In this widening joint, the edges of the boards are rebated to match
each other (Fig. 1). The rebating is done with either an ordinary
rebate plane or an adjustable one. This joint is stronger than the
plain glued butt joint,
How to plane a rebate with an ordinary rebate plane:
Step 1

Mark the depth and width of the rebate with a marking gauge
(Fig. 2).

Step 2

Fix a wooden guide strip along the line that marks

the width of the rebate (Fig. 2). The guide strip
must be perfectly square and it should be flat.
Fig. 1

79
Guide Strip
 Depth
Fig. 2 Fig. 3

Step 3

Plane until you reach the line marking the depth of the rebate. Take care that the side of the plane is
always against the guide strip, so that the width of the rebate is the same along the whole length.

If you notice that you are planing against the

grain, stop just before you reach the required Width
depth and plane from the other direction. This will
ensure that the surface of the rebate is smooth.
An important point in planning rebates is setting the plane correctly. The side of the cutting iron
that faces the rebate must be set so it is exactly flush with or only slightly coming out at the
side of the plane.

METALWORK JOINTS
Sheet metal is simply metal formed into thin and flat pieces. It is one of the basic forms used in metalworking,
and can be cut and bent into a variety of different shapes. Sheet metal is available in flat pieces or as a coiled
strip. Sheet metal has uses in car bodies, airplane
wings, medical tables, roofs for buildings and many
other things.

Types of joints in metalwork:

Sheet metal is frequently used in all levels of

construction, be it home, public or commercial. The
most useful way to permanently join two pieces of
metal together is to weld them. However, the use of
fasteners, rivets, screws and solders are also very
widely used in the sheet metal industry.

Fasteners

A fastener is a device that mechanically joins two or more metals together. Nuts and bolts, washers, screws and rivets
provide a convenient method of securing parts.

Rivets Bolts Nuts

Dyna Bolts Spring Washer Screws

Source: Photographed

80
Riveting

Riveting is a simple way to join metal parts together. Rivets are made of soft iron for general engineering: aluminum
alloy for aircraft work and soft aluminum of copper for non-metallic substance. A wide range of special rivets are
available.

Rivets are fasteners, like nails and screws. Rivets themselves are smooth, metal cylindrical shafts with a head on one end
and a buck-tail on the other.

Rivets are described according to:

Shank - solid, tubular, or special type such as Riv-Nut

Metals - copper, aluminum alloy and soft steel,

Shape of head Diameter of shank

Length of shank.

Solid shank rivets are the type commonly used for most purposes in sheet metal work.

Countersunk rivets are useful where streamlining is needed, as in airplanes. The countersinking is
done as for bolts and screws. It permits the head of the rivet to be placed flush with the surf ace of
the metal.

Roundhead rivets are used where a strong union is required but where the projection of the head
causes no concern.

Flathead rivets are used in such constructions as fuel tanks.

Mushroom head rivets are used where it is necessary to shorten the height of the rivet head above
the metal surface, as for example in aircrafts.

Pan head rivets are very strong, and are, therefore, widely used for girders and heavy
constructional engineering.

To use a rivet, it is placed through a hole (same size as rivet) drilled through two flat objects
(usually metal). A ball pein hammer is used to smash one end of the rivet, which expands to about
one and a half times the width of the rivet in order to hold the rivet in place and objects together.
Source: Basic Engineering – R. L.

Pop Rivet A pop-rivet gun

There are many different types, sizes and composition of rivets which are used for various needs,
from plastic to wood, as well as metal.

The pop or blind rivet is used in these types of application. Pop or blind rivets have a tubular shape
with a mandrel through the center. One end looks like a long nail. A special tool or gun is used to
smash the rivet and cut off the long end.

Using a rivet gun can be a highly effective method of attaching various materials, especially metal
together in a permanent way. Though the materials can be separated by simply drilling out the rivets, this is not a difficult process, however
you should take care when riveting and do not rush, as this could be a hazard, especially to people who do not know what they are doing.

Pop rivet guns can be very inexpensive to use as are the rivets. You can buy with the tool or separately. It may be beneficial to get a good
quality rivet tool from the start, however a cheaper one will be sufficient depending on the work at hand.

81
 Drilling for rivet Inserting rivet to Riveting
pop rivet gun

Screws

There are two types of screws, machine and wood screws. Both are made of metal; however the machine screw has a constant diameter and joins with nuts
while the wood screw is tapered and grips to the actual wood surface. Screws are
generally made from low to medium carbon steel wire, but other tough and inexpensive
metals may be substituted, such as stainless steel, brass, nickel alloys, or aluminum
alloy. Screws come with many different styles of heads, the three most
common are flat, round and pan.

Types of Screws:

(i) The countersunk head are probably the most common. They do not protrude above the surface so can be filled and painted
over and become
invisible. This type of head is used in butt hinges and in metal where the head is to be flat with the Flat
surface. The heads have an included angle of

82°.

(ii) These are used when a countersunk head is not required. Round

(iii) These are similar to round head except the top of the head is flat, self-threading
metal screws are a good example. Pan

Screws sizes are listed with the shank size first then the length. Shank sizes are denoted
by numbers, the larger the number the larger the shank, the most common sizes are #6, Phillip Phillips
#8 and #10 so a medium size screw 1½" long would be listed as: #8 x 1½".

Screwdrivers
The screwdriver is used to drive screws and to remove them. These are made
in a variety of styles, such as the plain, ratchet, offset, and spiral. The
screwdriver consists
of a blade, the tip of which is shaped to fit the slot in the Flu
head of a screw, and a handle, which may be part of the blade. The sizes of screwdrivers are determined by the length of the
blade, which is measured from the tip to the beginning of the ferrule, as
well as by the width of the tip. Sides

These are a basic item to have in assorted sizes, not as popular as they once
were but still necessary. It is very important that the bit be the right size for End
the slot in the screw otherwise it will probably slip and strip the edges of the of tip
82 Thickness Width of
of tip tip
slot making the screw nearly impossible to work with. The bit must be kept in good
condition by grinding or filling it square as they tend to wear at the outside corners. When
purchasing screws for projects, be advised to use Phillips or Robertson style screws.

At least the three sizes, #1, #2, and #3 should be in your tool box. This type of screwdriver will sit on Phillips Head Screwdriver
the end of the screw as it is started and is less likely to slip as it is being driven.

In order to allow for the screw to be driven easily through the metal, a pilot hole is drilled.There are two basic reasons for drilling pilot holes:

(i) for tight fitting, and (ii) prevent the material from splitting

The pilot hole in the top piece should allow for easy fit of the screw shank, and allow the threads on the screw to get a good grip without
stripping in the bottom piece. Pilot holes can be drilled with special bits that are made for different size diameter and length of screws and
will also countersink the head of the screw.

Soldering

Soldering is a method of joining metal by using

an alloy having a lower melting point than the
metal being joined. Good for joining dissimilar
materials. Most common solders
are lead-tin alloys. The solder is an
alloy of lead and tin that melts at a relatively
low temperature, from 350 to 450 degrees, and
the source of heat may be an electric soldering
gun, an electric soldering
iron or a portable propane torch.

Soldering irons have copper bits because copper

has an attraction for solder, has a high thermal
capacity, it is malleable, soft metal and is a good
conductor of heat. It is a tool used to transfer
heat and melted solder into suitably designed
metallic connections and sheet metal joints.

The process of soldering involves:

(i) Tinning the metal surface.

(ii) Filling the space between the tinned surfaces with

solder.

Source: Metalcraft Theory and Practice –

83
 Tinning the metal Adding solder to efill th
surface joint
A fluxing agent is used to assist the flow of solder and increase bonding strength. Fluxes are of two
general types, zinc chloride and resin. The functions of a flux are:

(i) They keep the metal clean during heating.

(ii) They break down the surface tension of the solder enabling it to flow.

Source: Metalcraft Theory and Practice – John R Bedford

Activity

1. Sketch the following joints used in woodworking

a. Brittle joint
b. Stub mortise and tenon joint
c. Hauched mortise and tenon
d. Rebate joint.
2. Sketch the following screws and write down its uses
84
 a. Countersunk
b. Round head
c. Flat head
d. Pan head
3. The process of soldering involves two processes. Name the two processes.
4. Sketch a soldering iron and name its parts and write down the uses.

85